Workshop II

CHAPTER IV

welding process

Prepared by Muhammad Awol

 CHAPTER IV
Introduction
• Welding is a process of joining two similar or dissimilar metals
by fusion, with or with out the application of pressure, and with
or with out use of filler metal.
• The fusion of metal take place by heat.
• The heat may be obtained from:
– electric arc,
– electric resistance,
– chemical reaction,
– friction
– or radiant energy
Classification of Welding
Classification of Welding…
 Electrical Arc Welding
• Electric arc welding is a process of using a coated rod called an
electrode to carry an electric current, which forms an arc that
creates sufficient heat between a gap at the end of the
electrode and the work to melt both the electrode and the work,
forming a weld joint when it has solidified.
•
 Cont…

The process of arc welding is the most widely

used, for the following reasons.
§ It is very flexible; a wide range of thicknesses of
metal can be welded in any position.
§ It is a very portable process: the equipment required
is simple and easily transported to any site,
particularly the generator type.
§ It is versatile: it can be used to weld many different
metals, including steel, cast iron, stainless steel,
nickel, aluminum, and alloy metals
•
 Cont…
The electric arc welding process is based upon the effect of the
flow of an electric current.
When an electric current flows through a cable, the resistance of
the cable to the flow of the electricity generates heat. The flow of
electricity is called current. A greater flow of current produces a
greater resistance, which generates intense heat.
ü This high resistance generates an arc of intense heat. The
temperature is between 3300 °C and 5500 °C (6000-10000
OF), which is hot enough to melt both the electrode and the

work.
ü In an electric arc welding process, the electrode and the work
serve as the electrical terminals. The current can flow either
through the electrode to the work or vice versa, depending
upon the type of welding machine being used and the type of
polarity connection made (Figure 11.1).
 cont…
There are three basic voltages of an arc welding
circuit.
Open-circuit voltage is the voltage between the terminals of a
welding machine when the machine is turned on but the arc is not
struck, or no welding is taking place.
Closed-circuit voltage occurs when the arc is struck and is
being maintained or when the welding operation is going on. It is
the actual welding voltage.
Short-circuit voltage when an arc is struck and the electrode is
brought into direct contact with the work or the metal worktable.
A short circuit can cause overheating of the winding of the
transformer, resulting in damage to the generator.
 Machines and Equipment
• The current used for arc welding is produced by three basic types of machine:
the generator welding machine, the transformer welding machine, and the
rectifier welding machine.
Generator welding machines are
v operated by gasoline or diesel engines.
vWelding generators are quite cheap to buy but expensive to maintain.
vThey have the advantage that they can be used at sites where electricity is not
available.
vA generator welding machine can produce: direct current (d.c.), alternating
current (a.c.), or a combination of d.c. and a.c.
Transformer welding machines are
v operate on an electrical supply. The power supply may be 220 volts or
more, which is too
high for welding.
v reduces the voltage and provides the appropriate current for welding.
vTransformer welding machines are strongly built, light, and run quietly.
vThey cannot be used at sites where there is no electricity.
 Cont…
Transformer-rectifier welding machines are
ü convert a.c. supply power into d.c. welding supply.
ü They contain a transformer, which converts the high-voltage supply
into a low voltage but high current, and a rectifier, which
changes the a.c. to d.c.
ü All transformer-rectifier machines have current control; the two
remaining types have controls for setting open-circuit voltage.
Cooling is essential; otherwise the machine will burn out.
The three types of welding machine described above can be
classified as constant current machines. They are designed basically
for manual stick welding. There are other types, classified as
constant potential (voltage) machines, which are used mostly for
MIG (metal/inert gas) welding.
 Effect of Current Polarity
• To complete the circuit, the current generated by the welding
machine can be made to travel from the machine through the cable
connecting the electrode holder, on through the electrode to the
work and finally through the work cable back to the machine.
Alternatively, the current can travel from the machine through the
work cable to the work, and then back to the machine via the
electrode.
• Some machines can cause the direction of the current to change from
electrode to work and vice versa at a rapid rate, irrespective of how
the electrode and the work cables are connected to the machine.
• The way the electrode and the work cables are connected to the
terminals of the machine is called the polarity. The direction of
current flow determines the type of polarity or welding current.
 Type of Polarity or Welding Current

• Direct current straight polarity (DCSP)

The electrode cable is connected to the negative terminal
of the machine, and the work cable is connected to the
positive terminal. In this situation, the current travels
through the work.
The work therefore receives the greater part of the welding
heat generated (two thirds of the heat) and the electrode
receives less heat (one third of the heat).
The work is heated more than the electrode. An electrode
of small diameter is recommended.
A DCSP weld has a deep penetration and a narrow weld
bead with low build-up (i.e. reinforcement) Figure 11.3
 … cont.

Direct Current Reverse Polarity (DCRP)

ü When the electrode cable is connected to the positive terminal
of the welding machine and the work cable is connected to the
negative terminal, the polarity is referred to as direct current
reverse polarity (DCRP) (Figure 11.4).
ü The current travels through the electrode, thereby taking two
thirds of the heat generated, with the work receiving the
remaining one third of the heat.
ü The electrode is therefore hotter than the work, and melts more
rapidly. Electrodes of larger diameters are therefore
recommended for this polarity.
ü A DCRP weld is shallow and wide with high build-up.
Alternating Current (A.C.)
• the current changes direction every 1I120th of a second
(in countries with a 60 Hz supply), and so the electrode
and the work alternate from positive (anode) to
negative (cathode) at the same rate (Figure 11.5).
• The rapid reversal of the current flow causes the welding
heat to be evenly distributed to both the electrode and
the work. Half the heat is received by the electrode;
the other half is taken by the work. The effect of the
even distribution of the welding heat is to produce a
balanced weld, with average penetration, spread and
build-up.
 Ancillary Equipment
• In addition to the welding machines already discussed, you will need
other workshop and personal safety equipment to make up a set.
Electrode holder (Figure 11.6) is a handle-like piece of
equipment used to grip the electrode. It is connected to the end of one
of the electrical cables fixed to the terminals of the welding machine.
A good electrode holder:
ü should be light enough to handle easily;
ü should be well balanced;
ü should not be easily affected by the heat;
ü must hold the electrode firmly and release it easily;
ü must be adequately insulated to prevent electric shock
•
 Cont…

Ground Clamp (Figure 11.7) is a metal connection joined to the

end of the electrical cable that is connected to the work or the
worktable.
Always keep ground clamps clean. Do not connect ground clamps to
work that is dirty, painted, greased or oiled. Never connect them to
objects that are liable to catch fire easily.
Chipping Hammers are used for removing or chipping off the slag
that forms on the weld bead. A chipping ham hammer two striking
ends: a pointed end, and a flat end that runs parallel to the handle
(Figure 11.8).
Wire Brushes (Figure 11.9) after chipping, for further cleaning of
the weld bead. This helps to expose any blowhole that might need to
be refilled. The bristles are made from steel or stainless steel.
 cont …
• welding helmet:- the welder wears a welding helmet to protect the
throat, face and forehead from the infrared and ultraviolet rays produced
by the arc.
• It also provides protection from the welding heat and the sparks. A cap may
be worn under the helmet to protect the scalp. The helmet (Figure 11.10) is
fitted with two lenses. The inner lens is specially tinted to protect the eyes
from the intense light and the invisible rays produced by the arc. The outer
lens, which can be replaced, is clear; it protects the inner lens from being
damaged by the metal particles. Most helmets have an adjustable
headband, so that the helmet can be raised and lowered when necessary.
• Welding hand shields (Figure 11.11) can also be used to protect the
face during welding. They are held by one hand, and have to be placed on
the table when work is being positioned for striking the arc. Like welding
helmets, they are fitted with two lenses: clear and tinted. The hand shield is
less convenient than the helmet, but it is appropriate for students watching
a workshop demonstration.
• Leather aprons and gloves (Figure 11.12) are flame-retardant outfits
worn by a welder to protect the underclothing and the body from the
sparks, the molten metal and the hot metal being welded. The apron should
be long enough and the gloves should be well fitted.
 cont…
Welding Electrodes
An electrode is a coated or bare metal rod with the same metallic
composition as the parent metal to be welded. The current from the welding
machine flows through the electrode and creates an electric arc at its end,
melting both the electrode and the work to form a weld pool, which solidifies
to form the weld bead.
Any class of electrode can be manufactured in' bare or coated form.
Bare Electrodes are
§ uncoated or very slightly coated.
§ they are difficult to weld with, and
§ they produce brittle, low-strength welds.
§ they are limited in supply.
Coated (shielded) electrodes are
heavily coated with a variety of substances, including titanium dioxide
(TiOz), manganese, ferro-silicon, nickel powder, molybdenum, iron
powder, calcium fluoride, calcium carbonate and magnesium
aluminium silicate. The core wire of an electrode carries the welding
current, and serves as additional filler material for the joint.
 Cont…
• The electrode coating has a number of
functions:
vIt acts as a cleansing and deoxidising agent (flux) in the molten pool.
v It tends to stabilise the arc, makes it easier to start an arc, and
reduces spatter.
v It forms a slag over the weld bead, which protects it and slows the
cooling rate of the weld. this improves the ductility of the weld.
v It produces an inert gas to protect the molten pool from
atmospheric oxides and nitrides.
v It promotes better penetration.
v It increases the rate of melting of the electrode and the metal, and
hence increases the welding speed.
•
Cont…
The factors that you need to consider when choosing an
electrode include:
üthe nature of the metal to be welded,
üthe diameter of the electrode,
üthe type of joint and fit-up,
üthe welding position, and
üthe type of welding current.
Cont…
• Electrodes can be classified according to the type of metal to be welded.
There are five main classes:
ü mild steel;
ü cast iron;
ü high-carbon steel;
ü special alloy steel;
ü non-ferrous metals electrodes.
Electrodes can also be grouped according to the type of welding
machine used (d.c. or a.c), and by the welding technique to be
used:
§ flat position welding;
§ horizontal welding;
§ flat and horizontal welding;
§ vertical welding
•
 Electric arc welding practice
• Welding Variables and their effects
• To help you understand and appreciate the techniques and
procedures for electric arc welding, you need to be aware of
some of the variables that are likely to affect your work, and
how to control or avoid them. They include:
ü electrode selection,
ü current setting,
ü arc length (voltage),
ü welding speed, and
ü electrode angle
Cont…..
Electrode selection
The use of the wrong type or wrong size of
electrode will result in the production of
unsatisfactory work. This may affect:
§ the strength of the weld;
§ the weld penetration;
§ the welding/production time;
§ weld undercut;
§ excessive overlap of the weld.
Cont…
Variations in current
• It is essential to set the welding current correctly. If it is too low
or too high it can have a considerable effect on the weld bead.
a. A welding current that is too low (Figure 11.14(a)) causes a
small weld pool, less penetration, less fusion, too much
reinforcement, overlaps, and irregularity in the appearance
of the weld.
b. A welding current that is too high (Figure 11.14(b)) causes
high consumption of the electrode, a molten weld pool that
is too big, excessive spatter (which produces uneven sound),
a rough weld bead, blowholes, and too much penetration .
c. The Correct welding current (Figure 1 1. 14(c)) produces an
adequate molten weld pool, easy starting of the arc, correct
reinforcement, correct penetration, no undercut, no
overlaps, and a neat weld bead.
cont .…
Arc length
• Arc length is the distance at which the tip of the electrode is
held from the surface of the work during welding. The arc
length directly affects the welding voltage.
• The correct arc length depends on the type and size of the
electrode being used. Ideally, it should not exceed 3 mm (1in).
a) An arc that is too short (Figure 1 1. 15(a)) produces less
heat than required, inadequate fusion of the metal being
welded, less molten weld pool than needed, a narrow weld,
poor penetration, low arc sound, too much reinforcement,
and a rough weld bead.
b) An arc that is too long (Figure 11.15 (b)) produces too
much heating and melting of the electrode, a weld bead
with a wide, flat, rough surface, too much spatter, an
unstable arc, and little penetration .
•
Welding Speed
Welding speed is the rate at which the electrode is
moved from one end of the joint to the other end during
welding.

A welding speed that is too slow (Figure 11.16(a))

causes too much overheating of the weld pool, a weld
bead that is too wide, too much reinforcement, a rough
appearance of the weld bead, too much penetration, and
a weld that burns through.

A welding speed that is too high (Figure 11.16(b))

causes a weld that cools too fast, a weld that is too small,
slag and other impurities trapped in the weld bead,
Electrode Angle
The angle at which the electrode is held to the axis of
the weld during welding is known as weld angle or
travel angle. These angles may vary with the individual .
a weld angle between 5° and 15° produces a good result.

A weld angle that is too small - less than 5° (Figure 11.17(a)) -

causes too much heat to be concentrated on he weld pool, slag to
be trapped in the weld bead, too much penetration, an
uncontrollable weld pool, and a wide, flat, rough weld bead.

A weld angle that is too large - more than 15° (Figure 11.l7(b))
- produces a narrow weld pool, an uncontrollable weld pool, a
wide, flat, rough weld bead, less penetration, trapped slag in the
weld bead, an unprotected weld pool and arc, and too much heat
directed to the weld bead.
Gas Welding
 Introduction
• Also called as oxy-fuel gas welding
• Derives the heat from the combustion of a fuel gas in
combination with oxygen.
• Fusion welding process is obtained by complete melting
of parent metals.
• Filler rod may be used.
• Useful fuel gases are:
Fuel Gas Chem Form. Flame Tem (°C)
– Acetylene C2H2 3200
– Propylene C3H6 2500
– Propane C3H8 2450
– Hydrogen H2 2390
– Natural Gas CH4 + H2 2350
 Oxy-Acetylene Welding
• Acetylene mixed with oxygen in correct
proportion in welding torch and ignited gives
the flame of high temperature.
•
•
•
•
•

C2H2 + O2 = 2CO + H2 + Heat

2CO + H2 + 1.502 = 2CO2 + H2O + Heat
Oxy-acetylene
• Gas welding is one of the oldest methods of
welding and, for many years, was the most
widely used method of metal-melting;
• It is suitable for repair and erection work, for
welding pipes/tubes and structures with a wall
thickness of 0.5 -6mm in materials particularly
prone to cracking, such as cast iron and non-
ferrous metals.
• The heat is generated by the combustion of
acetylene in oxygen, which gives a flame
temperature of about 3100 "C.
• The less concentrated flame results in slower
cooling, which is an advantage when welding
steels that have a tendency to harden, although
it does make the method relatively slow, with
higher heat input and the added risk of thermal
stresses and distortion.
• In addition to welding, gas flames are also often
used for cutting, and are very useful for heating
and flame straightening.
•
 Equipment
• A set of equipment consists essentially of gas bottles,
pressure regulators, gas hoses, flashback arresters and
welding torches.
•
• OXYGEN (black, right hand thread) should be handled carefully and
must not be stored in warm areas.
• The pressure of oxygen in cylinders when full is 2500lbs.per square inch
(200 bar) at normal temperature and any rise in surrounding
temperature will cause an increase in cylinder pressure above 2500lbs
• Oil or grease should never be allowed to come into contact with oxygen
cylinders as an inflammable mixture will be formed, which may ignite
spontaneously.
• ACETYLENE (maroon, left hand thread) should be stored in a separate
fuel compound as acetylene and air form an explosive mixture
• No alloy containing more than 70% copper should be used on any part of
the equipment as a highly explosive compound is formed.
• Cylinders must always be stored upright and away from high
temperatures
• PROPANE (red, left hand thread). Storage as for acetylene, a fuel gas
• Highly inflammable and can form explosive mixtures with air or oxygen
(2% to 10%)
• Pressure Regulators should always be treated as delicate, precision
instruments and must not be subject to sudden pressures or knocks
•
•
• Welding torches
One can distinguish between two types of
welding torches: injector torches for low
pressure acetylene and high pressure torches.
In high pressure torches, the acetylene and
oxygen flows are self-powered by the pressure
in their storage bottles, and mix in the mixing
chamber section of the torch.
In low-pressure torches, the oxygen flows into
the torch through a central jet, producing an
injection effect that draws in acetylene from
the surrounding peripheral connection. From
here, the gases continue to the mixing section
prior to combustion.
•
Torch Used in Oxyacetylene Welding

Fig : (a)
General view of and (b)
cross-section of a torch used
in oxyacetylene valve is
opened and the flame
adjusted. (c) Basic
equipment used in oxyfuel-
gas welding. To ensure
correct connections, all
threads on acetylene fittings
are left-handed, whereas
those for oxygen are right-
handed. Oxygen regulators
are usually painted green
acetylene regulators red.
Welding Torch
Welding Torch
• Pressure regulators
• The purpose of the pressure regulator is to
reduce the high and variable pressure in
the bottle to a suitable working pressure.
• It keeps the gas flow rate constant
throughout the life of the bottle charge,
despite any variations in back pressure
caused by the heating of the welding
torch.
•
• Gas hoses
• Gas hoses are color-coded: red for
acetylene and blue for oxygen. In
addition, in order to protect against
mistakes, the acetylene connection
has a left-hand thread, while the
oxygen connection has a right-hand
thread.
•
 Flashback arrester
• A flashback means that the flame burns backwards
into the torch with a popping sound.
It occurs if the combustion speed of the flame
exceeds the speed at which the gas is being supplied,
so that the flame front moves backwards.
A flashback arrester fitted at the regulator prevents
a flashback from going any further back. The
reason for a flashback occurring is that a mixture of
oxygen and acetylene has occurred in the hoses, e.g.
by oxygen having entered the acetylene hose and
formed an explosive mixture.
The flashback arrester prevents the flame from
reaching the acetylene bottle and triggering an
explosive decomposition.
 Oxy-Acetylene Welding Techniques
• There are two techniques used to weld flat joints:
ü Leftward Welding:- This method is used on low carbon steel sheet and plate
in thicknesses up to 5 mm and also on cast iron and certain non-ferrous
metals
ØAs the name implies, the weld is started at the right hand side
and progresses towards the left
ØThe filler rod precedes the blowpipe and is held at an angle of
30° - 40° to the work surface
ØThe blowpipe is held at an angle of 60° - 70° to the work
surface and is given a slight side to side movement to ensure
side fusion as the filler rod is fed into the molten pool.
ü Rightward Welding:- This method is used on steel plate over 5 mm thick.
The weld is started at the left hand side of the joint and progresses
towards the right
ØThe blowpipe is held at an angle of 40° - 50° to the work
surface and travels in a straight line.
ØThe filler rod, which is held at an angle of 30° - 40° to the work
surface, follows the blowpipe and is fed into the molten pool
with a circular action
Gas Welding Techniques
• The flame is pointed in the
direction of welding.
• This position permits uniform
preheating of the plate
edges immediately ahead
of the molten puddle.
• Recommended for welding
material up to 1/8 in. (3.2
mm) thick.
• A great deal of pipe welding
is done using this
technique.
Gas Welding Techniques
• The torch precedes the welding
rod, away from the direction of
welding.
• The flame is directed at the
molten puddle.
• The welding rod is between the
flame and the molten puddle.
• Right hand welding may be used
with a slightly reducing flame,
increasing the carbon content,
which lowers the melting point
of a thin layer of steel and
increases welding speed.
• This technique increases speed of
making pipe joints where the
wall thickness is 1/4 to 5/16 in.
(6.4 to 7.9 mm).
Forehand and backhand welding
Getting started with oxy-acetylene
 The Oxy-Acetylene Flame:-
• The heat source for this process is a chemical reaction
resulting from the combustion of acetylene with oxygen
• This is an exothermic reaction in which equal volumes of
acetylene and oxygen supplied by the blowpipe react to
produce carbon monoxide and hydrogen as products of the
first stage of combustion
Stage 1
• Acetylene + Oxygen = Carbon Monoxide + Hydrogen
• C2H2 + O2 = 2CO + H2

•
 Stage 2
• Carbon Monoxide + Hydrogen + Oxygen = Carbon Dioxide +
Water
• CO + H2 + O2 = CO2 + H2O
In Stage 2, the carbon monoxide burns and forms carbon
dioxide, while the hydrogen which is formed from the
action in Stage 1, combines with oxygen to form water.
The combustion is therefore complete and carbon dioxide
and water (turned to steam) are the chief products of
combustion.
•
• This produces a flame temperature of approximately 3200°C
Fig : Three basic types of oxyacetylene flames used in oxyfuel-gas welding and cutting
operations: (a) neutral flame; (b) oxidizing flame; (c) carburizing, or reducing flame. The gas
mixture in (a) is basically equal volumes of oxygen and acetylene.
 Neutral flame
The normal flame is that which is used most.
It is easily recognized by the three clearly distinguished
combustion zones. The innermost zone, the cone, is a
mixing zone and glows white
 The carburizing flame
• If the proportion of acetylene in a neutral flame is
increased, there is insufficient oxygen to burn
the surplus acetylene in the core zone
• The acetylene therefore continues to the second
zone, where it appears as a highly luminous
yellow-white flame
• To some extent, the length of second zone
indicates the amount of excess acetylene.
•
 The oxidizing flame

• If the quantity of oxygen in the weakly reducing flame is

further increased, the flame changes to an oxidizing
flame.
• The core length is reduced, and the flame takes on a violet
tinge with low luminosity
Flame adjustment
Gas welding
Welding with filler rod
Checking your welds
Safety considerations
 The benefits of gas welding
• Gas welding is very suitable for welding pipes and tubes, it is both effective and
economic for the following reasons:
v
• The ability to even out the temperature in the weld at low
temperatures. Slow heating and cooling can avoid the risk of
hardening.
• Metal thicknesses up to about 6 mm can be welded with an I-joint.
• Speed, as only one pass is needed. Filler wires can be changed
without having to pause for grinding.
• Good control of melting, as the welder can see at all times that he has
the desired pear-shaped opening in the bottom of the melt pool.
• Root defects are avoided by taking care to ensure good burn-through.
• The equipment is easy to transport and requires no electricity supply.
• The size of the HAZ can be reduced by surrounding the weld area
with damp (fire proof!) material.
• It is possible to use the light from the flame to locate the joint before
welding starts.
•
•