Fluidization: A Unit Operation in Chemical Engineering
Fluidization: A Unit Operation in Chemical Engineering
Fluidization: A Unit Operation in Chemical Engineering
Summary This guide provides essential information for determining the minimum
velocity necessary to fluidize a bed of particles using a gas flow within
a vertical column. The minimimum fluidization velocity can be deter-
mined experimentally using the methods described here and the mea-
surement compared to theories, also described here. The experiment
and analysis can be performed on different particle shapes and sizes.
Additional options include investigating the hysteresis in the minimum
velocity of fluidization between cycles.
1 Introduction
Fluidized beds are used widely in chemical processing industries for separations, rapid mass
and heat transfer operations, and catalyic reactions. A typical fluidized bed is a cylindrical
column that contains particles and through which fluid, either gaseous or liquid, flows. In
the case of fluidized bed reactors, the particles would contain a catalyst, and for separations,
the particles might be an absorbent or adsorbent. The velocity of the fluid is sufficiently high
to suspend, or fluidize, the particles within the column, providing a large surface area for the
fluid to contact, which is the chief advantage of fluidized beds. As shown in Figure 1, fluidized
beds range in size from small laboratory-scale devices to very large industrial systems.
Regardless of whether the fluidized bed is used for a separation or reaction, a key goal is
to operate the bed at a flow rate that optimizes the application. Accurate models would aid
significantly, but modeling, even at a qualitative level, of the complex dynamics in fluidized
beds continues to challenge engineers and scientists. The challenge arises from the necessity
of considering both the solid and fluid phases and the interplay between them to form a
complete picture for understanding the properties of fluidization.
Figure 2 assists in understanding the inherent challenge: multiple flow patterns within
fluidized beds can be observed depending upon the volocity of the fluid. For sufficiently
low rates of flow, fluid passes through the void space between particles without disturbing
them. This case where the bed of particles remains in place is referred to as a “fixed bed”.
At higher rates of flow, the drag forces acting on the particles can exceed the gravitational
forces and lift particles. However when the bed of particles expands, the drag force drops as
fluid velocity in the void spaces declines. The result is a highly dynamic state to which we
refer as fluidization. Regimes of fluidization which can be easily identified from qualitative
observations include bubbling and slugging patterns at relatively low flow rates and turbulent
flow patterns at higher flow rates. At very high rates of fluid flow, the drag force can
exceed the net gravitational forces on individual particles, even when the particles are widely
separated. In this regime of pneumatic conveying, particles are carried through the container
and must be reintroduced externally.
You will investigate some key parameters that govern fluidization, including the depen-
dence of the minimum fluidization velocity on particle shape, size and density. This is the
point at which the fixed bed of particles transitions to the particulate regime.
Figure 2: The regimes of fluidization as a function of the fluid velocity. At very low flow
rates (left), the particles behave as a porous media, or fixed bed. After the gas velocity
surpasses a critical value, the particles become fluidized. (Schematic is based upon a similar
diagram appearing in Perry et al. [4].)
Fluidization: Unit Operations 3
Figure 3: The bed of particles and the force balance. When the weight of the particles (W )
exceeds the buoyancy forces (Fb ) and the drag forces (Fd ) due to the fluid velocity U , the
particles remain fixed in place. The velocity U is the minimum fluidization velocity if a small
increase of velocity, δU , causes the bed to expand by a small amount δH over its original
height, H.
where
Vt = AH (4)
is the total volume of the bed. In Eq. (4), A is the cross sectional area of the fluidized bed
and H is the height of the bed of the particles prior to the onset of fluidization. Therefore,
the volume occupied by the particles can be written as
Note that Eq. 3 provides a method of calculating the bed voidage; a discussion of this method
and of particle packing is given in Appendix A.
Fd = ∆P A, (6)
where A is the cross-section area of the column and ∆P is the pressure drop across the bed
of particles, Z H
∆P = ∇P (z)dz. (7)
0
The local pressure drop ∇P through a porous medium is a function of the bed voidage,
the flow velocity, and details of the particles,
∇P = f (ξ, U, De , Φs ) , (8)
and other properties of the fluid. The velocity U is the superficial velocity, or volumetric flow
rate of the fluid normalized by the cross-sectional area of the column. The equivalent volume
Fluidization: Unit Operations 5
diameter De and sphericity factor Φs account for the details of the particle size and shape;
for a spherical particle, the sphericity equals one and the equivalent diameter is simply the
diameter of the sphere.2
For a homogeneous bed of monodisperse particles, the voidage ξ is the same throughout
the bed. In this case, the pressure gradient ∇P is also the same throughout the bed and
integration (7) of ∇P over the bed of particles yields ∆P = ∇P H.
The drag force on the bed of particles can then be calculated by multiplying by the
cross-sectional area A of the column,
Fd = ∇P AH. (9)
The pressure gradient, or drag force, depends on the flow velocity in a non-simplistic
manner. However, similarly to other types of flow, the pressure drop across the fluidized bed
is related to the flow velocity via the friction coefficient fp ,
U 2 (1 − ξ)
∇P = ρf fp , (10)
D ξ3
where D is the particle diameter. Therefore, to obtain the drag force, it is necessary to
determine the friction coefficient fp . The value of fp depends on the flow regime, much like
in the well-known case of the drag force on a single particle. The regimes are defined in
terms of the Reynolds number,
DU ρf
Rep = , (11)
(1 − ξ) µ
where µ is the viscosity of the fluid and the voidage enters the traditional definition of Re to
correct for the use of the superficial velocity U . Figure 4 shows measurements of the packed
bed friction factor fp as a function of the Reynolds number. The relationship exhibited in
Figure 4 holds only for the pressure drop prior to the incipient point of fluidization, when
the particles are packed and the pattern of flow is that of a uniform, porous medium. For
Rep ≤ 10, the flow is inertialess and fp is inversely proportional to Rep . At very high values
of the Reynolds number (ReP ≥ 1000), the flow is considered to be within the inviscid
Newton region and fp is independent of Rep .
In the viscous, or inertialess regime, the relationship between the pressure drop and flow
is linear. This is embodied within the commonly used Carman-Kozney equation [6; 7],
µU (1 − ξ)2
∇P = 180 . (12)
D2 ξ3
This relationship is equivalent to writing fp = 180/Rep , which corresponds to the variables
used in Figure 4. This equation is derived from an idealized model of a packed bed of
particles. In the model, the tortuous path followed by the fluid passing through the particle
bed is replaced by a set of parallel cylinders having the same flow resistance.
For the inviscid case, the Burke-Plummer equation applies [8],
fp = 1.75; (13)
2
Unless noted otherwise, the continuing discussion will assume that the bed is composed of spheres of
diameter D. For non-spherical particles, replace the diameter D by Φs De in all equations.
Fluidization: Unit Operations 6
Figure 4: Friction factor as a function of Reynolds number for a packed bed of particles.
Symbols are data from experiments, the dashed line is the Carman-Kozney equation, and
Ergun’s correlation is represented by the solid line. (Figure adapted from Ergun & Orning
[5].)
this expression can be determined by a simple inspection of the data presented in Figure 4.
Within this regime, the pressure drop is proportional to the square of the flow velocity.
To bridge the gap between the Carman-Kozney and Burke-Plummer equations, Ergun
[5] proposed the correlation,
150
fp = + 1.75, (14)
Rep
which is a linear combination of the viscous and inviscid relations, albeit with a modified
constant of 150 instead of 180 as given by Kozney [6] and Carman [7]. This is perhaps the
most widely used equation for describing flow through porous media [9]. The reason is clear
upon examining the solid line (Ergun’s correlation) in Figure 4, which fits the experimental
data with fidelity over the entire range of Reynolds numbers. Therefore, the Ergun equation
should be used to model fluidized beds in this lab.
Figure 5: Diagram of the pressure drop ∆P as a function of the superficial velocity. The
negative sign is indicative of the fact that the drag force acts in opposition to the velocity
U . The point E marks the velocity Umf at which fluidization occurs.
3 Laboratory Objectives
Using the laboratory scale column that is described in Section 4, you will measure the min-
imum velocity of fluidization, using the ideas presented in Section 2.2. The measurements
should be compared to predicted values to determine the efficacy of the various approxima-
tions made in Section 2.1. Aside from testing the case of spherical particles, you can
• Investigate effect of the size and density of spherical particles on the minimum fluidiza-
tion velocity. At least three different particle sizes and three different densities should
be considered.
• Investigate effects of repeat cycles of increasing/decreasing fluid flow rates for the same
bed of particles.
• Validate the Ergun equation (14) for the friction coefficient fp in the bed of particles.
• Investigate effect of the bed height on the pressure drop across the bed and the mini-
mum fluidization velocity.
• Investigate effect of fluid properties on the fluidization process by comparing air- and
water-based fluidized beds.
4 Experimental Methods
The experimental apparatus shown in Figure 6 will be used in your investigation of the
minimum velocity of fluidization. You will utilize air and water to examine the effects on
fluid density and viscosity on the fluidized bed.
The equipment is sufficiently instrumented to provide you with data that can be used to
determine the minimum velocity of fluidization using the concepts presented in Section 2.2.
Appendix B provides operating procedures for starting-up and shutting-down the equipment,
as well as information about the particle sizes and equipment.
You should come to the laboratory prepared to run the equipment and perform your
experiments, as time will be limited. To do so, you should be familiar with the operating
procedures in Appendix B and you should have a plan of the steps you will need to take in
order to meet the goals of the experiment. This includes a list of the parameters that will
need to be set or measured during your time in the laboratory.
Fluidization: Unit Operations 9
Figure 6: The experimental apparatus in the unit operations laboratory. The diagram
shows the major elements of the experimental equipment and Table 1 contains the key for
the various parts. The following components are not visible in this plot since they are behind
the panel: supply tank for water, compressed air reservoir, pump for water, compressor for
air.
Fluidization: Unit Operations 10
Table 1: Key for the labels on the experimental equipment shown in Figure 6.
When you report on your experiment, note any deviations you make from the listed
procedures and comment on any suggestions for improvements that you may have. Please,
do not simply list the procedures in your report; rather reference this manual.
References
[1] Envirogen bioreactor technology. http://www.envirogen.com/pages/technologies/bio-
reactors/. n.d. photograph, viewed 30 January 2013.
[4] R.H. Perry, D.W. Green, and J.O. Maloney. Perrys Chemical Engineers Handbook.
McGraw-Hill, New York, 7th edition, 1997.
[5] S. Ergun and A.A. Orning. Fluid flow through packed columns. Chemical Engineering
Progress, 48:89–94, 1952.
[6] J. Kozney. Ueber kapillare leitung des wassers im boden. Sitzungsber Akad. Wiss.,
136:271–306, 1927.
[7] P.C. Carman. Fluid flow through granular beds. Transactions, Institution of Chemical
Engineers, 15:150–166, 1937.
[8] W.E. McCabe, J.C. Smith, and P. Harriott. Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering.
McGraw Hill, New York, 2001.
[9] W.C. Yang. Flow through fixed beds. In Wen-Ching Yang, editor, Handbook of
Fluidization and Fluid-Particle Systems. CRC Press, 2003.
Fluidization: Unit Operations 11
B Operating Procedures
The following text lists the operating procedures for the experiment. Please take care to
follow all instructions and perform the experiments safely.
Note. The experimental system contains an air vent valve (see Fig. 6). The purpose of
this valve is to vent some of the air flow generated by the compressor to atmosphere. This
enables better flow rate control at low flows. Therefore, at low flow rates the vent valve
should be open. To generate higher flow rates through the column, the vent valve should be
closed so that all air flow generated by the compressor is passed through the column.
B.1 Start-up
1. Connect the power supply.
2. Connect the manometer to the experimental system using the provided
connections. Secure all the hoses at the designated points.
3. Fully open the vent valve for air.
4. Fully close the needle valve on the rotameter.
5. Start the compressor with the relevant switch and check that it is func-
tioning properly.
3
Of course, the voidage of the fluidized bed increases as the fluid starts flowing through the column.
Fluidization: Unit Operations 12
B.2 Shut-down
1. Fully open the vent valve for air.
2. Fully close the needle valves on the rotameter.
3. Turn-off the compressor.
4. Disconnect the power supply.
5. Recover the particles from the test vessel and clean the vessel.
C Particle properties
Types of particles available for the experiment:
– Diameter 0.2-0.4 mm
– Diameter 0.4-0.6 mm
– Diameter 0.6-0.8 mm
– Diameter 1.0-2.0 mm
– Diameter 0.18-0.30 mm
– Diameter 0.4-0.6 mm
– Diameter 0.6-0.8 mm
– Diameter 0.8-1.0 mm
– Diameter 0.5 mm
– Diameter 0.8 mm
– Diameter 1.0 mm