RMC2006

PART ONE
PROBLEMS
DISTRICT ROUND
March 11th , 2006
7th GRADE
√
Problem 1. Let n > 1 be an integer. Prove that the number 11. . .144. . .4
(digit “1” occurs n times and digit “4” occurs 2n times) is an irrational number.
Cecilia Deaconescu, Piteşti
Problem 2. In triangle ABC, ∠ABC = 2 · ∠ACB. Prove that:

a) AC 2 = AB 2 + AB · BC;
b) AB + BC < 2 · AC.
Gh. Bumbăcea, Buşteni
Problem 3. A set M containing 4 positive integers is called connected, if for

every x in M at least one of the numbers x − 1, x + 1 belongs to M . Let U n be
the number of connected subsets of the set {1, 2, . . . , n}.
a) Evaluate U7 .
b) Determine the least n for which Un > 2006.
Lucian Dragomir, Oţelul Roşu
Problem 4. Let ABC be an isosceles triangle, with AB = AC. Let D be the

midpoint of the side BC, M the midpoint of the line segment AD and let N be
the projection of D on BM. Prove that ∠AN C = 90◦ .
Marcel Chiriţa, Bucureşti

4 P ROPOSED PROBLEMS
8th GRADE
Problem 1. Let ABC be a right triangle (with A = 90◦ ). Two perpendiculars

on the triangle’s plane are erected at points A and B, and the points M and N
are considered on these perpendiculars, on the same side of the plane, such that
√
BN < AM . It is known that AC = 2a, AB = a 3, AM = a and that the angle
between the planes M N C and ABC equals 30◦ . Find:
a) the area of triangle M N C;
b) the distance from the point B to the plane M N C.
Gianina Busuioc, Niculai Solomon
Problem 2. For each positive integer n, denote by u(n) the largest prime num-
ber less than or equal to n and by v(n) the smallest prime number greater than n.
Prove that
1 1 1 1 1 1
+ + +···+ = − .
u(2)v(2) u(3)v(3) u(4)v(4) u(2010)v(2010) 2 2011
Nicolae Stăniloiu, Bocşa
Problem 3. Prove that there exist infinitely many irrational numbers x and y
such that x + y = xy ∈ N.
Claudiu Ştefan Popa, Iaşi
Problem 4. a) Prove that one can assign to each of the vertices of a cube one of
the numbers 1 or −1 such that the product of the numbers assigned to the vertices
of each face equals −1.
b) Prove that such an assignment is impossible in the case of a regular hexag-
onal prism.
9th GRADE
Problem 1. Let x, y, z be positive real numbers. Prove that the following

inequality holds:

1 1 1 1 1 1 1
+ + 6 + + .
x2 + yz y 2 + zx z 2 + xy 2 xy yz zx
Traian Tămı̂ian
D ISTRICT ROUND 5
Problem 2. The entries of a 9×9 array are all the numbers from 1 to 81. Prove
that there exists k ∈ {1, 2, 3, . . . , 9} such that the product of the numbers in the
line k differs from the product of the numbers in the column k.
Marius Ghergu, Slatina
Problem 3. Let ABCD be a convex quadrilateral. Let M and N be the mid-

points of the line segments AB and BC, respectively. The line segments AN and
BD intersect at E and the line segments DM and AC intersect at F . Prove that
if BE = 13 BD and AF = 31 AC, then ABCD is a parallelogram.
Gh. Iurea, Iaşi
Problem 4. For each positive integer n, denote by p(n) the largest prime num-
ber less than or equal to n and by q(n) the smallest prime number greater than n.
Prove that
n
X 1 1
< .
p(k)q(k) 2
k=2
Nicolae Stăniloiu, Bocşa
10th GRADE
Problem 1. Consider the real numbers a, b, c ∈ (0, 1) and x, y, z ∈ (0, ∞),

such that
ax = bc, by = ca, cz = ab.
Prove that
1 1 1 3
+ + 6 .
2+x 2+y 2+z 4
Cezar Lupu, Bucureşti
Problem 2. Let ABC be a triangle and consider the points M ∈ (BC), N ∈

(CA), P ∈ (AB) such that PAP BM CN
B = M C = N A . Prove that if M N P is an
equilateral triangle, then ABC is an equilateral triangle as well.
I.V. Maftei, A. Schier, Bucureşti
Problem 3. A prism is called binary if one can assign to each of its vertices
a number from the set {−1, +1}, in such a way that the product of the numbers
assigned to the vertices of every face equals −1.
a) Prove that the number of vertices of every binary prism is divisible by 8.
b) Prove that a prism with 2000 vertices is binary.

Problem 4. a) Find two sets X, Y such that X ∩ Y = ∅, X ∪ Y = Q∗+ and

Y = {a · b | a, b ∈ X}.
b) Find two sets U, V such that U ∩ V = ∅, U ∪ V = R and V = {x + y |
x, y ∈ U }.
Marius Cavachi, Constanţa
11th GRADE
Problem 1. Let x > 0 be a real number and let A be a 2 × 2 matrix with real
entries, such that
det(A2 + xI2 ) = 0.
Prove that det(A2 + A + xI2 ) = x.

Vasile Pop, Cluj
Problem 2. Let n, p > 2 be integer numbers and let A be a n × n real matrix

such that Ap+1 = A.
a) Prove that rank(A) + rank(In − Ap ) = n.
b) Prove that if p is a prime number, then
rank(In − A) = rank(In − A2 ) = · · · = rank(In − Ap−1 ).

Marius Ghergu, Slatina
Problem 3. The sequence of real numbers (xn )n>0 satisfies
(xn+1 − xn )(xn+1 + xn + 1) 6 0, n > 0.
a) Prove that the sequence is bounded.

b) Can such a sequence be divergent?
Mihai Bălună, Bucureşti
Problem 4. We say that a function f : R → R has the property (P) if for every
real x,
sup f (t) = x.
t6x
D ISTRICT ROUND 7
a) Give an example of a function having property (P) which is discontinuous

at every real point.
b) Prove that if f is continuous and has property (P) then f is the identical
function.
Mihai Piticari, Câmpulung
12th GRADE
Problem 1. Let f1 , f2 , . . . , fn : [0, 1] → (0, ∞) be continuous functions and

let σ be a permutation of the set {1, 2, . . . , n}. Prove that
n Z 1 n Z 1
Y fi2 (x) Y
dx > fi (x) dx.
i=1 0 fσ(i) (x) i=1 0
Cezar Lupu, Mihai Piticari
Problem 2. Let G = {A ∈ M2 (R) | det(A) = ±1} and H = {A ∈

M2 (C) | det A = 1}. Prove that, under matrix multiplication, G and H are
non-isomorphic groups.
Marius Cavachi, Constanţa
Problem 3. Let A be a finite commutative ring with at least two elements.

Prove that for any positive integer n > 2, there exists a polynomial f ∈ A[X] of
degree n, with no roots in A.
Marian Andronache, Bucureşti
Problem 4. Let F = {f : [0, 1] → [0, ∞) | f continuous} and let n > 2 be a

positive integer. Determine the least real constant c, such that
Z 1 Z 1
√
f ( n x)dx 6 c f (x)dx
0 0
for all f ∈ F.
Gh. Iurea, Iaşi
FINAL ROUND
April 15th , 2006
7th GRADE
Problem 1. Consider the triangle ABC and points M , N belonging to the

sides AB, BC respectively, such that 2·CN AM
BC = AB . Let P be a point on AC.
Prove that the lines M N and N P are perpendicular if and only if P N bisects the
angle ∠M P C.
Marcel Teleucă
Problem 2. A square of side n is divided into n2 unit squares each colored

red, yellow or green. Find the minimum value of n such that for any such coloring
we can find a row or a column containing at least three squares of the same color.
Mircea Fianu
Problem 3. In the acute triangle ABC angle C equals 45◦ . Points A1 and B1
are the foots of the perpendiculars from A and B respectively. Denote by H the
ortocenter of ABC. Points D and E are situated on the segments AA 1 and BC,
q that A1 D = A1 E = A1 B1 . Prove that:
respectively, such
2 +A 2
a) A1 B1 = A1 B 2
1C
;
b) CH = DE.
Claudiu-Ştefan Popa
Problem 4. Let A be a set of nonnegative integers containing at least two

elements and such that for any a, b ∈ A, a > b, we have [a,b]
a−b ∈ A. Prove that the
set A contains exactly two elements.
([a, b] denotes the least common multiple of a and b).
Marius Ghergu
F INAL ROUND 9
8th GRADE
Problem 1. Consider a convex poliedra with 6 faces each of them being a

circumscribed quadrilaterals. Prove that all faces are circumscribed quadrilaterals.
G. Rene
Problem 2. Given a positive integer n, prove that there exists an integer k,

k > 2 and numbers a1 , a2 , . . . , ak ∈ {−1, 1} such that
X
n= ai aj .
16i<j6k
Gheorghe Iurea
Problem 3. Let ABCDA1 B1 C1 D1 be a cube and let P be a variable point

on the side [AB]. The plane through P , perpendicular to AB meets AC 1 at Q. Let
M and N be the midpoints of the segments A1 P and BQ, respectively.
a) Prove that the lines M N and BC1 are perpendicular if and only if P is the
midpoint of AB.
b) Find the minimal value of the angle between the lines M N and BC1 .
Petre Simion
Problem 4. Consider real numbers a, b, c contained in the interval [ 21 , 1].

Prove that
a+b b+c c+a
26 + + 6 3.
1+c 1+a 1+b
Mircea Lascu
9th GRADE
Problem 1. Find the maximum value of
(x3 + 1)(y 3 + 1),
for x, y ∈ R such that x + y = 1.

Dan Schwarz
Problem 2. Consider quadrilaterals ABCD inscribed in a circle of radius r,

such that there is a point P on side CD for which CB = BP = P A = AB.
a) Prove that there is a configuration of points A, B, C, D, P for which the

above configuration is possible.
b) Prove that for any such configuration we also have P D = DA = r.
Virgil Nicula
Problem 3. Consider the triangles ABC and DBC such that AB = BC,
DB = DC and ∠ABD = 90◦ . Let M be the midpoint of BC. Points E, F, P are
such that E ∈ (AB), P ∈ (M C), C ∈ (AF ) and ∠BDE = ∠ADP = ∠CDF .
Prove that P is the midpoint of EF and DP ⊥ EF .
Manuela Prajea
Problem 4. A table tennis competition takes place during 4 days, the number
of participants being 2n, n > 5. Every participant plays exactly one game daily
(it is possible that a pair of participants meet more times). Prove that such a com-
petition can end with exactly one winner and exactly three players on the second
place and such that there is no player losing all four matches. How many partic-
ipants have won a single match and how many exactly two, in the given above
conditions?
Radu Gologan
10th GRADE
Problem 1. Consider a set M with n elements and let P(M ) denote all subsets
of M . Find all functions f : P(M ) → {0, 1, 2, . . . , n}, satisfying the following
two conditions:
a) f (A) 6= 0, for any A 6= ∅, and
b) f (A ∪ B) = f (A ∩ B) + f (A∆B) , for any A, B ∈ P(M ), where
A∆B = (A ∪ B) (A ∩ B) .
Vasile Pop
π

Problem 2. Prove that for a, b ∈ 0, 4 we have
sinn a + sinn b sinn 2a + sinn 2b

> .
(sin a + sin b)n (sin 2a + sin 2b)n
Iurie Boreico
F INAL ROUND 11
√ √
Problem 3. Prove that the sequence given by an = n 2 + n 3 , n ∈ N,
contains infinitely many odd numbers and infinitely many even numbers.
Marius Cavachi
Problem 4. Given n ∈ N, n > 2, find n disjoint sets Ai , 1 6 i 6 n, in the

plane, such that:
a) for any disk C and any i ∈ {1, 2, . . . .n} , we have Ai ∩ Int (C) 6= ∅, and
b) for any line d and for any i ∈ {1, 2, . . . .n} , the projection of Ai on d is not
all of d.
Severius Moldoveanu, Costel Chiteş
11th GRADE
Problem 1. A is a two by two matrix with complex entries. Denote by A ∗ its

adjoint (the matrix formed by the cofactors of the transpose). Prove that if there is
an integer m > 1 such that (A∗ )m = 0n , then (A∗ )2 = 0n .
Marian Ionescu
Problem 2. A matrix B ∈ Mn (C) will be called a pseudo-inverse of a matrix

A ∈ Mn (C) if A = ABA and B = BAB.
a) Prove that any square matrix has at least one pseudo-inverse.
b) Characterize the class of matrices with a unique pseudo-inverse.
Marius Cavachi
Problem 3. Consider two systems of points in the plane: A1 , A2 , . . . , An and

B1 , B2 , . . . , Bn having different centroids. Prove that there is a point P in the
plane such that
P A1 + P A 2 + · · · + P A n = P B 1 + P B 2 + · · · + P B n .
Marius Cavachi
Problem 4. Consider a function f : [0, ∞) → R, with the property that for

any x > 0, the sequence (f (nx))n>0 is increasing.
a) If f is also continuous on [0, 1], does it follow that it is increasing?
b) What if f is continuous on Q+ ?
Gheorghe Grigore
12th GRADE
Problem 1. Let K be a finite field. Prove that the following statements are
equivalent:
a) 1 + 1 = 0;
b) for any f ∈ K[X] with deg f > 1 the polynomial f (X 2 ) is reducible.
Marian Andronache
Problem 2. Prove that

Z 1 Z 1
π xn
lim n −n 2n
dx = f (x)dx,
n→∞ 4 0 1+x 0
arctg x
where f (x) = x , for x ∈ (0, 1] and f (0) = 1.
Dorin Andrica, Mihai Piticari
Problem 3. Let G be a group with n elements (n > 2) and let p be the smallest
prime factor of n. Suppose G has a unique subgroup H with p elements. Prove
that H is contained in the center of G. (The center of G is the set Z(G) = {a ∈
G | ax = xa, ∀x ∈ G}.)
Ion Savu
Problem 4. Let f : [0, 1] → R be a continuous function such that

Z 1
f (x)dx = 0.
0
Prove that there is c ∈ (0, 1) such that

Z c
xf (x)dx = 0.
0
Cezar şi Tudorel Lupu
SELECTION TESTS FOR
THE BMO AND IMO ROMANIAN TEAMS
FIRST SELECTION TEST
Problem 1. Let ABC and AM N be two similar triangles with the same ori-
entation, such that AB = AC, AM = AN , and having disjoint interiors. Let O
be the circumcenter of the triangle M AB. Prove that the points O, C, N , A are
concyclic if and only if the triangle ABC is equilateral.
Valentin Vornicu
Problem 2. Let p > 5 be a prime number. Find the number of irreducible

polynomials in Z[X], of the form
xp + pxk + pxl + 1, k > l, k, l ∈ {1, 2, . . . , p − 1} .

The Editors
Problem 3. Let a, b be positive integers such that for any positive integer n
we have an + n | bn + n. Prove that a = b.
IMO Shortlist 2005
Problem 4. Let a1 , a2 , . . . , an be real numbers such that |ai | 6 1 for all

i = 1, 2, . . . , n, and a1 + a2 + · · · + an = 0.
(a) Prove that there exists k ∈ {1, 2, . . . , n} such that
2k + 1
|a1 + 2a2 + · · · + kak | 6 .
4
(b) Prove that for n > 2 the bound above is the best possible.
Radu Gologan, Dan Schwarz
SECOND SELECTION TEST
Problem 5. Let {an }n>1 be a sequence given by a1 = 1, a2 = 4, and for all

integers n > 1
p
an = an−1 an+1 + 1.
(a) Prove that all the terms of the sequence are positive integers.
(b) Prove that the number 2an an+1 + 1 is a perfect square for all integers
n > 1.
Valentin Vornicu
Problem 6. Let ABC be a triangle with ∠ABC = 30◦ . Consider the closed
discs of radius AC/3 centered at A, B and C. Does there exist an equilateral
triangle whose three vertices lie one each in each of the three discs?
Radu Gologan, Dan Schwarz
Problem 7. Determine the pairs of positive integers (m, n) for which there
exists a set A such that for x, y positive integers, if |x − y| = m, then at least one
of the numbers x, y belongs to the set A, while if |x − y| = n, then at least one of
the numbers x, y does not belong to the set.
Adapted by the Editors from AMM
Problem 8. Let xi , 1 6 i 6 n be real numbers. Prove that

n
X n−2X
|xi + xj | > |xi |.
2 i=1
16i<j6n
Adapted by the Editors from Putnam
THIRD SELECTION TEST
Problem 9. The circle of center I is inscribed in the convex quadrilateral

ABCD. Let M and N be points on the segments AI and CI respectively, such
that ∠M BN = 21 ∠ABC. Prove that ∠M DN = 12 ∠ADC.
Problem 10. Let A be a point exterior to a circle C. Two lines through A meet
the circle C at points B and C, respectively at D and E (with D between A and
IMO AND BMO SELECTION TESTS 15
E). The parallel through D to BC meets the second time the circle C at F . The
line AF meets C again at G, and the lines BC and EG meet at M . Prove that
1 1 1
= + .
AM AB AC
Bogdan Enescu
Problem 11. Let γ be the incircle of the triangle A0 A1 A2 . In what follows,

indices are reduced modulo 3. For each i ∈ {0, 1, 2}, let γi be the circle through
Ai+1 and Ai+2 , and tangent to γ ; let Ti be the tangency point of γi and γ ; and
finally, let Pi be the point where the common tangent at Ti to γi and γ meets the
line Ai+1 Ai+2 . Prove that
(a) the points P0 , P1 and P2 are collinear;
(b) the lines A0 T0 , A1 T1 and A2 T2 are concurrent.
AMM
Problem 12. Let a, b, c be positive real numbers such that a + b + c = 3.

Prove that
1 1 1
+ 2 + 2 > a2 + b2 + c2 .
a2 b c
Vasile Cârtoaje
FOURTH SELECTION TEST
Problem 13. Given r, s ∈ Q, determine all functions f : Q → Q such that
f (x + f (y)) = f (x + r) + y + s
for all x, y ∈ Q. Vasile Pop, Dan Schwarz
Problem 14. Find all positive integers m, n, p, q such that pm q n = (p+q)2 +1.
Adrian Stoica
Problem 15. Let n > 1 be an integer. A set S ⊂ {0, 1, . . . , 4n − 1} is called

sparse if for any k ∈ {0, 1, . . . , n − 1} the following two conditions are satisfied:
(1) the set S ∩ {4k − 2, 4k − 1, 4k, 4k + 1, 4k + 2} has at most two elements;
(2) the set S ∩ {4k + 1, 4k + 2, 4k + 3} has at most one element.
Prove that the set {0, 1, . . . , 4n − 1} has exactly 8 · 7n−1 sparse subsets.
AMM
Problem 16. Let p, q be two integers, q > p > 0. Let n > 2 be an integer and
a0 = 0, a1 > 0, a2 , . . . , an−1 , an = 1 be real numbers such that
ak−1 + ak+1
ak 6 , k = 1, 2, . . . , n − 1.
2
Prove that
n−1
X n−1
X
(p + 1) apk > (q + 1) aqk .
k=1 k=1
Călin Popescu
FIFTH SELECTION TEST
Problem 17. Let k > 1 be an integer and n = 4k + 1. Let A = {a2 + nb2 |

a, b ∈ Z}. Prove that there exist integers x, y such that xn +y n ∈ A and x+y ∈
/ A.
AMM
Problem 18. Let m and n be positive integers and let S be a subset with
(2 − 1)n + 1 elements of the set {1, 2, . . . , 2m n}. Prove that S contains m + 1
m
distinct numbers a0 , a1 , . . . , am such that ak−1 | ak for all k = 1, 2, . . . , m.

AMM
Problem 19. Let x1 = 1, x2 , x3 , . . . be a sequence of real numbers such that

for all n > 1 we have
1
xn+1 = xn + .
2xn
Prove that
b25x625 c = 625.
The Editors
Problem 20. Let ABC be an acute triangle with AB 6= AC. Let D be the
foot of the altitude from A to BC and let ω be the circumcircle of the triangle
ABC. Let ω1 be the circle that is tangent to AD, BD and ω. Let ω2 be the circle
that is tangent to AD, CD and ω. Finally, let ` be the common internal tangent to
ω1 and ω2 that is not AD.
Prove that ` passes through the midpoint of BC if and only if 2BC =
AB + AC.
SELECTION TESTS FOR THE JUNIOR
BALKAN MATHEMATICAL OLYMPIAD
FIRST SELECTION TEST
Problem 1. Let ABC be a rightangle triangle at C and consider points D, E

on the sides BC, CA, respectively, such that BD AE
AC = CD = k. Lines BE and AD
◦
√
intersect at point O. Show that ∠BOD = 60 if and only if k = 3.
Marcel Chiriţă
Problem 2. Consider five points in the plane such that each triangle with ver-
tices at three of those points has area at most 1. Prove that the five points can be
covered by a trapezoid of area at most 3.
Marcel Chiriţă
Problem 3. For any positive integer n let s(n) be the sum of its digits in
decimal representation. Find all numbers n for which s(n) is the largest proper
divisor of n.
Laurenţiu Panaitopol
SECOND SELECTION TEST
a3 b3
c3
Problem 4. Prove that bc + ca + ba > a + b + c, for all positive real numbers
a, b, and c.
Problem 5. Consider a circle C of center O and let A, B be points on the

circle with ∠AOB = 90◦ . Circles C1 (O1 ) and C2 (O2 ) are internally tangent to
C at points A, B, respectively, and – moreover – are tangent to themselves. Cir-
cle C3 (O3 ), located inside the angle ∠AOB, is externally tangent to C1 , C2 and
internally tangent to C. Prove that O, O1 , O2 , O3 are the vertices of a rectangle.
Problem 6. A 7 × 7 array is divided into 49 unit squares. Find all integers

n ∈ N∗ for which n checkers can be placed on the unit squares so that each row
and each line contain an even number of checkers.
(0 is an even number, so empty rows or columns are not excluded. At most one
checker is allowed inside a unit square.)
Dinu Şerbănescu
THIRD SELECTION TEST
Problem 7. Suppose ABCD is a cyclic quadrilateral of area 8. Prove that if

there exists a point O in the plane of the quadrilateral such that OA + OB + OC +
OD = 8, then ABCD is an isosceles trapezoid (or a square).
Flavian Georgescu

2
a b c 3 a+b b+c c+a
+ + > · + + ,
b c a 2 c a b
for all positive real numbers a, b, and c.

Cezar Lupu
Problem 9. Find all real numbers a and b satisfying
2(a2 + 1)(b2 + 1) = (a + 1)(b + 1)(ab + 1).
Valentin Vornicu
Problem 10. Show that the set of real numbers can be partitioned into subsets
having two elements.
Dan Schwarz
FOURTH SELECTION TEST
Problem 11. Let A = {1, 2, . . . , 2006}. Find the maximal number of subsets
of A that can be chosen such that the intersection of any two such distinct subsets
have 2004 elements.
J UNIOR SELECTION TESTS 19
Problem 12. Let ABC be a triangle and let A1 , B1 , C1 be the midpoints of

the sides BC, CA, AB, respectively. Show that if M is a point in the plane of the
triangle such that
MA MB MC
= = = 2,
M A1 M B1 M C1
then M is the centroid of the triangle.
Dinu Şerbănescu
Problem 13. Suppose a, b, c are positive real numbers which sum up to 1.

Prove that
a2 b2 c2
+ + > 3(a2 + b2 + c2 ).
b c a
Mircea Lascu
Problem 14. The set of positive integers is partitioned into subsets with in-
finitely many elements each. The following question arises: does there exist a
subset in the partition such that any positive integer has a multiple in that subset?
a) Prove that if the number of subsets in the partition is finite, then the answer
is “yes”.
b) Prove that if the number of subsets in the partition is infinite, then the answer
can be “no” (for some partition).
Problem 15. Let ABC be a triangle and D a point inside the triangle, located
on the median from A. Show that if ∠BDC = 180◦ − ∠BAC, then AB · CD =
AC · BD.
Eduard Băzăvan
Problem 16. Consider the integers a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 , b1 , b2 , b3 , b4 with ak 6= bk

for all k = 1, 2, 3, 4. If
{a1 , b1 } + {a2 , b2 } = {a3 , b3 } + {a4 , b4 },
show that the number |(a1 − b1 )(a2 − b2 )(a3 − b3 )(a4 − b4 )| is a square.

Note. For any sets A and B, we denote A + B = {x + y | x ∈ A, y ∈ B}.
Adrian Zahariuc
Problem 17. Let x, y, z be positive real numbers such that

1 1 1
+ + = 2.
1+x 1+y 1+z
Prove that 8xyz 6 1.
Mircea Lascu
Problem 18. For a positive integer n denote by r(n) the number having the
digits of n in reverse order; for example, r(2006) = 6002. Prove that for any
positive integers a and b the numbers 4a2 + r(b) and 4b2 + r(a) cannot be simul-
taneously perfect squares.
Marius Ghergu
SHORTLISTED PROBLEMS FOR THE 2006 OLYMPIAD
7th GRADE
Problem 1. The bisectors of the angles of the triangle ABC meet the sides
BC, CA, AB in D, E, F respectively. Prove that
1 1 1 1
+ + =
AB · CE BC · AF CA · BD r·R
Problem 2. In a triangle ABC, m(∠BAC) = 110◦ , m(∠ABC) = 50◦ . Let
D be an internal point such that m(∠DBC) = 20◦ and m(∠DCB) = 10◦ . Find
m(∠ADC).
Problem 3. The points M and N are taken on the sides AC, respectively AB
of triangle ABC such that M A = m · M C and N A = n · N B, where m, n are
positive reals and m + n = 2. The straight lines BM and CN meet at P . Prove
that area(AM P N ) > mn3 area(ABC).
Problem 4. Let ABCDEF be a convex hexagon. Triangles ∆1 s¸i ∆2 will be

called opposite if they are determined by consecutive vertices of the hexagon and
have no common points. Prove that the straight lines joining the centroids of the
three pairs of opposite triangles are concurrent.
Problem 5. Let ABCDE be a convex pentagon. A straight line will be called

central if it joins the centroid of the triangle determined by three consecutive ver-
tices of the pentagon and the midpoint of the “opposite” side. Prove that the five
central lines are concurrent.
Problem 6. Let a, b, c, d be four distinct positive integers whose product is a

perfect square. Prove that the number a4 + b4 + c4 + d4 is the sum of five non-zero
perfect squares.
Problem 7. Find three distinct positive integers with integral arithmetic, geo-
metric and harmonic means. Same problem for n > 4 distinct positive integers.
Problem 8. Prove that three positive real numbers x, y, z satisfy the equality
x(y − z) y(z − x) z(x − y)

+ + = 0,
y+z z+x x+y
if and only if at least two of these numbers are equal.
Problem 9. A tennis competition lasted three days and had 20 participants.

Every participant played a match each day (it is possible that the same pair of
players met more than once). In the end there was only one winner and everybody
had at least a victory. How many participants won exactly one match?
8th GRADE
Problem 10. Let m, n be integers such that m > n > 3. Prove that the roots
x1 , x2 of the equation x2 − mx + n = 0 are integers if and only if the number
bmx1 c + bmx2 c is a perfect square.
Problem 11. Prove that if a, b, c are three positive real numbers then
Xb+c (a2 + b2 + c2 )(ab + bc + ca)
>3+ .
cyc
a abc(a + b + c)
Problem 12. Let a, b be positive integers such that a < b and a is not a divisor
of b. Solve the equation abxc − b{x} = 0.
Problem 13. Consider the sets

(r )
1 1 ∗
A= + | a, b ∈ N , a 6= b
a b
and r
1 1 1 ∗
B= + + | x, y, z ∈ N , x > y > z .
x y z
Prove that A ∩ B contains infinitely many rational and infinitely many irrational
numbers.
S HORTLISTED PROBLEMS FOR THE ROMANIAN O LYMPIAD 23
Problem 14. Prove that if a, b, c are positive real numbers then

X a2 1
6 .
cyc
3a2 + b2 + 2ac 2
Problem 15. Find all positive integers n and x1 , x2 , . . . , xn such that

1 1 1 1
x1 + x2 + · · · + xn = 3n and + +··· + =1+ .
x1 x2 xn 4n
Problem 16. Let p, q be integers. Prove that if a set A has p2 − q elements
then A cannot have exactly q 2 − p subsets.
Problem 17. Find all integers x, y, z, t such that x + y + z = t2 and x2 + y 2 +

z = t3 .
2
Problem 18. The bases of a right prism ABCDEF A1 B1 C1 D1 E1 F1 are reg-

ular hexagons. Prove that:
√
a) AE1 ⊥ B1 E if and only if AA1 = AB 3;
√
b) if AE1 ⊥ B1 E then the distance between the straight lines AE1 and B1 E
is 1442 AB.
Problem 19. Consider a tetrahedron ABCD of volume 2 and points M , N ,

P , Q, R, S on the edges AB, BC, CD, DA, AC and BD, respectively, such that
the segments M P, N Q and RS be concurrent. Prove that the volume of the poly-
hedron M N P QRS is at most 1.
Problem 20. The cube ABCDA0 B 0 C 0 D0 has edges of length 2. The two
triangles having as vertices the midpoints of the edges starting from B and C have
centroids E and F respectively. Let P = A0 E ∩ D0 F . Compute the cosine of the
angle ∠A0 P D0 and the distances from A0 to the planes of the two triangles.
9th GRADE
Problem 21. Consider an integer n > 2 and positive real numbers a 1 , a2 , . . . ,

a2n , with sum s. Prove that
a1 an an+1 a2n
+· · ·+ + +· · ·+ >1
s + an+1 − a1 s + a2n − an s + a1 − an+1 s + an − a2n
and determine the cases of equality.
Problem 22. Let a, b, c be positive real numbers such that a2 + b2 + c2 = 3.

Prove that, for every positive numbers x, y, z,
x y z √ √ √
+ + > xy + yz + zx.
a b c
Problem 23. Let a, b, c be positive numbers such that abc = 1. Prove that
X 1 1
6 .
cyc
a2 + 2b2 + 3 2
Problem 24. With each function f : {1, 2, . . . , n} → {1, 2, . . . , n} associate

a function f : {1, 2, . . . , n} → {0, 1, . . . , n − 1}, by letting

f (1) + · · · + f (k)
f (k) = f (1) + · · · + f (k) − n ,
n
for each k = 1, 2, . . . , n. Prove that a necessary and sufficient condition for a pair
(f, f) of one-to-one associated functions to exist is that n be even.
Problem 25. A function f : [0, ∞) → [0, ∞) will be said to have property

P if
f (xf (y 2 )) = f (y)f (f (x2 ))
for all x, y ∈ [0, ∞).

a) Show that there exist infinitely many functions which have property P.
b) Prove that there exists an unique function with property P, whose range
contains an open interval centered at 1.
q p
Problem 26. Find all integers x, y such that x = y 2 − y 2 + x.
Problem 27. Let a, b, c be three positive real numbers such that a + b + c >
1
a + 1b + 1c . Prove that
3 2
a+b+c> + .
a + b + c abc
P 1
Problem 28. Let a, b, c be three positive real numbers such that a 6 3.
Prove that
X a2 + 1
√ > 6.
a2 − a + 1
Problem 29. Given that the real numbers a, b, c satisfy |ax2 + bx + c| 6 1 for
all x ∈ [−1, 1] and all α ∈ [0, 1], prove that
α(1 + α)|b| + (1 − α2 )|c| 6 1 + α2 .
Find the cases of equality.
Problem 30. An acute-angled triangle ABC has orthocenter H and altitudes

(AM ), (BN ), (CP ). Let Q and R be the midpoints of the segments (BH) and
(CH), respectively, and let U = M Q ∩ AB, V = M R ∩ AC, T = AH ∩ P N .
Prove that:
a) M H TH
MA = T A ;
b) T is the orthocenter of triangle U AV .
Problem 31. Consider a triangle ABC, the point M on the side (BC) such
c(b+c)
that M B
MC = b2 and the point N on (AM ) such that ∠BN M = ∠BAC. Prove
that 2∠CN M = ∠BAC.
Problem 32. Let I be the incenter of triangle ABC and A1 , B1 , C1 the incen-
ters of triangles IBC, ICA, IAB, respectively. Prove that AA1 , BB1 , CC1 are
concurrent.
Problem 33. In a competition there were 18 teams. Each pair of teams met at
most once, and within each group of 12 teams there were at least 6 matches. Find
the minimum number of matches that have been played.
10th GRADE
Problem 34. If a1 , a2 , . . . , an ∈ {−1, 1} and a1 + a2 + · · · + an = 0, prove

that there exists k ∈ {1, 2, . . . , n} such that

k
|a1 + 2a2 + · · · + kak | 6 .
2
n
+2m−1
Problem 35. Prove that (22n + 2n+m + 22m )! is divisible by (2n !)2 ·
m 2m +2n−1
(2 !) for every n, m ∈ N∗ .
Problem 36. Let a ∈ N, a > 2. Define the sequence (xn )n>0 by
a2 a
x0 = , x1 = (2a3 − 4a2 − a + 4), xn+1 − (4a2 − 2)xn + xn−1 = 0
4 4
a2 −2
for n > 1. Prove that 2xn − 2 is a perfect square for every n ∈ N.
Problem 37. Solve the equation

x

log3 2log3 (2 +1) + 1 = log2 (3x − 1) .
Problem 38. Consider p, n ∈ N∗ and nonnegative integers x1 , x2 , . . . , xn .

Prove that
n
!p X n
X p
2 p−1
xi 6 xi2p−1
i=1
1
i=1n X n ,
p X 2p−3 p 2p−2m−1
+ x +··· + x
3 i=1 i 2m + 1 i=1 i

p−1
where m = .
2
Problem 39. Find all positive integers p, q such that p is prime, p > q > q 2
and 2
p q
− = 1.
q p
Problem 40. A quadrilateral A1 A2 A3 A4 has an incircle of radius r.
a) Prove that there exist circles Ci = (Ai , ri ), centered at Ai and radii ri ,
i = 1, 2, 3, 4, such that Ci is tangent to Ci+1 (where C5 = C1 ).
b) If, in addition
4
X 1 4
= ,
i=1
r i r
prove that the quadrilateral is a square.
Problem 41. Consider a straight line d in space. For every n points A 1 ,

A2 , . . . , An not outside d, the union of the halfplanes Sk = (dAk , 1 6 k 6 n
will be called a n-fan if, when expressed in degrees, the measure of the dihedral
angle between any two halfplanes Si and Sj , 1 6 i < j 6 n, is a positive integer.
a) Prove that every 91-fan has two perpendicular or two mutually estending
halfplanes.
b) For each 1 6 n 6 360, determine the number of n-fans containing two
perpendicular or two prolongating halfplanes (two n-fans are considered to be
identical if they can be obtained from one another through a rotation about d).
Problem 42. Show that if a, b, c are the lengths of the sides of a triangle, R is
its circumradius and S is its area, then a2 + b2 + c2 = 4
6R2 + S 2 > 3.
Problem 43. Given a point P inside triangle ABC, let r1 , r2 , r3 , respectively,

denote the inradii of triangles P BC, P CA and P AB. Prove that
a b c √
+ + > 6(2 − 3).
r1 r2 r3
Problem 44. Determine all complex numbers a, b, c such that a3 + b3 + c3 =
24, (a + b)(b + c)(c + a) = 64, and |a + b| = |b + c| = |c + a|.
Problem 45. With reference to the standard notations in a triangle, prove that
r
3(ma + mb + mc )
s6 .
2R
11th GRADE
Problem 46. a) Prove that if a matrix A ∈ M2 (R) has the property that
rang (A + XY ) = rang (A + Y X) for every invertible matrices X, Y ∈ M2 (R),
then there exists a ∈ R such that A = aI2 .
b) Let A ∈ Mn (R) (n > 2) be a matrix which is not of the form aIn , a ∈ R.
Prove that there exist X, Y ∈ Mn (R), with X invertible and rang (A + XY ) <
rang (A + Y X).
Problem 47. Determine the largest integer n > 2 with the following property:
if A ∈ Mn (C), A 6= λIn , for any λ ∈ C, then B ∈ Mn (C) and AB = BA
implies the existence of a0 , a1 , . . . , an−1 ∈ C such that B = a0 In + a1 A + · · · +
an−1 An−1 .
Problem 48. Let n > 2 be an integer. Find the largest integer k > 1
with the following property: for any k matrices A1 , A2 , . . . , Ak ∈ Mn (C), if
In − A1 A2 · · · Ak is invertible, then so is In − Aτ (1) Aτ (2) · · · Aτ (k) for every
permutation τ ∈ Sk .
Problem 49. Consider a matrix A ∈ M3 (R) such that det(A2 + I3 ) = 0.

Prove that:
a) det(A + I3 ) − det(A − I3 ) = 4;
b) tr (A3 ) = tr3 (A).
Problem 50. Let A, B, C be matrices with real entries and let
X = AB + BC + CA, Y = BA + CB + AC, Z = A2 + B 2 + C 2 .
Prove that
det(2Z − X − Y ) > 3 det(X − Y ).
Problem 51. A function f : R → R+ is continuous and has an irrational

period. Let M = max f . Evaluate
f (1)f (2) · · · f (n)

lim .
n→∞ Mn
Problem 52. A polynomial p ∈ R[X] has the following properties: p(Q) ⊂ Q
and p(R \ Q) ⊂ R \ Q. Prove that deg p = 1.
Problem 53. Find all continuous functions f : [0, 1] → R with the following
property: for every integer n > 3 and every arithmetic sequence a 1 , a2 , . . . , an ,
the sequence f (a1 ), f (a2 ), . . . , f (an ) is a geometric sequence.
Problem 54. Let f, g : R → R be such that f has the intermediate value

property and, for every x ∈ R, the limit
f (x + h) − g(x)
lim ,
h→0 h
exists and is finite. Prove that f = g.
Problem 55. The function f : (0, ∞) → R has the property that for every
a, b ∈ R, a < b, there exists c ∈ (a, b) such that f is continuous at c. Given that
f (nx) < f ((n + 1)x) for every x ∈ (0, ∞) and every n ∈ N∗ , prove that f is
strictly increasing.
Problem 56. Let f : (0, ∞) → (0, ∞) be a twice differentiable function such

that
f 00 (x) + f 0 (x) > f 2 (x),
for all x > 0. Prove that the limit lim f (x) exists and is finite. Evaluate the limit.
x→∞
Problem 57. A function f : R → R satisfies the following condition: at every

x0 ∈ R:
f (x) − f (x0 ) f (x) − f (x0 )
sup = inf .
x<x0 x − x0 x>x0 x − x0
Prove that f is convex and differentiable.
Problem 58. The sequences (an )n , (bn )n and (xn )n of positive numbers sat-
isfy the conditions:
bn
lim a1 a2 · · · an = 0; lim = 0; and xn+1 6 an xn + bn
n→∞ n→∞ 1 − an
for every n > 1. Prove that lim xn = 0.

n→∞
Problem 59. Consider an ellipse that is tangent to the sides of a rhombus

ABCD at their midpoints. Let A0 , B 0 , C 0 , D0 respectively, denote the orthogo-
nal projections of A, B, C, D onto a variable tangent to the ellipse. Prove that
AA0 · CC 0 = BB 0 · DD0 .
Problem 60. For each point L inside a given triangle ABC, consider the in-
tersections E and F of the pairs of straight lines (AC, BL) and (AB, CL). Find
the locus of L for which the quadrilateral AELF has an inscribed circle.
12th GRADE
Problem 61. Suppose A is a ring such that 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 = 0 and

x y = y 3 x4 for all x, y ∈ A. Prove that A is commutative.
4 3
Problem 62. Let Z[α] = {a + αb | a, b ∈ Z}, where α ∈ C \ Q and |α| = 1.

Prove that exactly two of the sets Z[α] are rings under the usual operations with
complex numbers.
Problem 63. Define a sequence (an )n by

Z 1
x2n
an = dx, n > 1.
0 1+x
Prove that the sequence (nan )n is convergent and find its limit.
Problem 64. Let f : [0, 1] → R+ be a continuous function with f (1) = 1

and let Z 1
f (x)
an = dx, n > 1.
0 1 + xn
Prove that Z
1
1
lim f (x)dx − an = ln 2.
n→∞ n 0
Problem 65. Find all natural numbers n such that the integral
Z n
x[x]{x}dx
0
is an integer.
Problem 66. Let f : [0, ∞) → R be a continuous bounded function, with

f (0) = 0.
Z 1
a) Prove that lim f (nxn ) dx = 0.
n→∞ 0
Z 1p
b) Evaluate lim 1 + n2 x2n dx.
n→∞ 0
Problem 67. Prove that for any continuous function f : [0, 1] → R,

Z 1 Z 1 Z 1
4
f (x) dx · x4 f (x) dx 6 f 2 (x)dx.
0 0 15 0
Also, find the cases of equality.
Problem 68. Find all integrable functions f : R → R such that

Z x+1/n Z x
1
f (t) dt = f (t) dt + f (x),
0 0 n
for all x ∈ R and all n ∈ N∗ .
Problem 69. Let f : [0, ∞) → R be a function such that |f (x) − f (y)| 6

|x − y| for all x, y > 0. Prove that
Z b
b2 a2
f (x) dx 6 bf (b) + − af (a) − ,
a 2 2
for all a, b ∈ [0, ∞), a < b. For f differentiable, also consider the cases of
equality.
Authors of the problems: Ştefan Alexe (36), Cristian Alexandrescu (16), Cristina
and Claudiu Andone (13), Dumitru Barac (29, 38), Vasile Berinde (26, 58), Petru Braica
(18), Dumitru Buşneag (48), Narcisa Bândă (68), Constantin Buşe (50), Vasile Cı̂rtoaje,
Costel Chiteş (25, 39), Ioan Ucu Crişan (12), Marius Damian (22), Lucian Dragomir (15,
17), Farkas Csaba (53), Dragoş Frăţilă (68), Romanţa and Ioan Ghiţă (20), Flavian Georgescu
(19), Marius Ghergu (46), Radu Gologan (9, 34, 43), Dana Heuberger (35), Marin Ionescu
(52), Mircea Lascu (14, 23), Cezar Lupu (11, 27, 36, 49), I.V. Maftei (28, 61), Dorin
Mărghidan (65), Cristinel Mortici (41), Nicolae Muşuroia (44, 63), Dan Nedeianu (6), Vir-
gil Nicula (3, 8, 31, 59, 60), Mihai Piticari (54), Dorian Popa (68), Manuela Prajea (30),
Ioan Raşa (68), Vicenţiu Rădulescu (56), M. Rădulescu (61), Alexandru Roşoiu (68, 69),
Adrian Stoica (25, 39), Nicolae Stăniloiu (45), Traian Tămı̂ian (1, 21), Marcel ¸(27) Tena
(62), Emil Vasile (24), Valentin Vornicu (27, 33)
PART TWO
SOLUTIONS
PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS
DISTRICT ROUND
7th GRADE
√
Problem 1. Let n > 1 be an integer. Prove that the number 11. . .144. . .4
(digit “1” occurs n times and digit “4” occurs 2n times) is an irrational number.
Solution. We have to prove that the number 11 . . . 144 . . . 4 is not a square.
Let a be the n-digit number 11 . . . 1. We have 11 . . . 144 . . . 4 = a · 102n + 4a ·
10n + 4a = a(10n + 2)2 .
Since the remainder of a = 11 . . . 1 when divided by 4 equals 3, a is not a
square, therefore neither is 11 . . . 144 . . . 4.
Problem 2. In triangle ABC, we have ∠ABC = 2 · ∠ACB. Prove that:
a) AC 2 = AB 2 + AB · BC;
b) AB + BC < 2 · AC.
Solution. a) Let BM be the angle bisector of ∠ABC.
AB AM AM AB
The angle bisector theorem gives BC = MC , hence AC = AB+BC , which
AB·AC
implies AM = AB+BC .
AB
Since ∠ABM = ∠ACB, it follows that ∆ABM ∼ ∆ACB, therefore AC =
2
AM
AB , that is, AM = ABAC .
AB·AC AB 2
It follows that AB+BC = AC hence the conclusion.
b) Suppose that the parallel through A to BM intersects BC at P . We have
∠AP M = ∠M BC = ∠ABM = ∠P AB = ∠C, hence AB = BP and AP =
AC. It follows that AB + BC = P B + BC = P C < AP + AC = 2 · AC, as
needed.
D ISTRICT ROUND – S OLUTIONS 35
Problem 3. A set M containing 4 positive integers is called connected, if for

every x in M at least one of the numbers x − 1, x + 1 belongs to M . Let U n be
the number of connected subsets of the set {1, 2, . . . , n}.
a) Evaluate U7 .
b) Determine the least n for which Un > 2006.
Solution. Let a < b < c < d be the elements of a connected set M . Since
a − 1 does not belong to the set, it follows that a + 1 ∈ M , hence b = a + 1.
Similarly, since d+1 ∈
/ M we deduce that d−1 ∈ M , hence c = d−1. Therefore,
a connected set has the form {a, a + 1, d − 1, d}, with d − a > 2.
a) There are 10 connected subsets of the set {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}:
{1, 2, 3, 4};{1, 2, 4, 5}; {1, 2, 5, 6}; {1, 2, 6, 7};
{2, 3, 4, 5}; {2, 3, 5, 6}; {2, 3, 6, 7};
{3, 4, 5, 6}; {3, 4, 6, 7} and {4, 5, 6, 7}.
b) Call D = d − a + 1 the diameter of the set {a, b = a + 1, c = d − 1, d}.
Clearly, D > 3 and D 6 n − 1 + 1 = n. For D = 4 there are n − 3 connected
sets, for D = 5 there are n − 4 connected sets, etc. Finally, for D = n there is one
connected set.
(n−3)(n−2)
Adding up yields Un = 1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + (n − 3) = 2 .
Consequently, we have to find the least n such that (n − 3)(n − 2) > 4012. By
inspection, we obtain n = 66.
Problem 4. Let ABC be an isosceles triangle, with AB = AC. Let D be the

midpoint of the side BC, M the midpoint of the line segment AD and let N be
the projection of D on BM. Prove that ∠AN C = 90◦ .
Solution. Consider the point S such that ABDS is a parallelogram. Clearly,

ADCS is a rectangle and let R be the point of intersection of its diagonals. In the
right triangle DN S the line segment N R is the median from the right angle and
1 1
therefore N R = 2 · SD = 2 · AC.
1
Since R is the midpoint of AC and N R = 2 · AC, it follows that the triangle
AN C is a right triangle, as desired.
36 T HE 57 th ROMANIAN M ATHEMATICAL O LYMPIAD
8th GRADE
Problem 1. Let ABC be a right triangle (with A = 90◦ ). Two perpendiculars

on the triangle’s plane are erected at points A and B, and the points M and N
are considered on these perpendiculars, on the same side of the plane, such that
√
BN < AM . It is known that AC = 2a, AB = a 3, AM = a and that the angle
between the planes M N C and ABC equals 30◦ . Find:
a) the area of triangle M N C;
b) the distance from the point B to the plane M N C.
√
Solution. a) The area of triangle ABC equals a2 · 3. On the other hand, we
have area[ABC] = area[M N C] · cos α, where α = 30◦ is the angle between the
planes M N C and ABC. It follows that area[M N C] = 2 · a2 .
b) Suppose that the lines M N and AB intersect at P . Let T be the projection
of the point A on P C. Using the theorem of the three perpendiculars, we obtain
that M T ⊥ P C, hence ∠M T A = α = 30◦ .
√
Since AB = a, in triangle M AT we find AT = a 3, so ∠ACT = 60◦ ,
√
hence AP = 2a 3. It follows that B is the midpoint of the line segment AP .
Project B on P C in Q. Using again the theorem of the three perpendiculars,
√
a 3
we obtain N Q ⊥ P C. Then BN = a2 , BQ = , N Q = a and the altitude BS
√2
BN ·BQ a 3
of the right triangle BN Q equals NQ = 4 . This is the requested distance.
Problem 2. For each positive integer n, denote by u(n) the largest prime num-
ber less than or equal to n and by v(n) the smallest prime number greater than n.
Prove that
1 1 1 1 1 1
+ + +···+ = − .
u(2)v(2) u(3)v(3) u(4)v(4) u(2010)v(2010) 2 2011
Solution. Let p and q be consecutive prime numbers. Then there are q − p
numbers n such that p 6 n < q and, for each such number, we have u (n) = p
1
and v (n) = q. It follows that the term pq appears in the sum exactly q − p times.
Since 2003 and 2011 are consecutive primes, the sum becomes
3−2 5−3 2011 − 2003
+ +···+ =
2·3 3·5 2003 · 2011
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= − + − +··· + − = − .
2 3 3 5 2003 2011 2 2011
Problem 3. Prove that there exist infinitely many irrational numbers x and y
such that x + y = xy ∈ N.
Solution. Let n = x + y = xy. Then y = n − x, so n = x (n − x) . We obtain

√
n ± n2 − 4n
x= .
2
Since for n > 5 we have
2 2
(n − 3) < n2 − 4n < (n − 2) ,
√
it follows that the number n2 − 4n is irrational. Consequently, we can choose
√ √
n+ n2 −4n n− n2 −4n
x= 2 and y = 2 .
Problem 4. a) Prove that one can assign to each of the vertices of a cube one of
the numbers 1 or −1 such that the product of the numbers assigned to the vertices
of each face equals −1.
b) Prove that such an assignment is impossible in the case of a regular hexag-
onal prism.
Solution. a) Let ABCDA0 B 0 C 0 D0 be the cube. A possible labeling is the

following: assign +1 to the vertices A, B, D, A0 and −1 to the other vertices.
b) A contradiction is obtained by considering on one hand the product of the
numbers assigned to all lateral faces and, on the other hand, the product of the
numbers assigned to every second lateral face.
9th GRADE
Problem 1. Let x, y, z be positive real numbers. Prove that the following

inequality holds:

1 1 1 1 1 1 1
+ 2 + 6 + + .
x2 + yz y + zx z 2 + xy 2 xy yz zx
p
Solution. Using the AM-GM inequality we obtain x2 + yz > 2 x2 yz, and
therefore √
1 1 yz
2
6 √ = .
x + yz 2x yz 2xyz
P 1 1
P√ P√ P y+z P
It follows that x2 +yz 6 2xyz yz but yz 6 2 = x (AM-
GM again). The equality holds when x = y = z.
Problem 2. The entries of a 9×9 array are all the numbers from 1 to 81. Prove
that there exists k ∈ {1, 2, 3, . . . , 9} such that the product of the numbers in the
line k differs from the product of the numbers in the column k.
Solution. Suppose, by way of contradiction, that for each i ∈ {1, 2, . . . , 9},

the product of the elements in line i equals the product of the elements in column i.
Between 40 and 81 there are exactly 10 prime numbers, namely 41, 43, 47, 53, 59,
61, 67, 71, 73, and 79. We prove that these numbers belong to the main diagonal
of the table. Indeed, if 40 < p < 81 is a prime number, then it is the only multiple
of p in the table. If p lies on line i, by the assumption it follows that it lies on
column i, as well, that is, it lies on the main diagonal.
Therefore, on the main diagonal are all the 10 prime numbers, a contradiction.
Problem 3. Let ABCD be a convex quadrilateral. Let M and N be the mid-

points of the line segments AB and BC, respectively. The line segments AN and
BD intersect at E and the line segments DM and AC intersect at F . Prove that
if BE = 13 BD and AF = 31 AC, then ABCD is a parallelogram.
−−→ →
− −−→ →
− −−→ →
− →
−
Solution. Denote AB = u , BC = v , CD = a u + b v with a, b ∈ R. It
−−→ →− →
− −−→ → − →
−
follows that AD = (a + 1) u + (b + 1) v , AN = u + 21 v .
−−→ −−→ −→ −
−→ − −→ →
− →
−
Since BD = 3BE, we obtain AE = 2AB+ 3
AD
= (a+3)
3 u + b+1 3 v.
−→ −−→
Because AE s¸i AN are collinear vectors, we deduce that a − 2b + 1 = 0.
−−→ −
−→
Similarly, we obtain 2a + b + 2 = 0 hence a = −1, b = 0, that is, CD = −AB =
−−→
BA, whence ABCD is a parallelogram.
Problem 4. For each positive integer n, denote by p(n) the largest prime num-
ber less than or equal to n and by q(n) the smallest prime number greater than n.
Prove that
n
X 1 1
< .
p(k)q(k) 2
k=2
Solution. Denote by 2 = p1 < p2 < · · · < pm < · · · the sequence of the

prime numbers. For pi 6 k < pi+1 − 1 we have p(k) = pi , q(k) = pi+1 .
Suppose that pm = q(n). Then
n
X 1
pX
m −1
1 X pi+1
m−1 X−1 1
m−1
X pi+1 − pi
6 =
p(k)q(k) p(k)q(k) i=1
p(k)q(k) i=1 pi pi+1
k=2 k=2 k=pi
m−1
X
1 1 1 1 1
= − = − < .
pi pi+1 2 pm 2
i=1
10th GRADE
Problem 1. Consider the real numbers a, b, c ∈ (0, 1) and x, y, z ∈ (0, ∞),

such that
ax = bc, by = ca, cz = ab.
Prove that
1 1 1 3
+ + 6 .
2+x 2+y 2+z 4
B+C
Solution. Denote A = log 12 a, B = log 12 b, C = log 12 c. Then x = A ,
C+A A+B
y= B , z= C .
The inequality becomes
X 1 3
B+C
6 ,
2+ A
2
or, denoting S = A + B + C,
X A 3
6 .
S+A 4
The latter is equivalent to
X A 3 X A

9
− > − or 1− > ,
S+A 4 S+A 4
or
X 1
4S > 9,
S+A
which follows from the Cauchy-Schwartz inequality.
Problem 2. Let ABC be a triangle and consider the points M ∈ (BC), N ∈

AP BM CN
(CA), P ∈ (AB) such that PB = MC = NA . Prove that if M N P is an
equilateral triangle, then ABC is an equilateral triangle as well.
AP BM CN
Solution. Let λ = AB = BC = CA .
We use complex numbers and we choose the point M as origin. Furthermore,
we can assume that the complex numbers corresponding to the points N and P are
1 and ε = cos π3 + i sin π3 , respectively.
Suppose that the complex numbers corresponding to the points A, B, C are
a, b, c, respectively. We have then
ε = (1 − λ)a + λb, 0 = (1 − λ)b + λc, and 1 = (1 − λ)c + λa.

c−a π
It follows that b−a = ε. Therefore, AC = AB and A = 3.
Problem 3. A prism is called binary if one can assign to each of its vertices
a number from the set {−1, +1}, in such a way that the product of the numbers
assigned to the vertices of every face equals −1.
a) Prove that the number of vertices of every binary prism is divisible by 8.
b) Prove that there are binary prisms with 2000 entries.
Solution. a) Suppose the base of the prism is a polygon with n vertices. Then
the product of the numbers assigned to the vertices of the lateral faces equals
(−1)n , but in the same time it must be equal to 1, since every vertex is counted
twice. It follows that n is an even number.
Now, if n = 4k + 2, for some k, then we consider the product of the numbers
assigned to the vertices of every second lateral face. We obtain (−1) 2k+1 = −1.
This equals the product of all numbers, that is 1, which is a contradiction. This
proves the result.
b) Label the vertices A1 , A3 , A5 , . . . , A997 with −1 and label the rest of the
base vertices with 1. For the upper base, label all with 1, except A 999 , labelled −1.
Problem 4. a) Find two sets X, Y such that X ∩ Y = ∅, X ∪ Y = Q∗+ and

Y = {a · b | a, b ∈ X}.
b) Find two sets U, V such that U ∩ V = ∅, U ∪ V = R and V = {x + y |
x, y ∈ U }.
Solution. a) As an example, we can choose X as the set of all products of

αk
the type pα 1 α2
1 p2 · · · pk , where p1 , p2 , . . . , pk are distinct prime numbers, αi are
Pn
integers and αi is odd. Finally, we set Y = Q∗+ \ X.
i=1
b) Choose
[
U= [3k + 1, 3k + 2) and V = R \ U.
k∈Z
It is not difficult to check that these sets satisfy the requested conditions.
11th GRADE
Problem 1. Let x > 0 be a real number and let A be a 2 × 2 matrix with real
entries, such that
det(A2 + xI2 ) = 0.
Prove that
det(A2 + A + xI2 ) = x.
√ √
Solution. We have det(A + i xI2 ) · det(A − i xI2 ) = 0; therefore, denoting
by d the determinant of A and by t its trace, it results d = x and t = 0, hence
A2 + xI2 = 02 . It follows that det(A2 + A + xI2 ) = det(A) = x.
Problem 2. Let n, p > 2 be integer numbers and let A be a n × n real matrix

such that Ap+1 = A.
a) Prove that rank(A) + rank(In − Ap ) = n.
b) Prove that if p is a prime number, then
rank(In − A) = rank(In − A2 ) = · · · = rank(In − Ap−1 ).
Solution. a) The Sylvester inequality yields rank(A) + rank(In − Ap ) 6

rank(A(In − Ap )) + n = n.
On the other hand, rank(A) + rank(In − Ap ) > rank(Ap ) + rank(In − Ap ) >
rank(Ap + (In − Ap )) = n.
b) Observe that if k, m ∈ N∗ and k |m then rank (In − Ak ) > rank(In − Am ).
Indeed, In − Am can be written as a product of two matrices, one of them
being In − Ak , and rank (XY ) 6 rank (X) for all matrices X, Y .
Let k ∈ N, 1 6 k 6 p − 1. We have Akp+1 = A for all k ∈ N. Since p is

a prime number, the remainders of the numbers p + 1, 2p + 1, . . . , kp + 1 when
divided by k are pairwise distinct. Therefore, one of these numbers, say t = qp+1,
is divisible by k. Thus, rank(In − A) > rank(In − Ak ) > rank(In − At ) =
rank(In − Apq+1 ) = rank(In − A).
Problem 3. The sequence of real numbers (xn )n>0 satisfies
(xn+1 − xn )(xn+1 + xn + 1) 6 0, n > 0.
a) Prove that the sequence is bounded.

b) Can such a sequence be divergent?
Solution. a) The hypothesis implies x2n+1 + xn+1 6 x2n + xn , whence the

sequence yn = x2n + xn is decreasing.
Since (yn ) is clearly bounded from below, it is a convergent sequence. There-
fore, (xn ) is bounded.
−1+(−1)n
b) The answer is “yes”; an example is the sequence xn = 2 .
Problem 4. We say that a function f : R → R has the property (P) if for every
real x,
sup f (t) = x.
t6x
a) Give an example of a function having property (P) which is discontinuous

at every real point.
b) Prove that if f is continuous and has property (P) then f is the identical
function.
Solution. a) An example is
(
x if x ∈ Q;
f (x) =
x − 1 if x ∈ R \ Q.
b) Observe that sup f (t) = sup f (t), for all y 6 x.

t6x y6t6x
Since f is continuous, for each n ∈ N∗ , there exists xn < x, such that
1
|f (t) − f (x)| < ,
n
for all t ∈ [xn , x]. Consequently,

1

sup f (t) − f (x) 6 ,
xn 6t6x n
1
that is, |x − f (x)| 6 n, for all n ∈ N∗ . It follows that f (x) = x.
12th GRADE
Problem 1. Let f1 , f2 , . . . , fn : [0, 1] → (0, ∞) be continuous functions and

let σ be a permutation of the set {1, 2, . . . , n}. Prove that
n Z 1 n Z 1
Y fi2 (x) Y
dx > fi (x) dx.
i=1 0 fσ(i) (x) i=1 0
Solution. Since fi (x) > 0 for x ∈ [0, 1], i = 1, 2, . . . , n, we can use Cauchy-
Schwartz inequality:
Z 1 Z 1 Z 1 2
fi2 (x)
dx fσ(i) (x) dx > fi (x) dx ,
0 fσ(i) (x) 0 0
for each i = 1, 2, . . . , n. Taking the product of these inequalities yields the result.
Problem 2. Let G = {A ∈ M2 (R) | det(A) = ±1} and H = {A ∈

M2 (C) | det A = 1}. Prove that, under matrix multiplication, G and H are
non-isomorphic groups.
Solution. It is not difficult to show that G and H are groups. If they were
isomorphic, then the equation X 2 = I2 should have the same number of solutions
in both groups. Cayley theorem implies that this equation has exactly two solutions
in H, namely ±I2 .
Since the equation has other solutions in G \ H, e.g.,
!
0 a
X= , a ∈ C∗ ,
1/a 0
it follows that G and H are not isomorphic.

Problem 3. Let A be a finite commutative ring having at least two elements.

Prove that for every positive integer n > 2, there exists a polynomial f ∈ A[X],
with deg f = n, having no roots in A.
Solution. Observe that the function ϕ : A → A, ϕ(x) = xn − x, is not

one-to-one, since ϕ(0) = 0 = ϕ(1).
Because A is a finite set, it follows that ϕ is not onto either.
Therefore, one can find a ∈ A \ Im ϕ. But then, the polynomial f = X n −
X − a has no roots in A.
Problem 4. Let F = {f : [0, 1] → [0, ∞) | f continuous} and let n > 2 be a

positive integer. Determine the least real constant c, such that
Z 1 Z 1
√
f ( n x)dx 6 c f (x)dx
0 0
for every f ∈ F.
√
Solution. Substitute n
x = t to obtain
Z 1 Z 1 Z 1
√
f ( n x)dx = n tn−1 f (t)dt 6 f (t)dt,
0 0 0
hence c 6 n.
For p > 0, the function fp : [0, 1] → [0, 1], fp (x) = xp , belongs to F.
R1 p R1
0
x n dx 6 c 0 xp dx implies n+p n
6 p+1c
, therefore c > pn+n
p+n .
pn+n
Finally, c > lim = n, that is, c > n. Consequently, c = n.
p→∞ p+n
FINAL ROUND
7th GRADE
Problem 1. Consider the triangle ABC and points M , N belonging to the

2·CN AM
sides AB, BC respectively, such that BC = AB . Let P be a point on AC.
Prove that the lines M N and N P are perpendicular if and only if P N bisects the
angle ∠M P C.
Solution. Let T be the intersection point of the parallel to AC which contains

CN AT
N with line AB. From BC = AB we get AM = 2 · AT , thus T is the midpoint
of AM .
A
M P
B N
Q
Denote by Q the intersection point of M N and AC. In triangle P M Q the

point N is the midpoint of M Q.
In the triangle P M Q, P N is a median, thus P N is perpendicular to M N if
and only if P N bisects the angle ∠M P C.
Problem 2. A square of side n is divided into n2 unit squares each colored

red, yellow or green. Find the minimum value of n such that for any such coloring
we can find a row or a column containing at least three squares of the same color.
Solution. The number is 7. For n = 7, at least 17 squares have the same color
by the PGH principle (49 = 3 · 16 + 1).
As 17 = 7 · 2 + 3, we get, by the same principle, that among the 7 rows there
is one containing three squares of the same color. The same argument works for
columns.
The fact that for n = 6 the result is no more valid is given by the following
example.
r g a r g a
g a r q a r
a r g a r g
r g a r g a
g a r g a r
a r g a r g
The same table can be used to find counterexamples for any n 6 6.
Problem 3. In the acute triangle ABC angle C equals 45◦ . Points A1 and B1
are the foots of the perpendiculars from A and B respectively. Denote by H the
ortocenter of ABC. Points D and E are situated on the segments AA 1 and BC,
q that A1 D = A1 E = A1 B1 . Prove that:
respectively, such
A1 B 2 +A1 C 2
a) A1 B1 = 2 ;
b) CH = DE.
Solution. a) As the triangle ABC is acute, we have ∠ABC > 45◦ , so the
BC
midpoint M of BC is situated on the segment A1 C. We get B1 M = 2 =
A1 B+A1 C BC A1 C−A1 B
2 and A1 M = M B − A1 B = 2 − A1 B = 2 .
In the right triangle M A1 B1 we also have
2 2
2 2 2 A1 B + A 1 C A1 C − A 1 B A1 B 2 + A 1 C 2
A1 B1 = A1 M +B1 M = + = ,
2 2 2
thus r
A1 B 2 + A 1 C 2
A1 B1 = .
2
b) As the right triangle DA1 E is isosceles we have succesively
√ √ p p
DE = A1 E · 2 = A1 B1 · 2 = A1 B 2 + A1 C 2 = A1 B 2 + A1 A2 = AB.
F INAL ROUND – S OLUTIONS 47
The equality of triangles AA1 B and CA1 H implies AB = CH, and, as a

consequence CH = DE.
Problem 4. Let A be a set of nonnegative integers containing at least two

[a,b]
elements and such that for any a, b ∈ A, a > b, we have a−b ∈ A. Prove that the
set A contains exactly two elements.
([a, b] denotes the least common multiple of a and b).
Solution. We begin by proving that A is finite. For, if b = min A and a ∈

A \ {b}, then from (a − b)|[a, b] we get (a − b)|ab. As (a − b)|(a − b) we get
(a − b)|ab − b(a − b), thus a − b|b2 , and, in turn, a 6 b + b2 . But a ∈ A was
arbitrarily chosen, so A is finite.
Put a = max A and b = min A. If d = (a, b), then b = dx, a = dy, with
[a,b] xy
x, y ∈ N∗ and (x, y) = 1. Then a−b = y−x ∈ N∗ . As x, y and x − y are mutually
coprime, we deduce y − x = 1 or y = x + 1, implying a = d(x + 1) and b = dx.
[a,b]
Then a−b = x(x + 1) ∈ A, from which b 6 x(x + 1) 6 a or d ∈ {x, x + 1}.
First case. d = x.
We have a = x(x + 1) and b = x2 . We show that A has no other elements.

By contradiction if c = min A \ {b} , we get, as before, d0 , z ∈ N∗ such that
[a,c]
a = d0 (z + 1) and c = d0 z. Then a−c = z(z + 1) ∈ A. As z(z + 1) 6= x2 = b, or
c 6 z(z + 1) 6 a we obtain d0 ∈ {z, z + 1}.
If d0 = z, then a = z(z + 1) and, as a = x(x + 1), we would have x = z, a
contradiction (this would leads to b = c).
If d0 = z + 1, then a = (z + 1)2 and a = x(x + 1), a contradiction. Thus, in
this case A has exactly two elements.
Second case. d = x + 1.
We have a = (x + 1)2 and b = x(x + 1). As in the previous case it is easy to
show that A has no other elements.
8th GRADE
Problem 1. Consider a convex poliedra with 6 faces each of them being a

circumscribed quadrilateral. Prove that all faces are circumscribed quadrilaterals.
Solution. It is known that a quadrilateral is circumscriptible if the sums of

opposite sides are the same. If 5 of the faces of the convex body are circumscribed
quadrilaterals, we can suppose that the body is ABCDA0 B 0 C 0 D0 with quadri-
laterals ABCD and A0 B 0 C 0 D0 opposite. Denote by x, y, z, t and x0 , y 0 , z 0 , t0 and
a, b, c, d the sides AB, BC, CD, DA and A0 B 0 , B 0 C 0 , C 0 D0 , D0 A0 and
AA0 , BB 0 ,CC 0 , DD0 respectively. Suppose all faces except A0 B 0 C 0 D0 are cir-
cumscribed quadrilaterals. Then
x0 + y 0 = (x − a − b) + (z − c − d) = (x + z) − a − b − c − d
= (t + y) − a − b − c − d = t0 + y 0 ,
thus A0 B 0 C 0 D0 is also circumscribed.
Problem 2. Given a positive integer n, prove that there exists an integer k,

k > 2 and numbers a1 , a2 , . . . , ak ∈ {−1, 1} such that
X
n= ai aj .
16i<j6k
Solution. Consider the identity

X
(a1 + a2 + · · · + ak )2 = a21 + a22 + · · · + a2k + 2 ai aj .
16i<j6k
Thus, the problem amounts to finding an integer k > 2, and a 1 , a2 , . . . , ak ∈

{−1, 1} such that 2n = (a1 + a2 + · · · + ak )2 − (a21 + a22 + · · · + a2k ) = (a1 +
a2 + · · · + ak )2 − k.
Let m be the number of ones in the sequence a1 , a2 , . . . , ak and p = k − m the
number of minus ones. We have 2n = (m − p)2 − k, or, denoting by l = m − p,
2n = l2 + l − 2m. We have to find l, m ∈ N.
l2 +l−2n
Take l ∈ N, l > 2 with l 2 + l > 2n and m = 2 ∈ N.
2
Then k = −l + 2m = l − 2n satisfies the given condition with a1 = a2 =
· · · = am = 1 and the remaining ones equal to −1.
Problem 3. Let ABCDA1 B1 C1 D1 be a cube and let P be a variable point

on side [AB]. The plane through P , perpendicular to AB meets AC at Q. Let M
and N be the midpoints of the segments A1 P and BQ, respectively.
a) Prove that the lines M N and BC1 are perpendicular if and only if P is the
midpoint of AB.
b) Find the minimal value of the angle between the lines M N and BC1 .
Solution. a) Denote by O the center of the square BCC1 B1 . If P is the

midpoint of AB, then Q is the midpoint of AC1 , thus P BOQ is a parallelogram.
This means that the points P, N and O are collinear and M N is parallel to A1 O.
As the triangle A1 BC1 is equilateral, we get A1 O ⊥ BC1 , thus M N ⊥ BC1 .
For the converse, M N is perpendicular to BC1 , and, as BC1 is also perpen-
dicular to A1 O we have that A1 O k M N , or BC1 ⊥ (A1 OP ). But as BC1 is
not perpendicular to OP , we must have A1 O k M N . This means that N is the
midpoint of OP.
It follows that P BOQ is a parallelogram and as a consequence of the fact that
Q is the midpoint of AC1 , we get that P is also the midpoint of AB.
b) Let U be the point where the parallel through Q to AB meets the line BC 1 .
As QP BU is a parallelogram we get P N = N U , thus M N bisects the sides A1 P
and A1 U of the triangle. As a consequence, the angle between M N and BC 1
equals the angle between A1 U and BC1 . The triangle A1 BC1 is equilateral. This
implies that the angle between the lines A1 U and BC1 is at least 60◦ . Equality
occurs for P = A or P = B.
Problem 4. Consider real numbers a, b, c contained in the interval [ 12 , 1].

Prove that
a+b b+c c+a
26 + + 6 3.
1+c 1+a 1+b
1
Solution. We begin by proving the lefthand-side inequality. Since a, b > 2,
we have a + b > 1, thus
a+b a+b
>
1+c a+b+c
and the like.
Summing up the three we obtain
(a + b) + (b + c) + (c + a) a+b b+c c+a

2= 6 + + .
a+b+c 1+c 1+a 1+b
For the second inequality, observe that the considered expression can be writ-
ten
X a c

+ .
1+c 1+a
a a c c
As a, c 6 1, we have 1+c 6 a+c and 1+a 6 c+a , so
a c a c
+ 6 + =1
1+c 1+a a+c c+a
and the like. Summing up the three we get the desired result.
9th GRADE
Problem 1. Find the maximum value of
(x3 + 1)(y 3 + 1),
for x, y ∈ R such that x + y = 1.
Solution. Put xy = t; as x + y = 1 we get (x3 + 1)(y 3 + 1) = t3 − 3t + 2.

2
From x + y = 1 we obtain t = xy 6 x+y 2 = 14 . It is easy to prove that
t3 − 3t + 2 6 4 for t 6 41 , with equality if and only if t = −1.
We infer that (x3 + 1)(y 3 + 1) 6 4 for x, y ∈ R with x + y = 1 and
(φ3 + 1)(−1/φ3 + 1) = 4, where φ is one of the roots of z 2 − z − 1 = 0.
Remark. In fact, for x, y ∈ R, we have
[x3 + (x + y)3 ][y 3 + (x + y)3 ] 6 4(x + y)6 ,
with equality if and only if x2 + 3xy + y 2 = 0.
Problem 2. Consider the triangles ABC and DBC such that AB = BC,
DB = DC and ∠ABD = 90◦ . Let M be the midpoint of BC. Points E, F, P are
such that E ∈ (AB), P ∈ (M C), C ∈ (AF ) and ∠BDE = ∠ADP = ∠CDF .
Prove that P is the midpoint of EF and DP ⊥ EF .
Solution. Put u = ∠BDE = ∠M DP = ∠CDF . In the right triangles

DBE, DM P, DCP we have
BD DM DC
cos ∠BDE = , cos ∠M DP = , cos ∠CDF = .
DE DP DF
Thus BD = DE cos u, DM = DP cos u, DC = DF cos u.

Moreover, ∠BDC = ∠EDF and ∠BDM = ∠EDP . We get from here
that the triangles DBC and DEF are similar and points M, F correspond to
each other.
Point M is the midpoint of BC, implying that P is the midpoint of EF . As
DM ⊥ BC we conclude that DP ⊥ EF .
Problem 3. Consider quadrilaterals ABCD inscribed in a circle of radius r,

such that there is a point P on sidea CD for which CB = BP = P A = AB.
a) Prove that there is a configuration of points A, B, C, D, P for which the
above configuration is possible.
b) Prove that for any such configuration we also have P D = DA = r.
√
Solution. a) Consider a chord AB such that AB < r 3 and P in the interior
of the circle such that triangle ABC is equilateral. Let C be a point on the circle
such that BP = BC and AC ∩ BP 6= ∅. Line P C meets again the circle at D.
The configuration thus obtained fulfils the conditions in the statement.
b) Let ∠BP C = ∠BCP = x. As the triangle BP C is isosceles, we get
∠P BC = 180◦ − 2x. The quadrilateral ABCD is cyclic, ∠BCD = x, thus
∠DAB = 180◦ − x. Therefore, ∠DAP = 120◦ − x, ∠ABC = 240◦ − 2x,
and consequently, ∠ADC = 2x − 60◦ . In the triangle ADP we have ∠AP D =
120◦ − x, thus DA = DP .
Triangles ABD and P BD are equal, thus ∠ABD = ∠P BD = 30◦ . More-
over, as ∠ABD = 30◦ we get DP = r.
Problem 4. A table tennis competition takes place during 4 days, the number
of participants being 2n, n > 5. Every participant plays exactly one game daily (it
is possible that a pair of participants meet more times). Prove that such a competi-
tion can end with exactly one winner and exactly three players on the second place
and such that there is no player losing all four matches. How many participants
have won a single game and how many exactly two, under the above conditions?
Solution. Denote by nk the number of participants that won exactly k games,

0 6 k 6 4. Under the given conditions we have
n0 = 0, n1 + n2 + n3 + n4 = 2n > 10. (1)
The total number of games is 4n, thus
4n = 1 · n1 + 2 · n2 + 3 · n3 + 4 · n4 (counting the winners) (2)
4n = 3 · n1 + 2 · n2 + 1 · n3 + 0 · n4 (counting the loosers) (3)

thus 2n1 = 2n3 + 4n4 . Substituing in (1) we obtain
n2 + 2n3 + 3n4 = 2n. (4)
The other conditions of the problem will imply

n4 n3 n2 n1 n2 + 2n3 + 3n4
− − −− − − −− − − −− − − −− − − −− − − −−
0 0 1 3 1
0 1 0 3 2
1 0 0 3 3
0 1 3 5
1 0 3 6
giving a contradiction.
It remains the case n4 = 1, n3 = 3, which implies n2 = 2n − 9, n1 = 5.
For a model, denote by a the winner; by b1 , b2 , b3 those on the second place;
by c one of the 2n − 9 winners of exactly two games and by d1 , d2 , d3 , d4 , d5 those
five with only one won game. The remaining 2n − 10 players having won two
games, will be denoted (for n > 5) by c1 , . . . , c2n−10 . Finally, by xy we will
mean that x won the game against y.
Day
1 ab1 cd2 b2 d 3 b3 d 4 d1 d5 ci ci+1
2 ab2 b1 d 1 cd3 b3 d 4 d2 d5 ci ci+1
3 ab3 b1 d 1 b2 d 2 d5 c d 3 d4 ci+1 ci
4 ac b 1 d1 b2 d 2 b3 d 3 d4 d5 ci+1 ci ,
where i = 1, 3, . . . , 2n − 11.
10th GRADE
Problem 1. Consider a set M with n elements and let P(M ) denote all subsets
of M . Find all functions f : P(M ) → {0, 1, 2, . . . , n} , satisfying the following
two conditions:
a) f (A) 6= 0, for any A 6= ∅, and
b) f (A ∪ B) = f (A ∩ B) + f (A∆B) , for any A, B ∈ P(M ), where
A∆B = (A ∪ B) (A ∩ B) .
Solution. From condition b) we obtain
f (∅ ∪ ∅) = f (∅ ∩ ∅) + f (∅∆∅) ,
giving f (∅) = 0.
By b), for A, B ∈ P(M ), with A B, we get
f (B) = f (A ∪ B) = f (A) + f (BA) .
From a) we have f (BA) 6= 0, thus f (B) > f (A).

Consequently, for any permutation (α1 , α2 , . . . , αn ) of the set M we have the
sequence of inequalities
0 = f (∅) < f ({α1 }) < f ({α1 , α2 }) < · · · < f ({α1 , α2 , . . . , αn }) .
Since f (A) ∈ {0, 1, . . . , n} , for all A ∈ P(M ), it follows that
f ({α1 , α2 , . . . , αj }) = j,
for any j ∈ {1, 2, . . . , n}.

Consequently, f (A) = |A|, for any A ∈ P(M ). It is easy to see that this
function fulfils the given conditions.

Problem 2. Prove that for a, b ∈ 0, π4 we have
sinn a + sinn b sinn 2a + sinn 2b

> .
(sin a + sin b)n (sin 2a + sin 2b)n
Solution. Let n ∈ N∗ and consider the function fn : [0, ∞) → R, fn (x) =

( 12 − t)n + ( 12 + t)n which, as
[ n2 ] n−2k
X 1
fn (t) = s Cn2k t2k , t>0
2
k=0
is increasing. Let x1 , x2 , y1 , y2 ∈ (0, 1) such that x1 +x2 = y1 +y2 = y1 +y2 = 1

and x1 x2 6 y1 y2 . We show that xn1 +xn2 > y1n +y2n , for any n ∈ N∗ . By symmetry,
1 1
we may suppose x1 6 x2 and y1 6 y2 . Then, denoting t = 2 − x1 = x2 − 2 >0
1 1
and s = 2 − y1 = y2 − 2 > 0, we have t > s > 0. Thus
xn1 + xn2 = fn (t) > fn (s) = y1n + y2n , for any n ∈ N∗ .

For a, b ∈ 0, π4 , put
sin a sin b
x1 = , x2 = ,
sin a + sin b sin a + sin b
sin 2a sin 2b
y1 = , y2 = .
sin 2a + sin 2b sin 2a + sin 2b
Clearly, x1 , x2 , y1 , y2 ∈ (0, 1) and x1 +x2 = y1 +y2 . The inequality x1 x2 6 y1 y2
is equivalent to
(cos a − cos b)2 (cos2 a + cos2 b + cos a cos b − 1) > 0,

which is true for any a, b ∈ 0, π4 . This ends the proof.
√ √
Problem 3. Prove that the sequence given by an = n 2 + n 3 , n ∈ N,
contains an infinity of odd nubers and an infinity of even numbers.
√ √
Solution. Let xn = n 2 , yn = n 3 , n ∈ N. We have xn+1 − xn ,
yn+1 − yn ∈ {1, 2} , for all n ∈ N.
Suppose, by way of contradiction, that there is k ∈ N such that all elements
an , n > k, have the same parity. As 2 6 an+1 − an 6 4, for any n ∈ N, we get
that an+1 − an ∈ {2, 4} , for all n > k.
If an+1 − an = 2, then xn+1 − xn = yn+1 − yn = 1, and if an+1 − an = 4,
then xn+1 − xn = yn+1 − yn = 2.
Thus yn − xn = yn+1 − xn+1 , for all n > k, which gives yn − xn = yk − xk ,

for all n > k.
√ √
But yn − xn > n 3 − 1 − n 2, for any n, so
yk − xk + 1
n< √ √ ,
3− 2
for all n > k, a contradiction.
Problem 4. Given n ∈ N, n > 2, find n disjoint sets Ai , 1 6 i 6 n, in the

plane, such that:
a) for any disk C and any i ∈ {1, 2, . . . .n} , we have Ai ∩ Int (C) 6= ∅; and
b) for any line d and any i ∈ {1, 2, . . . .n} , the projection of Ai on d is not all
of d.
Solution. There are a lot of natural ways to construct such sets. For example,
take p1 , p2 , . . . , pn square free positive integers and consider the sets

m1 m2
Ak = √ , √ | m1 , m2 , q 1 , q 2 ∈ Z ∗ .
q1 p k q2 p k
It is easy to see that any such set is countable and dense in the plane.
11th GRADE
Problem 1. A is a square matrix with complex entries. Denote by A ∗ its

adjoint (the matrix formed by the cofactors of the transpose). Prove that if there is
an integer m > 1 such that (A∗ )m = 0n , then (A∗ )2 = 0n .
Solution. From det(A∗ )m = 0, we have det(A∗ ) = 0 and det(A) = 0. We

claim that the rank of A∗ is at most 1. For if rankA 6 n − 2 then A∗ = 0n , and if
rank A = n − 1 then AA∗ = 0n and by Sylvester’s inequality 0 = rank (AA∗ ) >
rank (A) + rank (A∗ ) − n = rank (A∗ ) − 1. Suppose now that m > 3 (otherwise,
there is nothing to prove). As A has at most rank 1 there is a row matrix X ∈
M1n (C) and a column matrix Y ∈ Mn1 (C) such that A = Y X. Denoting
XY = a ∈ C we obtain 0n = Am = Y (XY )m−1 X = am−1 Y X = am−1 A,
implying a = 0 or A = 0n , so A2 = aA = 0n .
Problem 2. A matrix B ∈ Mn (C) will be called a pseudo-inverse of a matrix

A ∈ Mn (C) if A = ABA and B = BAB.
a) Prove that any square matrix has at least one pseudo-inverse.
b) Characterize the class of matrices with a unique pseudo-inverse.
Solution. a) Denote by r the rank of A. This means that by elementary trans-

formations, A goes over to a matrix that has zeroes everywhere except the first r
entries on the main diagonal. That is, there exist two invertible matrices P and Q
such that P AQ has 1 on the first r entries on the main diagonal and 0 elsewhere.
We thus have  
1 0 ... 0
 
 0 1 ... 0 
P AQ = D = 
 ... ... ... ...
.

 
0 0 ... 0
This means that B = QDP is a pseudo-inverse of A.
b) If A = 0n then B = 0n , and, if A is invertible then B = A−1 . We claim that
in any other situation A has an infinite number of pseudo-inverses. Such matrices
can be obtained, for instance, by replacing D by any matrix of the form
 
1 0 ... x
 
 0 1 ... 0 
Dx =   ,

 ... ... ... ... 
0 0 ... 0
which coincides with D, except that the (1, n)-entry is now any complex x.
Problem 3. Consider two systems of points in the plane: A1 , A2 , . . . , An and

B1 , B2 , . . . , Bn having different centers of gravity. Prove that there is a point P
in the plane such that
P A1 + P A 2 + · · · + P A n = P B 1 + P B 2 + · · · + P B n .
Solution. Consider a Cartesian system of coordinates such that the two cen-
troids have different x-coordinates. Suppose coordonates are A i (ai , a0i ) and B(bi , b0i ).
We are looking for P on Ox: P (p, 0). Consider f : R → R, defined by
f (p) = P A1 + P A2 + · · · + P An − (P B1 + P B2 + · · · + P Bn ).
We have
n n
X 2p(bk − ak ) + a2k − b2k + a02 02
k − bk
X
lim f (p) = lim p
02
p
02
= (bk − ak )
p→∞ p→∞ 2 2
(p − ak ) + ak + (p − bk ) + bk
k=1 k=1
and
n
X
lim f (p) = − (bk − ak ).
p→−∞
k=1
Since f is continuous, by the intermediate value property, f (p) = 0 for some

real p.
Remark. The condition on the centroids is necessary only for n > 3. For, if
B1 , B2 , . . . , Bn are the mid-points of [A1 A2 ], [A2 A3 ], . . . , [An A1 ], P can exist,
unless the Ai are collinear.
Problem 4. Consider a function f : [0, ∞) → R, with the property: for any

x > 0, the sequence (f (nx))n>0 is increasing.
a) If f is also continuous on [0, 1], does it follow that it is increasing?
b) What if f is continuous on Q+ ?
Solution. a) The answer is “no”. A counterexample is

(
x if x ∈ [0, 1] ∪ Q+ ;
f (x) =
2x − 1 if x ∈ (1, ∞) \ Q.
b) The answer is “yes”. The following remark is an easy consequence of the

hypothesis: if (rn ) is an increasing sequence of rational numbers and x is positive,
then the sequence (f (rn x)) is increasing.
Suppose, by contradiction, that for some x < y we have f (x) > f (y). Con-
sider a rational number a in (x, y). Find an increasing sequence of rationals (q n )
and a decreasing sequence of rationals (rn ) such that (qn x) → a and (rn y) → a.
We get, by continuity
f (x) < lim f (qn x) = f (a) = lim f (rn y) < f (y),

n→∞ n→∞
a contradiction.
12th GRADE
Problem 1. Let K be a finite field. Prove that the following are equivalent:
a) 1 + 1 = 0;
b) for any f ∈ K[X] with deg f > 1 the polynomial f (X 2 ) is reducible.
Solution. To prove that a) implies b), consider F : K → K, given by F (x) =

x . If F (x) = F (y) we get x2 = y 2 , thus (x − y)(x + y) = 0, so (x − y)2 = 0,
2
or x = y. This means that F is one-to-one, consequently onto (for K is finite).

Pn
If f = ak X k , then there exists bk ∈ K such that ak = b2k for k =
k=0
0, 1, . . . , n. Thus
n n n
!2
X X X X
2
f (X ) = b2k X 2k = b2k X 2k +2 bi bj X i+j
= bk X k
.
k=0 k=0 i<j k=0
Thus f (X 2 ) is reducible.
Conversely, take a ∈ K and let f = X − a. As g = f (X 2 ) = X 2 − a is
reducible, it has a root in K. This means that F is onto and thus one-to-one. As
F (1) = F (−1) = 1, we get 1 = −1.

Z 1 Z 1
π xn
lim n −n 2n
dx = f (x)dx,
n→∞ 4 0 1+x 0
arctg x
where f (x) = x , for x ∈ (0, 1] and f (0) = 1.
Solution. Denote
Z 1
π xn
I =n −n dx .
4 0 1 + x2n
We have
Z 1
π n 0
I =n − x(arctg x ) dx
4 0
Z 1 Z 1
π
=n − xarctg xn 10 + arctg xn dx =n arctg xn dx
4 0 0
Z 1 Z 1
arctg xn arctg xn
I =n n
xn dx = n x · xn−1 dx
0 x 0 xn
Z 1 Z xn !0
arctg t
= x dt dx
0 0 t
Z xn Z 1 Z xn !
arctg t 1 arctg t
=x dt 0 − dt dx
0 t 0 0 t
Z 1 Z 1 Z xn !
arctg t arctg t
= dt − dt dx.
0 t 0 0 t
Using the inequality arctg t 6 t, t > 0, we obtain

! !
Z 1 Z xn Z 1 Z xn Z 1
arctg t 1
06 dt dx 6 dt dx = xn dx = ,
0 0 t 0 0 0 n+1
which implies
!
Z 1 Z xn
arctg t
lim dt dx = 0,
n→∞ 0 0 t
whence the conclusion.
Problem 3. Let G be a group with n elements (n > 2) and let p be the smallest
prime factor of n. Suppose G has a unique subgroup H with p elements. Prove
that H is contained in the center of G. (The center of G is the set Z(G) = {a ∈
G | ax = xa, ∀x ∈ G}.)
Solution. For any g ∈ G the set gHg −1 is a subgroup of order p of G. The

hypothesis this implies gHg −1 = H. Let g ∈ G and f : H → H, given by
f (x) = gxg −1 . As f (e) = e and f is bijective, it follows that the restriction
of f to H \ {e} is a permutation of the set H \ {e}. Thus f (p−1)! = 1H and
consequently f (n) = 1H .
As (n, (p − 1)!) = 1 we get f = 1H , thus gx = xg for any x ∈ H.
Alternative solution 1. As the order p of H is prime, we deduce that H is

cyclic:

H = hhi = h, . . . , hp−1 , hp = e , (1)
where e is the identity of G. It suffices to show that gh = hg, for any g ∈ G. Let
g ∈ G and

K = k : k ∈ {1, . . . , n} and g k h = hg k .
The set K is non-empty, for n ∈ K : g n = e, thus g n h = eh = h = he = hg n .

We shall prove that 1 is an element of K, thus concluding the proof. Let m be the
smallest element of K. By minimality, m divides n and
n no
K = km : k = 1, . . . , . (2)
m
On the other hand, gHg −1 is a subgroup of order p of G. We get gHg −1 =
H, i.e. gH = Hg. From (1) and gH = Hg, we deduce the existence of k ∈
{1, . . . , p − 1}, such that gh = hk g. Consequently,
p−1
g p−1 h = hk g p−1 = hg p−1 ,
for k p−1 ≡ 1 (mod p), and hp = e. Thus p − 1 is in K. By (2) m divides p − 1.

By p is the smallest prime factor of n, we conclude that n and p − 1 are mutually
prime, so m = 1.
Alternative solution 2. Let f : G → H, be given by f (x) = xax−1 with

a ∈ H \ {e}, fixed. Consider C(a) = {x ∈ G | ax = xa} and denote by q
the number of elements in C(a). As f (x) = f (y) means xax−1 = yay −1 , or
y −1 xa = ay −1 x, or y −1 x ∈ C(a), from where x ∈ yC(a), we conclude that
n
for any b ∈ Im f the set {x ∈ G | f (x) = b} has q elements. Thus Im f has q
n n n
elements. As e ∈
/ Im f we get q 6 p − 1 and as q |n, we obtain q = 1, that is
C(a) = G. As a consequence ax = xa for any x ∈ G, meaning a ∈ Z(G). As
e ∈ Z(G) we get H ⊂ Z(G).
Remarks. The last proof can be translated as:

Because H is the unique subgroup with p elements of G, H is normal in G.
Let a ∈ H \ {e}. G acts on H by conjugacy, thus
|G| = |Stab(a)| · |Orb(a)|.
As e ∈
/ Orb(a) we get |Orb(a)| 6 p − 1 thus |Orb(a)| = 1. It results Stab(a) =
G, or a ∈ Z(G).
The simplest example of a noncomutative group that satisfies the given con-
dition the multiplicative group of quaternions {±1, ±i, ±j, ±k}; multiplication is
completely given by i2 = j 2 = k 2 = −1 and ij = −ji = k. The only subgroup
of order 2 is the center {±1}.
The conclusion still holds if we consider any prime factor p of n with n and
p − 1 coprime.
Problem 4. Let f : [0, 1] → R be a continuous function such that

Z 1
f (x)dx = 0.
0
Prove that there is c ∈ (0, 1) such that

Z c
xf (x)dx = 0.
0
Cezar şi Tudorel Lupu
Rx
Solution. Consider F (x) = 0
tf (t)dt defined on [0, 1]. By the l’Hospital
rule it is easily seen that
F (x)
lim = 0. (1)
x→0 x2
Take a ∈ (0, 1) and integrate by parts
Z 1 Z 1
1 1
f (x)dx = · F (x)|1a + F (x) · dx.
a x a x
Taking limits as a → 0 and using (1), we obtain
Z 1 Z 1 Z 1
1 1 1
0= f (x)dx = · F (x)|10 + F (x) · dx = F (1) + F (x) · dx.
0 x 0 x 0 x
The last relation actually ends the proof: if F (1) > 0 there will be a point x 0 such
that F (x0 ) > 0 and, similarly for F (1) < 0. The intermediate value property
gives the desired c where F (c) = 0. It is an easily seen that c can be choosen
in (0, 1).
Remark. The result stil holds for a Lebesgue integrable f such that
R1
0
f (x)dx = 0 and an increasing function g : [0, 1] → R, continuous at 0 and
Rc
such that g(0) = 0. There is a c such that 0 f (x)g(x)dx = 0. Details will be
given elsewhere.
IMO AND BMO SELECTION TESTS
Problem 1. Let ABC and AM N be two similar triangles with the same ori-
entation, such that AB = AC, AM = AN , and having disjoint interiors. Let O
be the circumcenter of the triangle M AB. Prove that the points O, C, N , A are
concyclic if and only if the triangle ABC is equilateral.
Solution. Let α = ∠BAC = ∠M AN . We consider the rotation of center
A and angle α; from the hypothesis we infer that B is mapped onto C, and M
is mapped onto N . This means that the triangle BAM is transformed into the
triangle CAN , and thus O is mapped onto O 0 , the circumcenter of the triangle
CAN . Moreover, ∠OAO 0 = α and OA = O 0 A.
The condition that O, C, N , A lie on the same circle is equivalent to O 0 O =
O0 A (as already O 0 is the circumcenter of the triangle CAN ). But then the triangle
O0 AO is equilateral, therefore α = 60◦ , and the triangles ABC and AM N are
also equilateral. The above reasoning works both ways, so the problem is solved.
Problem 2. Let p > 5 be a prime number. Find the number of irreducible
polynomials in Z[X], of the form
xp + pxk + pxl + 1, k > l, k, l ∈ {1, 2, . . . , p − 1} .
Solution. Let fk,l (x) = xp + pxk + pxl + 1, k > l, k, l ∈ {1, . . . , p − 1}.

If the numbers k and l have different parities, then fk,l (−1) = 0. For fk,l (x) to
be irreducible in Z[X] it is required that the numbers k and l have the same parity;
then
fk,l (x − 1) = xp + pxg(x) + p((−1)k + (−1)l ) = xp + pxg(x) ± 2p,

S ELECTION TESTS FOR IMO AND BMO 63
where g(x) ∈ Z[X].

By Eisenstein’s criterion, fk,l (x − 1) is irreducible in Z[X], thus fk,l (x) is
irreducible in Z[X].
Therefore the number of polynomials fk,l (x), irreducible in Z[X], is equal to
the number of pairs (k, l), in which k, l are distinct numbers, of the same parity, in
the set {1, 2, . . . , p − 1}. The number of such pairs is
p−1
(p − 1)(p − 3)
2 2 = .
2 4
Remarks. The idea of making the transformation x 7→ x − 1 is suggested by

the method used by Gauss to prove the irreducibility of the p-th order cyclotomic
polynomial
φp (x) = xp−1 + xp−2 + · · · + x + 1.
Problem 3. Let a, b be positive integers such that for any positive integer n
we have an + n | bn + n. Prove that a = b.
Solution. Assume that b 6= a. Taking n = 1 shows that a + 1 divides b + 1,

hence b > a. Let p > b be a prime and let n be a positive integer such that
n ≡ 1 (mod (p − 1)) and n ≡ −a (mod p).
Such an n exists by the Chinese Remainder theorem (without the Chinese Remain-
der theorem, one could notice that n = (a + 1)(p − 1) + 1 has this property).
By Fermat’s little theorem, an = a(ap−1 · · · ap−1 ) ≡ a (mod p), and there-
fore an + n ≡ 0 (mod p). So p divides the number an + n, hence also bn + n.
However, by Fermat’s little theorem again, we have analogously b n + n ≡ b − a
(mod p). We are therefore led to the conclusion p | b−a, which is a contradiction.
Remarks. The first thing coming to mind is to show that a and b share the
same prime divisors. This is easily established by using Fermat’s little theorem or
Wilson’s theorem. However, we know of no solution which uses this fact in any
meaningful way.
For the conclusion to remain true, it is not sufficient that an + n | bn + n holds
for infinitely many n. Indeed, take a = 1 and any b > 1. The given divisibility
64 S OLUTIONS
relation holds for all positive integers n of the form p − 1, where p > b is a prime,
but a 6= b.
Problem 4. Let a1 , a2 , . . . , an be real numbers such that |ai | 6 1 for all

i = 1, 2, . . . , n, and a1 + a2 + · · · + an = 0.
(a) Prove that there exists k ∈ {1, 2, . . . , n} such that
2k + 1
|a1 + 2a2 + · · · + kak | 6 .
4
(b) Prove that for n > 2 the bound above is the best possible.
Solution. (a) We may suppose that a1 > 0, otherwise if a1 = 0, k = 1 is a

solution, and if a1 < 0 we can work with the set {−ai : i = 1, n}.
Pk
Let us define s0 = 0, and sk = iai , for k = 1, 2, . . . , n. Then ak =
i=1
sk −sk−1
k , which implies
n n
X sn X sk
0= ak = + .
n k(k + 1)
k=1 k=1
Because s1 = a1 > 0 it follows that there exists (a smallest) k such that

sk < 0. Then
k > |kak | = |sk − sk−1 | = sk−1 − sk = |sk−1 | + |sk |.

2(k−1)+1 2k−1 2k+1
If at the same time |sk−1 | > 4 = 4 , and |sk | > 4 , it follows that
2k − 1 2k + 1
|sk−1 | + |sk | > + = k,
4 4
in contradiction with the previous relation.
(b) We will treat separately the cases when n is odd and n is even.
C ASE I. n odd (n > 1). We take

3 1
{ai }i=1,n = , , −1, 1, −1, 1, −1, · · · .
4 4
Then we obtain the sequence

3 5 7 9 11 13 15
{si }i=1,n = , ,− , ,− , ,− ,... .
4 4 4 4 4 4 4
C ASE II. n even (n > 2). We take

1 1
{ai }i=1,n = 1, , −1, − , 1, −1, 1, −1, · · · .
8 8
Then we obtain the sequence

5 7 9 11 13 15 17
{si }i=1,n = 1, , − , − , , − , , − , . . . .
4 4 4 4 4 4 4
It turns out that, for n = 3 and n = 4, these sequences are also unique in
disproving the possibility of lowering the bound.
Problem 5. Let {an }n>1 be a sequence given by a1 = 1, a2 = 4, and for all

integers n > 1
p
an = an−1 an+1 + 1.
(a) Prove that all the terms of the sequence are positive integers.
(b) Prove that the number 2an an+1 + 1 is a perfect square for all integers
n > 1.
Solution. (a) We rewrite the recurrence relation as
a2n − 1
an+1 =
an−1
and we want to prove using induction that ak ∈ N for all k 6 n implies an+1 ∈ N.
For this we require the following, stronger, statement: ak ∈ N, ∀k 6 n, and in
plus gcd(ak , ak−1 ) = 1 for all k 6 n. The initial two steps n = 2 and n = 3 are
easily calculated, so we suppose that n > 4.
a2n−1 −1 a4n−1 −2a2n−1 +1−a2n−2
The relation an = an−2 implies that an+1 = a2n−2 an−1
.
2 2
As an−1 an−3 + 1 = an−2 , we infer that an−1 | an−2 − 1, therefore an−1 |
an−1 − 2a2n−1 + 1 − a2n−2 . On the other hand, a2n−2 | (a2n−1 − 1)2 = a2n−2 a2n ,
4
and as gcd(an−2 , an−1 ) = 1 we obtain an+1 ∈ N. From an+1 an−1 − 1 = a2n we

obtain that gcd(an , an+1 ) = 1, so the induction is complete.
(b) Taking small values for n we notice that
2an an+1 + 1 = (an+1 − an )2 ,

66 S OLUTIONS
and we will prove this relation using induction. The first step, n = 1, is trivial. Let
n > 2. The relation implies
2an an+1 = a2n+1 − 2an an+1 + a2n − 1 = an+1 (an+1 − 2an ) + an+1 an−1 ,
therefore, by dividing both sides above with an+1 > 0, we obtain the equivalent
relation
4an = an+1 + an−1 ⇒ an+1 = 4an − an−1 .
a2n+1 −1
We only have to prove that an+2 = 4an+1 − an . But an+2 = an so we
require
4an+1 an − a2n = a2n+1 − 1 ⇔ 2an an+1 + 1 = (an+1 − an )2 ,
which is our induction hypothesis, and we are done.

A LTERNATIVE S OLUTION. (a) First notice that the sequence may be extended
to the left with x0 = 0 (this helps with having the recurrence relation also available
for n = 1). Now, writing two consecutive (squared) recurrence relations yields,
for n > 1, x2n = xn+1 xn−1 + 1 and x2n+1 = xn+2 xn + 1, so by subtracting,
xn+1 (xn+1 + xn−1 ) = xn (xn+2 + xn ), that is,
xn+2 + xn xn+1 + xn−1
= ,
xn+1 xn
thus having constant value (x2 +x0 )/x1 = 4, whence xn+1 = 4xn −xn−1 (clearly
xn 6= 0 for n > 1).
Therefore, once the first two terms are given as integers, so will all following
terms be.
(b) We have, for n > 1, 0 = xn+1 (xn+1 − 4xn + xn−1 ) = x2n+1 − 4xn+1 xn +
xn+1 xn−1 = x2n+1 − 4xn+1 xn + x2n − 1 = (xn+1 − xn )2 − (2xn xn+1 + 1), hence
2xn xn+1 + 1 = (xn+1 − xn )2 and therefore a perfect square.
Remarks. The first solution entails a longer and more ardous process, which
fails to provide the linear recurrence that turns to be instrumental in proving (b).
One may (similarly) easily obtain that 3x2n + 1 = (xn+1 − 2xn )2 , there-
fore a perfect square, thus falling over a solution family for the Pell equation
y 2 − 3x2 = 1.
This type of sequences and the way to attack them is quite well-known,
see [A. Engel], [A. Negut¸], [V. Vornicu].
Problem 6. Let ABC be a triangle with ∠ABC = 30◦ . Consider the closed
discs of radius AC/3 centered at A, B and C. Does there exist an equilateral
triangle whose three vertices lie one each in each of the three discs?
Solution. We will start with the following

L EMMA. Given two points A1 , A2 and two closed discs centered at A1 , A2
of radii r1 , r2 respectively, the locus of the third vertex of an equilateral triangle
with the two other vertices lying in each of the two discs and located in one of
the halfplanes determined by the line A1 A2 is the closed disc of radius r1 + r2
centered at A3 which forms with A1 and A2 an equilateral triangle.
To be self-contained, we present a proof using complex numbers. Let lower-

case letters represent the affixes of capital-letter points. Then a3 = a1 + ω(a2 −
a1 ) = ω̄a1 + ωa2 , where ω = cos 60◦ + i sin 60◦ is the primitive 6-th root of 1,
hence |ω| = 1, ω̄ = 1 − ω and ω ω̄ = 1 (if in the other halfplane, we may use the
symmetrical relation a3 = ωa1 + ω̄a2 ).
Take now a01 = a1 + α1 , a02 = a2 + α2 ; then a03 = ω̄a01 + ωa02 = a3 + (ω̄α1 +
ωα2 ) = a3 + α3 . For |α1 | 6 r1 , |α2 | 6 r2 we get |α3 | = |ω̄α1 + ωα2 | 6 r1 + r2 .
r1
Conversely, for any α3 with |α3 | 6 r1 + r2 one can take α1 = r1 +r2 ωα3 ,
r2
α2 = r1 +r2 ω̄α3 and get |α1 | 6 r1 , |α2 | 6 r2 and ω̄α1 + ωα2 = α3 .
B’
C’ B’’
B
30
C’’
C
A
A’’
A’
68 S OLUTIONS
Returning to the original problem and denoting by C 0 , A0 , B 0 the points that

form an equilateral triangle with (A, B), (B, C), (C, A) respectively, in the same
halfplane with C, A, B respectively, one easily establishes that AC = AA 0 =
CC 0 = BB 0 . This is because A lies on the perpendicular bisector of CA0 , C lies
on the perpendicular bisector of AC 0 , while ∠ABC = 30◦ and ∠AB 0 C = 60◦
implies that B 0 is the circumcenter of the triangle ABC, hence
0 0
B B = B C = AC.
By the lemma, the points A00 on AA0 such that AA00 = AA0 /3, C 00 on CC 0
such that CC 00 = CC 0 /3 and B 00 on BB 0 such that BB 00 = BB 0 /3 are the only
points available as vertices for an equilateral triangle like that asked for, as the
discs of radii 23 AC centered at A0 , C 0 , B 0 are in fact tangent to the discs of radii
1
3 AC centered at A, C, B respectively.
We have proved that there exists such a triangle, and in fact that the triangle is
unique.
Problem 7. Determine the pairs of positive integers (m, n) for which there
exists a set A such that for x, y positive integers, if |x − y| = m, then at least one
of the numbers x, y belongs to the set A, while if |x − y| = n, then at least one of
the numbers x, y does not belong to the set.
Solution. For k positive integer, we will denote by ν(k) the exponent of 2 in

the decomposition in prime factors of k. We shall prove that the pairs (m, n) that
fulfill the hypothesis are the ones for which ν(m) = ν(n).
Let us suppose that a set A with the properties in the hypothesis exists; then for
a ∈ A we have a+n ∈
/ A thus (a+n)+m ∈ A which means ((a+n)+m)−n ∈
/ A,
therefore a + m ∈
/ A.
Analogously, for b ∈
/ A we have b + m ∈ A thus (b + m) + n ∈
/ A which
means that ((b + m) + n) − m ∈ A, therefore b + n ∈ A.
Therefore, for x, y with |x − y| ∈ {m, n}, one of them belongs to A and the
other one does not, so the problem’s statement is symmetric in m, n.
Through a simple induction we obtain that a+km and a+kn both belong to the
same set (A or its complementary) as a for k even, and to different sets for k odd.
Let us suppose now that ν(m) 6= ν(n). Without loss of generality we may
suppose that ν(m) > ν(n). Then m = 2ν(m) · m0 , n = 2ν(n) · n0 , with m0 , n0

odd positive integers. Let a ∈ A and b = a + 2ν(m) · m0 n0 ; because b = a + n0 m
and n0 is odd, it follows that b ∈
/ A, but because b = a + 2ν(m)−ν(n) · m0 n, and
ν(m) − ν(n) > 0 we have that b ∈ A, contradiction.
Finally, for ν(m) = ν(n) = ν, let us consider for example
ν
2[ −1

a= a ∈ N : a ≡ r (mod 2ν+1 ) .
r=0
It is easy to verify that this set fulfills the conditions in the statement.
Problem 8. Let xi , 1 6 i 6 n be real numbers. Prove that

n
X n−2X
|xi + xj | > |xi |.
2 i=1
16i<j6n
Solution. The inequality above is equivalent with

X n
X
|xi + xj | > n |xi |.
16i,j6n i=1
We may suppose that (if necessary by reindexing the variables x i )
xi > 0, 1 6 i 6 k, xj < 0, k + 1 6 j 6 n.
k
P n
P
Let p = xi and m = − xj . We may suppose that (n − k)p > km,
i=1 j=k+1
otherwise we work with −xi instead. We have
X X
|xi + xj | = (xi + xj ) = 2kp
16i,j6k 16i,j6k
X X
|xi + xj | = − (xi + xj ) = 2(n − k)m
k+16i,j6n k+16i,j6n

X X
|xi + xj | > (xi + xj ) = |(n − k)p − km|
16i6k 16i6k
k+16j6n k+16j6n

X X
|xi + xj | > (xi + xj ) = |(n − k)p − km|.
k+16i6n k+16i6n
16j6k 16j6k
70 S OLUTIONS
Therefore,
X n
X
|xi +xj | > 2kp+2(n−k)m+2(n−k)p−2km and n |xi | = n(p+m).
16i,j6n i=1
But
2kp + 2(n − k)m + 2(n − k)p − 2km = 2np + 2(n − 2k)m

= n(p + m) + (np + nm − 4km).
Finally,

nk (n − 2k)2
np + nm − 4km > m + n − 4k =m· > 0.
n−k n−k
As an aside, it is illuminating that 2kp + 2(n − k)m > n(p + m), equivalent
to (2k − n)(p − m) > 0 is not necessarily true (e.g., for 2k > n, p < m take
n = 3, k = 2, x1 = x2 = 1, x3 = −3). We need the “little” extra brought in by
2|(n − k)p − km| in order to prove the inequality true.
k
P
Equality will occur if and only if xi = 0, for all i, or for n = 2k, xi =
i=1
2k
P
− xj (that is p = m), and, moreover, |xi + xj | = 0 for all 1 6 i 6 k,
j=k+1
k + 1 6 j 6 n, that is x1 = x2 = · · · = xk = a > 0, xk+1 = · · · = xn = −a.
A LTERNATIVE S OLUTION. From the obvious relation, for a, b ∈ R,

0 if ab > 0,
|a| + |b| − |a + b| =
 2 min(|a|, |b|) if ab < 0,
we get
X X
(|xi | + |xj | − |xi + xj |) = 2 min(|xi |, |xj |)
16i,j6n xi xj <0
X
=4 min(xi , −xj )
xi >0>xj
X p
64 −xi xj
xi >0>xj
! 
X√ Xp
=4 xi  −xj 
xi >0 0>xj
 2
X√ Xp
6 xi + −xj  (AM-GM)
xi >0 0>xj
 2
X p
= |xk |
16k6n
X
6n |xk | (CBS),
16k6n
hence
X X X X
|xi + xj | + n |xk | > (|xi | + |xj |) = 2n |xk |,
16i,j6n 16k6n 16i,j6n 16k6n
which is equivalent to the stated inequality.
Problem 9. The circle of center I is inscribed in the convex quadrilateral

ABCD. Let M and N be points on the segments AI and CI respectively, such
that ∠M BN = 12 ∠ABC. Prove that ∠M DN = 12 ∠ADC.
Solution. Denote by ∠A, ∠B, ∠C, ∠D the angles of ABCD. Since BI is

the bisector of ∠ABC and ∠M BN = 21 ∠B, we may put
α1 = ∠ABM = ∠IBN, α2 = ∠M BI = ∠N BC.
We also put ∠ADM = β1 , ∠IDN = β2 , ∠N DC = β4 .
A
D
M
I
N
B C
Consider triangles AM B and M BI. From the sine theorem it follows that
AM BM MI BM
= , = .
sin α1 sin A
2
sin α2 sin ∠BIM
72 S OLUTIONS
Thus
sin α1 AM · sin A 2
= .
sin α2 M I · sin ∠BIA
Similarly, from considering triangles AM D and M ID we have

sin β1 AM · sin A 2
= .
sin β2 M I · sin ∠DIA
Hence
sin α1 sin β1 sin ∠DIA
= · . (∗)
sin α2 sin β2 sin ∠BIA
Similarly considering triangles IBN and N BC, and then triangles IDN and
N DC, we get
sin α2 sin β4 sin ∠DIC
= · . (∗∗)
sin α1 sin β3 sin ∠BIC
Now consider triangles ABI and DIC:
∠A ∠B
∠BIA = 180◦ − −
2 2
∠A ∠B ∠C ∠D ∠A ∠B
= + + + − −
2 2 2 2 2 2
∠C ∠D
= + = 180◦ − ∠DIC.
2 2
It follows that sin ∠BIA = sin ∠DIC and similarly sin ∠AID = sin ∠BIC.
Multiplying (∗) and (∗∗) we obtain
sin β1 sin β3
= .
sin β2 sin β4
π sin β
Since β1 + β2 = β3 + β4 = ∠D 2 < 2 , and the function f (β) = sin( ∠D −β )
2

is increasing for β ∈ 0, ∠D
2 , we conclude that β1 = β3 , and β2 = β4 , which
means ∠M DN = 12 ∠D, and the problem is solved.
Problem 10. Let A be a point exterior to a circle C. Two lines through A meet
the circle C at points B and C, respectively at D and E (with D between A and
E). The parallel through D to BC meets the second time the circle C at F . The
line AF meets C again at G, and the lines BC and EG meet at M . Prove that
1 1 1
= + .
AM AB AC
Solution. Since lines DF and AC are parallel, it follows that the angle
∠DF A = ∠CAF . On the other hand, ∠DF A = ∠DEG because both an-
gles subtend the arc DG. Thus ∠CAF = ∠DEG, whence triangles AM G and
AM EM
EM A are similar, which implies MG = AM , that is AM 2 = M G · M E.
D F
A M B C
By the power of a point theorem, M G · M E = M B · M C, whence AM 2 =

M B · M C = (AB − AM )(AC − AM ) = AB · AC − AM (AB + AC) + AM 2 ,
which yields AM (AB + AC) = AB · AC, equivalent to the required relation.
Remarks. The condition “D between A and E” is required, not so much be-

cause AF may be tangent to C (in which case G ≡ F , but the result holds), but
because the parallel through D to BC may be tangent to C (in which case D ≡ F ,
whence E ≡ G, and the line EG does not exist). Otherwise, except this degenerate
case, the result holds also when E between A and D.
Problem 11. Let γ be the incircle of the triangle A0 A1 A2 . In what follows,

indices are reduced modulo 3. For each i ∈ {0, 1, 2}, let γi be the circle through
Ai+1 and Ai+2 , and tangent to γ ; let Ti be the tangency point of γi and γ ; and
finally, let Pi be the point where the common tangent at Ti to γi and γ meets the
line Ai+1 Ai+2 . Prove that
(a) the points P0 , P1 and P2 are collinear;
(b) the lines A0 T0 , A1 T1 and A2 T2 are concurrent.
Solution. (a) Consider the power of Pi relative to the circles A0 A1 A2 , γi and

γ: the first equals Pi Ai+1 · Pi Ai+2 ; the second equals Pi Ai+1 · Pi Ai+2 = Pi Ti2 ;
and the third equals Pi Ti2 . Consequently, Pi lies on the radical axis of the circles
A0 A1 A2 and γ and we are done.
74 S OLUTIONS
Ai
Vi
Ti
Ui
ωi
γ
Pi Ai+1 Wi Si A i+2
γi
(b) Let us make the following notations: Si = γ ∩ Ai+1 Ai+2 , Wi = Ai Ti ∩

Ai+1 Ai+2 , Ui for the intersection of the line Ai Ai+1 and the common tangent at
Ti , Vi for the intersection of the line Ai Ai+2 and the common tangent at Ti , and
X(ABCD) for the cross-ratio of the rays XA, XB, XC, XD.
By Brianchon’s theorem, Ai+1 Vi ∩ Si Ti ∩ Ai+2 Ui = ωi . Now,
Ai (Pi Wi Ai+1 Ai+2 ) = Ai (Pi Ti Ui Vi ) = ωi (Pi Ti Ui Vi ) = ωi (Pi Si Ai+2 Ai+1 ).
This yields
2
Wi Ai+2 Pi Ai+2 Si Ai+1
= · ,
Wi Ai+1 Pi Ai+1 Si Ai+2
so !2 2
2 2
Y Wi Ai+2 Y Pi Ai+2 Y Si Ai+1
= · = 1,
i=0
Wi Ai+1 PA
i=0 i i+1
SA
i=0 i i+2
| {z } | {z }
=1 (1) =1 (2)
where (1) holds by Menelaus’ theorem using (a), and (2) holds because S i Ai+1 =
Si+2 Ai+1 as tangents to γ from Ai+1 . The conclusion follows by the converse to
Ceva’s theorem.
A LTERNATIVE S OLUTION TO (b). Denote by 4T the triangle made by the

three common tangents; its sides are the tangents through the vertices of the trian-
gle T0 T1 T2 to its circumscribed circle, whence by Lemoine’s theorem, their inter-

sections with the sides of triangle T0 T1 T2 are collinear (Lemoine’s line). Now, De-
sargues’ theorem shows that 4T and triangle T0 T1 T2 are perspective. By (a), De-
sargues’ theorem similarly shows that 4T and triangle A0 A1 A2 are perspective.
But the relation (for triangles) of being perspective is transitive, hence triangles
A0 A1 A2 and T0 T1 T2 are perspective and therefore the lines Ai Ti are concurrent.
It is obvious, from both solutions, that this problem calls for projective methods
to be used.
Problem 12. Let a, b, c be positive real numbers such that a + b + c = 3.

Prove that
1 1 1
+ 2 + 2 > a2 + b2 + c2 .
a2 b c
Solution. Let x = ab + bc + ca. From the well-known inequalities
(a + b + c)2 > 3(ab + bc + ca) and (ab + bc + ca)2 > 3abc(a + b + c)
x2
we get 0 < x 6 3 and abc 6 9 . Since
a2 + b2 + c2 = (a + b + c)2 − 2(ab + bc + ca) = 9 − 2x,
and
2
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 x2 6
2
+ 2+ 2 = + + −2 + + = 2 2 2
− ,
a b c a b c ab bc ca a b c abc
the inequality becomes
x2 − 6abc > (9 − 2x)a2 b2 c2 .
Therefore, we have
2x2 x4 (9 − 2x)
x2 − 6abc − (9 − 2x)a2 b2 c2 > x2 − −
3 81
x2 (2x3 − 9x2 + 27)
=
81
x2 (x − 3)2 (2x + 3)
=
81
> 0.
76 S OLUTIONS
Equality occurs if and only if a = b = c = 1.
A LTERNATIVE SOLUTION. Let us make the notation

1 1
f (x) = + + 1 + x,
x2 x
then
1
− x2 = (1 − x)f (x).
x2
P 1
P
Let E = a2 − a2 = (1 − a)f (a). Because of the symmetry of the
relation we may assume without loss of generality a > b > c; then using 1 − c =
(a − 1) + (b − 1) and 1 − a = (c − 1) + (b − 1) we get
E = (1 − b) (f (b) − f (c)) + (1 − a)(f (a) − f (c)), (∗)
and
E = (1 − b)(f (b) − f (a)) + (1 − c)(f (c) − f (a)). (∗∗)
Now, for x 6 y, we will show that f (x) > f (y) :

x−y 2 2
f (x) − f (y) = (x y − xy − x − y).
x2 y 2
p
For x + y = k we have x + y + xy > 3 3 x2 y 2 by AM-GM. In order to have
p √
3 3 x2 y 2 > x2 y 2 we need 33 > x4 y 4 , but k > 2 xy yields k 8 > 28 x4 y 4 , so
8 √
33 > k28 is enough, which reduces to k 6 2 8 27.
But for x, y being any of a, b, c we will have x + y < 3 so the above inequality
√
is fulfilled, as 3 < 2 8 27.
This shows that f is decreasing. All that is left now is to use relation (∗) for
b > 1 and relation (∗∗) for b 6 1 .
Remarks. Yet another solution would be to homogenize the equation and use
“brute force” along with AM-GM and Muirhead, as in one of the solutions of IMO
2005, Problem 3.
The real beautiful thing to say is that if instead of 3 variables we think of the
inequality with n variables
n n n
X 1 X X
> x2i , for xi > 0 with xi = n,
x2
i=1 i i=1 i=1
this holds up to n = 10. For n > 11 it fails, e.g., for x1 = · · · = x10 = 0.6,
x11 = 5, and xi = 1, for all i > 12. The proof for 4 6 n 6 10 involves mixed
variables (Sturm-type) techniques and is probably worth a short article by itself.
Problem 13. Given r, s ∈ Q, determine all functions f : Q → Q such that
f (x + f (y)) = f (x + r) + y + s
for all x, y ∈ Q.
Solution. Denote g(x) = f (x) − r − s. The functional equation becomes
g(x + g(y)) = g(x + f (y) − r − s)

= f ((x + r − s) + f (y)) − r − s
= f (x − s) + (y − s) − r − s
= g(x − s) + y + s,
and
g 2 (x + g(y)) = g(y + s + g(x − s)) = g(y) + x − s + s = x + g(y),
hence g 2 = id, on elements of the form x + g(y). By fixing y = y0 , the set
{x + g(y0 ) : x ∈ Q} = Q,
hence g 2 = id on all of Q, so g is one-to-one.

Then, by replacing y by g(y) (any y is in the image)
g(x + y) = g(x + g(g(y))) = g(x − s) + g(y) + s.
Obviously, g(y + x) = g(y − s) + g(x) + s, hence g(x) − g(x − s) = g(y) −

g(y − s) = kg a constant. This gives
g(x + y) = g(x) + g(y) + (s − kg ).
For x = y = 0: s − kg = −g(0), so g(x + y) = g(x) + g(y) − g(0). Consider all

solutions g having g(0) = z fixed; then for any two such solutions g 1 , g2 , denoting
78 S OLUTIONS
h = g1 − g2 we get h(x + y) = h(x) + h(y), so h(x) = λx (with λ = h(1)).

On the other hand, g0 (x) ≡ z is obviously a particular solution, hence the general
solution g is g(x) = h(x) + g0 (x) = λx + z.
Checking this into the main relation for g, we get
g(x + g(y)) = g(x + λy + z) = λx + λ2 y + λz + z
and
g(x − s) + y + s = λx − λs + s + z + y + s = λx + y − λs + s + z,
hence λ2 = 1, λz = −λs + s = s(1 − λ). We have therefore two solutions:

λ = 1; z = 0 gives g(x) = x;
λ = −1; z = −2s gives g(x) = −x − 2s.
These lead to the following solutions for f :
f (x) = x + r + s and f (x) = −x + r − s.
Remarks. As it is, the method of solving an equation
ϕ(x + y + a) = ϕ(x) + ϕ(y) + a,
is refreshingly reminiscent of solving Cauchy, combined with the theory of ho-

mogenizing plus a particular solution.
Problem 14. Find all positive integers m, n, p, q such that
pm q n = (p + q)2 + 1.
Solution. Clearly we have p | q 2 + 1 and q | p2 + 1. Now, if we assume p = q,

it follows p | p2 + 1, so p = q = 1 which is not a solution.
We may therefore assume without loss of generality p < q. But p = 1 leads to
q = 2, and p = 1, q = 2 is again no solution, therefore 2 6 p. We have
pm q n = (p + q)2 + 1 < 4q 2 6 p2 q 2 < pq 3 6 pm q 3 ,
so n < 3. The case n = 2 leads to pm < 4, so m = 1, p = 2 or p = 3. For p = 3

we get 3q 2 = (3 + q)2 + 1, impossible, while for p = 2 we get 2q 2 = (2 + q)2 + 1,
whence q = 5, a solution.
The case n = 1 leads to pm < 4q. Now, from q | p2 + 1, if q = p2 + 1

then p | q 2 + 1 = p4 + 2p2 + 2 implies p = 2, whence q = 5, but 2m · 51 =
p2 + 1
(2+5)2 +1 = 50 is impossible, so q 6 , whence pm < 2(p2 +1), therefore
2
5
p = 2 and m 6 3, or m 6 2. But p = 2 leads to q 6 , so q 6 2, impossible,
2
hence truly m 6 2.
For m = 1 the equation writes
pq = (p + q)2 + 1,
clearly impossible.
For m = 2 we get p2 < 4q which combined with q | p2 + 1 leads to the
possibilities p2 + 1 = q, 2q, 3q, 4q. But the case p2 + 1 = q was dismissed in the
above, while p2 + 1 cannot be congruent with 0 modulo 3, nor 4, so the only case
left is p2 + 1 = 2q. But then, from p | q 2 + 1 we get 4p | p4 + 2p2 + 5, so p | 5,
i.e., p = 5, q = 13, which checks as a solution.
Therefore, the only solutions are
(m, n, p, q) ∈ {(2, 1, 5, 2), (2, 1, 5, 13), (1, 2, 2, 5), (1, 2, 13, 5)}.
If anyone reaches the equation p2 q = (p+q)2 +1 (dealing with the preamble in

any different manner), yet another way to solve this is to consider it as a polynomial
in q whose discriminant ∆ = (2p−p2)2 −4p2 −4 = (p2 −2p−2)2 −8p−8 should
be non-negative, which implies p > 5, and should also be a perfect square. But the
next lower perfect square is (p2 − 2p − 3)2 = (p2 − 2p − 2)2 − 2(p2 − 2p − 2) + 1,
thus we must have −2(p2 − 2p − 2) + 1 > −8p − 8, that is 2p2 − 12p − 13 6 0,
which implies p 6 6.
Finally, we only have to check it for two values, p = 5 and p = 6, and only the
former provides a solution (see above).
This fruitful combination of divisibility constrains which lead to inequalities is
also reminscent of the BMO 2005, Problem 2.
A LTERNATIVE S OLUTION . The “proof from the Book” solution makes use of
the following known
80 S OLUTIONS
Lemma. The equation x2 + y 2 + 1 = kxy has (infinitely many) solutions in

positive integers if and only if k = 3.
Indeed, assume k 6= 3, then a solution x0 , y0 cannot have x0 = y0 ; without

loss of generality we may take x0 < y0 . One then also has
(kx0 − y0 )2 + x20 + 1 = k(kx0 − y0 )x0 ,
as it may be readily verified. But kx0 y0 = x20 + y02 + 1 > y02 implies kx0 > y0 ,
while kx0 y0 = x20 + y02 + 1 < 2y02 implies kx0 < 2y0 , therefore 0 < x0 (kx0 −
y0 ) < x 0 y0 .
Take x1 = min{x0 , kx0 −y0 }, y1 = max{x0 , kx0 −y0 }; one has 0 < x1 y1 <
x0 y0 , which by Fermat’s infinite descent method leads to a contradiction.
Conversely, for k = 3, we have the infinite family of solutions (1, 1), (1, 2),
(2, 5), (5, 13), . . . , (xn , yn ), . . ., with xn+1 = yn , yn+1 = 3yn − xn .
For an alternative solution to the lemma, using Pell equation techniques, see
[A. Gica, L. Panaitopol].
Back to the original problem, the stated equation may be written as
p2 + q 2 + 1 = (pm−1 q n−1 − 2)pq.
According to the lemma above, in order to have positive integer solutions,

pm−1 q n−1 − 2 = 3, that is, pm−1 q n−1 = 5.
This quickly leads to the solutions (m, n, p, q) ∈ {(2, 1, 5, 2), (2, 1, 5, 13),
(1, 2, 2, 5), (1, 2, 13, 5)}.
Remarks. While in English the expression “positive integer n” means an in-

teger n > 0, in Romanian the verbatim translation of the expression includes the
case n = 0; this leads to a case which was not meant to be considered, but which is
worth noticing to be also true: for mn = 0 the equation is equivalent to x r = y 2 +1
which has no solutions, either by invoking Catalan’s theorem, or by direct proof in
Gauss’ integer ring Z[i] using parity arguments.
Problem 15. Let n > 1 be an integer. A set S ⊂ {0, 1, . . . , 4n − 1} is called

sparse if for any k ∈ {0, 1, . . . , n − 1} the following two conditions are satisfied:
(1) the set S ∩ {4k − 2, 4k − 1, 4k, 4k + 1, 4k + 2} has at most two elements;

(2) the set S ∩ {4k + 1, 4k + 2, 4k + 3} has at most one element.
Prove that the set {0, 1, . . . , 4n − 1} has exactly 8 · 7n−1 sparse subsets.
Solution. It is enough to have available a set of 7 elements (at the “end” of the
set) in order to write some recurrence relations.
[4n − 3 4n − 2 4n − 1] 4n [4n + 1 4n + 2 4n + 3].

| {z }
Denote by Tn the total number of sparse sets, by An the number of sparse sets that
contain one of the “last” two elements (4n − 1, 4n − 2) and by B n the number
of sparse sets that contain none of these two elements (no sparse set may contain
both because of condition (2)).
Then
An+1 = Tn (4n + 3 and no other element > 4n)

+ Tn (4n + 3 and 4n)
+ Tn (4n + 2 and no other element > 4n)
+ Bn (4n + 2 and 4n)
= 3Tn + Bn ,
and
Bn+1 = Tn (no elements > 4n)

+ Tn (4n + 1, but not 4n)
+ Tn (4n, but not 4n + 1)
+ Bn (both 4n and 4n + 1)
= 3Tn + Bn ,
hence An+1 = Bn+1 and Tn+1 = An+1 + Bn+1 = 6Tn + 2Bn .

Now it is enough to calculate A1 and B1 ; clearly {2}, {0, 2}, {3}, {0, 3} are
A1 and ∅, {0}, {1}, {0, 1} are B1 so A1 = B1 = 4. Therefore T1 = 8, and
Tn+1 = 6Tn + 2Bn = 7Tn for n > 1, hence Tn = 8 · 7n−1 .
82 S OLUTIONS
Remarks. The problem becomes more challenging if we work with remain-

ders modulo 4n rather than with their set of representants. In this case the result is
7n , but writing recurrence relations is far from being obvious. Counting a related
one-to-one set of differently defined subsets will do the trick.
Problem 16. Let p, q be two integers, q > p > 0. Let n > 2 be an integer and
a0 = 0, a1 > 0, a2 , . . ., an−1 , an = 1 be real numbers such that
ak−1 + ak+1
ak 6 , k = 1, 2, . . . , n − 1.
2
Prove that
n−1
X n−1
X
(p + 1) apk > (q + 1) aqk .
k=1 k=1
Solution. It immediately follows that
0 = a 0 6 a1 6 · · · 6 a n = 1
and
0 6 a1 = a1 − a0 6 a2 − a1 6 · · · 6 an − an−1 = 1 − an−1 .
A useful observation is that it suffices to prove the inequality for q = p + 1, as we

may then extend it step-by-step to p + 2, p + 3, . . . .
m
P
Let S(m, r) = ark . By Abel’s summation formula we get
k=1
n
X n−1
X
S(n, p + 1) = ak · apk = an S(n, p) − (ak+1 − ak )S(k, p).
k=1 k=1
Since an = 1, this yields

n−1
X
S(n − 1, p + 1) = S(n − 1, p) − (ak+1 − ak )S(k, p).
k=1
Now, aj − aj−1 6 ak+1 − ak , for j = 1, 2, . . . , k, so
k
X
(ak+1 − ak )S(k, p) > (aj − aj−1 )apj .
j=1
But
ap+1
j − ap+1
j−1
(aj − aj−1 )apj > ,
p+1
for
pap+1
j + ap+1 p
j−1 > (p + 1)aj−1 aj
by the weighted AM-GM inequality.

Therefore
n−1 k
1 X X p+1
S(n − 1, p + 1) 6 S(n − 1, p) − (aj − ap+1
j−1 )
p+1 j=1
k=1
1
= S(n − 1, p) − S(n − 1, p + 1),
p+1
where we used a0 = 0 and the telescoping of the inner sum.

Consequently,
(p + 2)S(n − 1, p + 1) 6 (p + 1)S(n − 1, p).
k
Equality occurs for p = q, or a1 = · · · = an−1 = 0, or p = 0, q = 1 and ak = .
n
Problem 17. Let k be a positive integer and n = 4k + 1. Let A = {a2 + nb2 :
a, b ∈ Z}. Prove that there exist integers x, y such that xn +y n ∈ A and x+y ∈
/ A.
Solution. It looks natural, in order to facilitate further factorizations, to take

y = qx. Since squares are congruent to 0 or 1 modulo 4, and n ≡ 1 (mod 4), any
number of the form a2 +nb2 is congruent to 0, 1 or 2, but not 3, modulo 4. In order
to have x+y ∈
/ A it is then enough to have x+y ≡ 3 (mod 4), that is, (q +1)x ≡ 3
(mod 4), therefore we need take q even. Now, as n > 1, x = 1 + q n ≡ 1
(mod 4), so we need take q + 1 ≡ 3 (mod 4), that is q ≡ 2 (mod 4). It remains to
find x such that xn + y n = (1 + q n )xn is of the form a2 + nb2 .
n+1
2
Simply taking x = 1 + q n yields xn + y n = (1 + q n )n+1 = (1 + q n ) 2 ,
of the form a2 + nb2 , where b = 0.
It is rather more difficult to find an x such that neither a = 0, nor b = 0. Take
any integers u, v such that u2 +v 2 ≡ 1 (mod 4) and take x = (1+q n )(u2 +nv 2 ).
84 S OLUTIONS
Then x ≡ 1 (mod 4), ensuring x + y ∈

/ A, and
xn + y n = (1 + q n )n+1 (u2 + nv 2 )n
n−1 n+1
2
= u(u2 + nv 2 ) 2 (1 + q n ) 2
n−1 n+1
2
+ n v(u2 + nv 2 ) 2 (1 + q n ) 2 .
Finally, the requirements for the exhibited solution are q ≡ 2 (mod 4) and
u + v ≡ 1 (mod 2).
This result seems to have been a Sophie Germain conjecture.
Clearly, this method also works for any odd exponent m > 1 (instead of n),
but not for n ≡ 3 (mod 4).
Problem 18. Let m and n be positive integers and let S be a subset with
(2 − 1)n + 1 elements of the set {1, 2, . . . , 2m n}. Prove that S contains m + 1
m
distinct numbers a0 , a1 , . . . , am such that ak−1 | ak for all k = 1, 2, . . . , m.
Solution. We shall prove a stronger statement: such a set S will contain a

subset {x, 2i1 x, . . . , 2im x} with m + 1 elements (obviously fulfilling the original
assertion). Assume this statement false and take among all sets for which it fails
one with min(S) maximal. As S has 2m n − (n − 1) elements, it follows S ∩
{1, 2, . . . , n} 6= ∅, whence 1 6 x = min(S) 6 n, so 2m x 6 2m n. Therefore, the
set {x, 2x, . . . , 2m x} cannot be included in S, so there is some 1 6 i 6 m such
that 2i x ∈
/ S. Take S 0 = (S ∪ {2i x})\{x}; obviously min(S 0 ) > min(S), hence
there will exist a subset A0 = {y, 2j1 y, . . . , 2jm y} ⊂ S 0 . As this subset cannot be
included in S it follows that some 2j y = 2i x, j ∈ {0, j1 , j2 , . . . , jm }. But x < y
so i > j and thus y = 2i−j x, so the set A = (A0 \{2i x}) ∪ {x} ⊂ S, but is clearly
one of the forbidden subsets for S, contradiction.
Remarks. Note that the set {n + 1, . . . , 2m n} has 2m n − n elements, and

cannot contain a subset with m + 1 elements that fulfills the original assertion.
Therefore the size of the sets S cannot be taken any lower than stated.
This generalizes a famous (and early and folklore nowadays) result of Erdös
(for m = 1).
Other ways of proving this result are available: induction on n or m, direct

consideration of subsets of elements having the same maximal odd factor (and
pigeonhole principle) etc.
Problem 19. Let x1 = 1, x2 , x3 , . . . be a sequence of real numbers such that

for all n > 1 we have
1
xn+1 = xn + .
2xn
Prove that
b25x625 c = 625.
Solution. Anyone provided with a pocket calculator and a good deal of pa-
tience (unless one runs into rounding problems), could prove this . . . just kidding
folks!
√
We will prove that, for all n > 1, n 6 nxn < n + 81 Hn , where Hn = 1 +
1
2 +· · ·+ n1 . Squaring the recurrence relation yields x2n+1 = x2n +1+1/(4x2n ). As
x21 = 1 we will prove by simple induction that x2n > n : x2n+1 > n+1+1/(4x2n) >
√
n + 1; then nxn > n. Now, by iterating the squared relation:
n−1
1 X 1
x2n = x2n−1 + 1 + = · · · = x21 + (n − 1) +
4x2n−1 4x2k
k=1
n−1 2
1 X 1 1 √ 1
6n+ < n + Hn < n + √ Hn ,
4 k 4 8 n
k=1
√
so nxn < n + 81 Hn , as claimed.
All we need now is to show that H625 < 8 (again, the pocket calculator . . .!).
It is well known that Hn 6 1 + ln n, so it is enough to show that ln 625 < 7, or
6
e7 > 54 . This follows from e7 > 2.6 25 = 54 · 64 65
> 54 . Alternatively, one can
prove that for n > 2k − 1, Hn 6 (H2k−1 − Hk−1 ) + Hbn/2c , by replacing each
1 1 n−1
2m+1 by 2m for k 6 m 6 2 . Taking k = 10, (and repeatedly using the same
type of majoration) we get
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 47
δ = H19 − H9 = +···+ < +···+ < + + = .
10 19 5 9 5 3 4 60
86 S OLUTIONS
Now
H625 6 δ + H312 6 2δ + H156 6 3δ + H78

6 4δ + H39 6 5δ + H19 = 6δ + H9
and

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 52
H9 = 1 + +···+ < 1+ + + + + + =2+ < 3.
2 9 2 3 4 5 3 4 60
Therefore
47
H625 < 6 · + 3 = 7 · 7 < 8, as wished for.
60
√
Remarks. While nxn > n may be proven through other methods than the
squaring of the relation (with various degrees of difficulty or success), the upper
asymptotic bound seems to be out of reach without resorting to it.
√
Of course, one would be happy to have nxn < n + 1 for all n, but this is just
not true; in fact one can prove that

√ 1
lim nxn − n + ln n
n→∞ 8
exists and is finite, thus spoiling any pretense to obtain the above wishful bound.
This idea (of squaring such recurrence relations) easily solves related problems
1 n
like xn+1 = xn − xn [A. Negut¸] or xn+1 = xn + xn [A. Gica, L. Panaitopol].
Problem 20. Let ABC be an acute triangle with AB 6= AC. Let D be the
foot of the altitude from A to BC and let ω be the circumcircle of the triangle
ABC. Let ω1 be the circle that is tangent to AD, BD and ω. Let ω2 be the circle
that is tangent to AD, CD and ω. Finally, let ` be the common internal tangent to
ω1 and ω2 that is not AD.
Prove that ` passes through the midpoint of BC if and only if 2BC =
AB + AC.
Solution. Let ω1 be tangent to AD, BD and ω at P , U and S respectively,

and let ω2 be tangent to AD, CD and ω at Q, V , and T respectively. Let ` be
tangent to ω1 and ω2 at U 0 and V 0 respectively, and meeting BC at X.
Without loss of generality, assume that b > c. Note that XU + XV = U V =

r1 + r2 , and XU − XV = XU 0 − XV 0 = U 0 V 0 = P Q = r1 − r2 , so XU = r2
and XV = r1 . Then X is the midpoint of BC if and only if BX = BU + U X =
c cos B − r1 + r2 = a2 , or
b2 − c 2
r2 − r 1 = .
2a
By Casey’s theorem on points A, B, C, and circle ω1 ,
AC · BU + BC · AP = AB · CU,
A
ω2
ω1 U’ V’
P
B U D X V C
ω
or
2K
b(c cos B − r1 ) + a − r1 = c(b cos C + r1 ),
a
which implies that
bc(cos B − cos C) + 2K
r1 = ,
a+b+c
where K denotes the area of the triangle ABC.
Similarly,
bc(cos C − cos B) + 2K
r2 = ,
a+b+c
so
2bc(cos C − cos B) (b − c)(b + c − a)
r2 − r 1 = = .
a+b+c a
Since b 6= c,
(b − c)(b + c − a) b2 − c 2
=
a 2a
if and only if 2a = b + c.
JUNIOR BMO SELECTION TESTS
Problem 1. Let ABC be a rightangle triangle at C and consider points D, E

BD AE
on the sides BC, CA, respectively, such that AC =
= k. Lines BE and AD
CD
◦
√
intersect at point O. Show that ∠BOD = 60 if and only if k = 3.
BD
Solution. Consider the rectangle ACDP . The hypothesis rewrites as DP =
AE AP PD
AP = k, so ∠AP E = ∠BP D and ∠AP D = ∠EP B. Moreover, PE = PB ,
hence ∆P AD ∼ ∆P EB.
It follows that ∠DAP = ∠P EB, so AP OE is cyclic and hence ∠BOD =
∠AOE = ∠AP E.
The claim is proved by the following chain of equivalences: ∠BOD = 60 ◦ ⇔
√ √ AE
√ √
tan ∠BOD = 3 ⇔ tan ∠AP E = 3 ⇔ AP = 3 ⇔ k = 3.
Problem 2. Consider five points in the plane such that each triangle with ver-
tices at three of those points has area at most 1. Prove that the five points can be
covered by a trapezoid of area at most 3.
Solution. Denote A, B, C, D, E the given points and suppose ABC is the

triangle of maximal area. The distance from D to BC can not exceed the distance
from A to BC, hence D – and similarly E – are located between the parallel
through A to BC and its mirror image across BC. Apply the same argument
to AB and AC, to deduce that the five poinys must lie in a triangular (bounded)
region A1 B1 C1 whose median triangle is ABC.
Since D and E lie in at most two of the triangles A1 BC, AB1 C, ABC1 , one of
the trapezoids ABA1 B1 , BCB1 C1 , CAC1 A1 must contains the points ABCDE.
S ELECTION TESTS FOR JBMO 89
And since the area of such a trapezoid is 3 times the area of ABC, hence at most
3, the conclusion follows.
Problem 3. For any positive integer n let s(n) be the sum of its digits in
decimal representation. Find all numbers n for which s(n) is the largest proper
divisor of n.
Solution. The numbers are 18 and 27.

Let k be the number of digits of n in decimal representation. Notice that:
(1) n = p · s(n), where p is prime, so any prime divisor of s(n) is greater than
of equal to p;
(2) s(n)2 > n, so 10k−1 6 n 6 s(n)2 6 (9k)2 , hence k 6 4.
Consider the following cases:
a) If k = 4, then n = abcd, n 6 s(n)2 6 362 = 1296, so a = 1. Then
s(n) 6 28, thus n 6 282 < 1000, false.
b) If k 6 3, then abc, so 9(11 · a + b) = (p − 1)(a + b + c).
If 9 divides p − 1, since p < a + b + c = 27 we get p = 19. Next 9a = b + 2c,
hence a 6 3. As a + b + c > 23 – see (1) – we have no solution.
If 9 does not divide p − 1, from 3|a + b + c and (1) we get p = 2 or p = 3.
For p = 3 we have n = 3(a + b + c), so a = 0 and 10 · b + c = 3(b + c).
Consequently, 7b = 2c and n = 27.
For p = 2 we get n = 2(a + b + c), so a = 0 and 8b = c, hence n = 18.
a3 b3
c3
Problem 4. Prove that bc + ca + ba > a + b + c, for all positive real numbers
a, b, and c.
Solution. The inequality can be rewritten as a4 + b4 + c4 > abc(a + b + c). A

successive application of the well-known inequality x2 + y 2 + z 2 > xy + yz + zx
yields the desired result:
a4 + b4 + c4 > a2 b2 + b2 c2 + c2 a2 = (ab)2 + (bc)2 + (ca)2 > abc(a + b + c).
Problem 5. Consider a circle C of center O and let A, B be points on the

circle with ∠AOB = 90◦ . Circles C1 (O1 ) and C2 (O2 ) are internally tangent to
90 S OLUTIONS
C at points A, B, respectively, and – moreover – are tangent to themselves. Cir-

cle C3 (O3 ), located inside the angle ∠AOB, is externally tangent to C1 , C2 and
internally tangent to C. Prove that O, O1 , O2 , O3 are the vertices of a rectangle.
Solution. Let R, r1 , r2 be the radii of the circles C, C1 , C2 and let r = R −

r1 − r2 . Consider the point P so that OO1 P O2 is a rectangle. The tangency
conditions yield OO1 = R − r1 , OO2 = R − r2 and O1 O2 = r1 + r2 = R − r.
It is sufficient to prove that C3 is the circle of radius r centered at P .
To prove this, notice that O1 P = OO2 = R − r2 = r + r1 , O2 P = OO1 =
R − r1 = r + r2 , and OP = O1 O2 = R − r, so the three tangency conditions are
fulfilled.
Problem 6. A 7 × 7 array is divided into 49 unit squares. Find all integers

n ∈ N∗ for which n checkers can be placed on the unit squares so that each row
and each line contain an even number of checkers.
(0 is an even number, so empty rows or columns are not excluded. At most one
checker is allowed inside a unit square.)
Solution. One can place 4, 6, . . . , 40, 42 checkers under the given conditions.
We start by noticing that n is the sum of 7 even numbers, hence n is also even.
One can place at most 6 checkers on a row, hence n 6 6 · 7 = 42.
The key step is to use 2k×2k squares filled completely with checkers and (2k+
1) × (2k + 1) squares having checkers on each unit square except for one diagonal.
Notice that all these squares satisfy the required conditions, and moreover, we may
glue together several such squares under the conditions in the statement.
We describe below the configurations of n checkers for any even n between 4
and 42.
For 4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, 28, 32 or 36 checkers use 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 or 9, 2 × 2
squares; notice that all fit inside the 7 × 7 array!.
For 6 checkers consider a 3 × 3 square, except for one diagonal; then adding
2 × 2 squares we get configurations of 10, 14, 18, 22, . . ., 38 checkers.
For 40 checkers use a 5 × 5 and five 2 × 2 squares.
For 42 checkers we complete the 7 × 7 array but a diagonal.
Finally, notice that 2 checkers cannot be placed under the conditions in the
statement.
Problem 7. Suppose ABCD is a cyclic quadrilateral of area 8. Prove that if

there exists a point O in the plane of the quadrilateral such that OA + OB + OC +
OD = 8, then ABCD is an isosceles trapezoid (or a square).
Solution. Let α be the measure of the angle determined by the diagonals.

√
Since 8 = OA + OB + OC + OD > AC + BD > 2 · AC · BD >
√ √
2 · AC · BD · sin α = 2 2S = 8, we get AC = BD = 1 and α = 90◦ . The
claim follows by a simple arc subtraction.

2
a b c 3 a+b b+c c+a
+ + > · + + ,
b c a 2 c a b
for all positive real numbers a, b, and c.
a b c
Solution. Let b = x, c = y and
= z. The
inequality can be rewritten
a
successively: x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2xy + 2yz + 2zx > 23 x + y + z + x1 + y1 + 1z ⇔

x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2 x1 + y1 + 1z > 32 x + y + z + x1 + y1 + z1 ⇔ 2(x2 + y 2 +
1 1 1
z 2) + x + y + z > 3(x + y + z).
From AM-GM inequality we get
r
1 1 1
2x + = x2 + x2 + > 3
2
x 2 · x2 · = 3x.
x x x
Summing up the resulting inequalities and its analogues in x and y we get the
conclusion.
Problem 9. Find all real numbers a and b satisfying
2(a2 + 1)(b2 + 1) = (a + 1)(b + 1)(ab + 1).
Solution. Consider the given equation as quadratic in a:
a2 (b2 − b + 2) − a(b + 1)2 + 2b2 − b + 1 = 0.

92 S OLUTIONS
The discriminant is ∆ = −(b − 1)2 (7b2 − 2b + 7), hence we have solutions only
for b = 1. It follows that a = 1.
A LTERNATIVE SOLUTION. Apply the Cauchy-Schwarz inequality, to get 2(a 2 +

1) > (a+1)2 , 2(b2 +1) > (b+1)2 and (a2 +1)(b2 +1) > (ab+1)2 . Multiplying,
we obtain 2(a2 + 1)(b2 + 1) > (a + 1)(b + 1)(ab + 1), hence the equality case
occurs in all inequalities, so a = b = 1.
Problem 10. Show that the set of real numbers can be partitioned into subsets
having two elements.
Solution. For example, consider R \ Z partitionated into doubletons {−x, x}

and Z into doubletons {2n, 2n + 1}.
Another example: split R into disjoint intervals [2n, 2n+1), with n ∈ Z. Then
take the pairs (x, x + 1) from each interval [2n, 2n + 1), with x ∈ [2n, 2n + 1).
Problem 11. Let A = {1, 2, . . . , 2006}. Find the maximal number of subsets
of A that can be chosen such that the intersection of any two such distinct subsets
have 2004 elements.
Solution. The required number is 2006, the number of the subsets having 2005
elements.
To begin with, notice that each subset must have at least 2004 elements. If
there exist a set with exactly 2004 elements, then this is unique and moreover,
only 2 other subsets may be chosen.
If no set has 2004 elements, then we can choose among the 2006 subsets with
2005 elements and the set A with 2006 elements. But if A is among the chosen
subsets, then any intersection will have more than 2004 elements, false. The claim
is thus proved.
Problem 12. Let ABC be a triangle and let A1 , B1 , C1 be the midpoints of

the sides BC, CA, AB, respectively. Show that if M is a point in the plane of the
triangle such that
MA MB MC
= = = 2,
M A1 M B1 M C1
then M is the centroid of the triangle.
Solution. Let A2 , B2 , C2 be the mirror images of M across A1 , B1 , C1 , re-

spectively. The given condition shows that M A = M A2 , M B = M B2 , M C =
M C2 . From the parallelograms AM BC2 , BM CA2 , AM CB2 we derive that M A =
M A2 = BC2 = B2 C, M B = M B2 = AC2 = CA1 and M C = M C2 =
BA2 = AB2 . It follows that M A2 BC2 , M A2 CB2 and M B2 AC2 are also paral-
lelograms, therefore A, M and A2 are collinear. The conclusion is now clear.
Problem 13. Suppose a, b, c are positive real numbers which sum up to 1.

Prove that
a2 b2 c2
+ + > 3(a2 + b2 + c2 ).
b c a
Solution. By Cauchy-Schwarz inequality we get:
a2 b2 c2 a4 b4 c4 (a2 + b2 + c2 )2
+ + = 2+ 2+ 2 > 2 .
b c a ba cb ac a b + b2 c + c2 a
It suffices to show that a2 + b2 + c2 > 3(a2 b + b2 c + c2 a) or, since a + b + c = 1,
that
(a + b + c)(a2 + b2 + c2 ) > 3(a2 b + b2 c + c2 a).
P
The last inequality can be rewritten a(a − b)2 > 0, which is obvious.
A LTERNATIVE SOLUTION . Since a + b + c = (a + b + c)2 = 1, the inequality

can be successively rewrtitten as follows:
a2 b2 c2
+ + − (a + b + c) > 3(a2 + b2 + c2 ) − (a + b + c)2 ,
b c a
or
X a2 X
− 2a + b > (a − b)2 ,
b
that is,
X (a − b)2 X
> (a − b)2 .
b
Since a, b, c 6 1, we are done.
Problem 14. The set of positive integers is partitioned into subsets with in-
finitely many elements each. The following question arises: does there exist a
subset in the partition such that any positive integer has a multiple in that subset?
94 S OLUTIONS
a) Prove that if the number of subsets in the partition is finite, then the answer
is “yes”.
b) Prove that if the number of subsets in the partition is infinite, then the answer
can be “no” (for some partition).
Solution. a) Let Ak be the partition classes, with k = 1, 2, . . . r. Assuming

that the answer is “no”, there exist positive integers nk , k = 1, 2, . . . r, such that
no multiple of nk is in Ak . But n1 n2 . . . nr lies in one of the sets Ak and is multiple
of any nk , false.
b) We exhibit a partition for which the answer is “no”.
Let Ak be the set of all numbers written only with the first k primes at any
positive power; moreover, put 1 ∈ A1 . For any fixed k, the number p1 p2 . . . pk+1
has no multiples in Ak .
Problem 15. Let ABC be a triangle and D a point inside the triangle, located
on the median from A. Show that if ∠BDC = 180◦ − ∠BAC, then AB · CD =
AC · BD.
Solution. Let E be the mirror image of D across the midpoint of the side BC.
Notice that DBEC is a parallelogram and ABEC is cyclic. The equality of the
areas of triangles ABE and ACE implies AB · BE = AC · CE. Noticing that
CE = BD and BE = CD, the conclusion follows.
Problem 16. Consider the integers a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 , b1 , b2 , b3 , b4 with ak 6= bk

for all k = 1, 2, 3, 4. If
{a1 , b1 } + {a2 , b2 } = {a3 , b3 } + {a4 , b4 },
show that the number |(a1 − b1 )(a2 − b2 )(a3 − b3 )(a4 − b4 )| is a perfect square.
Note. For any sets A and B, we denote by A + B = {x + y | x ∈ A, y ∈ B}.
Solution. Without loss of generality, assume ak > bk , k = 1, 4. Then a1 +

a2 = a3 + a4 and b1 + b2 = b3 + b4 . Two cases may occur:
i) a1 + b2 = a3 + b4 and a2 + b1 = a4 + b3 . Subtracting we get |a2 − b2 | =

|a4 − b4 |, |a1 − b1 | = |a3 − b3 | and the claim follows.
ii) a1 + b2 = a4 + b3 and a2 + b1 = a3 + b4 . By subtraction we obtain
|a2 − b2 | = |a3 − b3 |, |a1 − b1 | = |a4 − b4 |, as needed.
Problem 17. Let x, y, z be positive real numbers such that

1 1 1
+ + = 2.
1+x 1+y 1+z
Prove that 8xyz 6 1.
Solution. Cancel out denominators to get 1 = xy + yz + zx + 2xyz. By the

p
AM-GM inequality we get 1 > 4 4 2x3 y 3 z 3 , so 1 > (8xyz)3 . The conclusion
follows.
Problem 18. For a positive integer n denote by r(n) the number having the
digits of n in reverse order; for example, r(2006) = 6002. Prove that for any
positive integers a and b the numbers 4a2 + r(b) and 4b2 + r(a) cannot be simul-
taneously perfect squares.
Solution. Assume by contradiction that both 4a2 + r(b) and 4b2 + r(a) are
perfect squares and let b 6 a. The number r(b) has at most as many digits as b, so
r(b) < 10b 6 10a. It follows that
(2a)2 < 4a2 + 10a < (2a + 3)2 ,
hence 4a2 + r(b) = (2a + 1)2 or (2a + 2)2 , thus r(b) = 4a + 1 or 8a + 4. Notice
that r(b) > a > b, implying that a and b have the same number of digits. Then, as
above, we get r(a) ∈ {4b + 1, 8b + 4}.
Three cases may occur:
1. r(a) = 4b+1 and r(b) = 4a+1. Subtracting we get (r(a)−a)+(r(b)−b) =
3(b − a) + 2, which is false since 9 divides r(n) − n for any positive integer n.
2. r(a) = 8b+4 and r(b) = 4a+1 (the same reasoning applies to r(b) = 8a+4
and r(a) = 4b+1). Subtracting we obtain (r(a)−a)+(r(b)−b) = 7b+3a+3, so
3 divides b. Then 3 also divides r(b) = 4a + 1, so a and r(a) both yield remainder
2 when divided by 3. This leads to a contradiction, for r(a) = (8b + 3) + 1.
96 S OLUTIONS
3. r(a) = 8b + 4 and r(b) = 8a + 4. Then the last digit of both r(a) and r(b)
is even, so at least 2. Hence the first digit of both a and b is greater than or equal to
2, so 8a + 4 and 8b + 4 have more digits than a and b. It follows that r(a) < 8b + 4
and r(b) < 8a + 4, a contradiction.
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PART ONE

March 11th , 2006

Cecilia Deaconescu, Piteşti

Problem 2. In triangle ABC, ∠ABC = 2 · ∠ACB. Prove that:

Gh. Bumbăcea, Buşteni

Problem 3. A set M containing 4 positive integers is called connected, if for

Lucian Dragomir, Oţelul Roşu

Problem 4. Let ABC be an isosceles triangle, with AB = AC. Let D be the

Marcel Chiriţa, Bucureşti

Problem 1. Let ABC be a right triangle (with A = 90◦ ). Two perpendiculars

Problem 1. Let x, y, z be positive real numbers. Prove that the following

Problem 3. Let ABCD be a convex quadrilateral. Let M and N be the mid-

Problem 1. Consider the real numbers a, b, c ∈ (0, 1) and x, y, z ∈ (0, ∞),

Problem 2. Let ABC be a triangle and consider the points M ∈ (BC), N ∈

b) Prove that a prism with 2000 vertices is binary.

Problem 4. a) Find two sets X, Y such that X ∩ Y = ∅, X ∪ Y = Q∗+ and

Prove that det(A2 + A + xI2 ) = x.

Problem 2. Let n, p > 2 be integer numbers and let A be a n × n real matrix

rank(In − A) = rank(In − A2 ) = · · · = rank(In − Ap−1 ).

Problem 3. The sequence of real numbers (xn )n>0 satisfies

(xn+1 − xn )(xn+1 + xn + 1) 6 0, n > 0.

a) Prove that the sequence is bounded.

a) Give an example of a function having property (P) which is discontinuous

Problem 1. Let f1 , f2 , . . . , fn : [0, 1] → (0, ∞) be continuous functions and

Problem 2. Let G = {A ∈ M2 (R) | det(A) = ±1} and H = {A ∈

Problem 3. Let A be a finite commutative ring with at least two elements.

Problem 4. Let F = {f : [0, 1] → [0, ∞) | f continuous} and let n > 2 be a

April 15th , 2006

Problem 1. Consider the triangle ABC and points M , N belonging to the

Problem 2. A square of side n is divided into n2 unit squares each colored

Problem 4. Let A be a set of nonnegative integers containing at least two

Problem 1. Consider a convex poliedra with 6 faces each of them being a

Problem 2. Given a positive integer n, prove that there exists an integer k,

Problem 3. Let ABCDA1 B1 C1 D1 be a cube and let P be a variable point

Problem 4. Consider real numbers a, b, c contained in the interval [ 21 , 1].

Problem 1. Find the maximum value of

(x3 + 1)(y 3 + 1),

for x, y ∈ R such that x + y = 1.

Problem 2. Consider quadrilaterals ABCD inscribed in a circle of radius r,

a) Prove that there is a configuration of points A, B, C, D, P for which the

sinn a + sinn b sinn 2a + sinn 2b

Problem 4. Given n ∈ N, n > 2, find n disjoint sets Ai , 1 6 i 6 n, in the

Problem 1. A is a two by two matrix with complex entries. Denote by A ∗ its

Problem 2. A matrix B ∈ Mn (C) will be called a pseudo-inverse of a matrix

Problem 3. Consider two systems of points in the plane: A1 , A2 , . . . , An and

Problem 4. Consider a function f : [0, ∞) → R, with the property that for

Problem 2. Prove that

Problem 4. Let f : [0, 1] → R be a continuous function such that

Prove that there is c ∈ (0, 1) such that

FIRST SELECTION TEST

Problem 2. Let p > 5 be a prime number. Find the number of irreducible

xp + pxk + pxl + 1, k > l, k, l ∈ {1, 2, . . . , p − 1} .

Problem 4. Let a1 , a2 , . . . , an be real numbers such that |ai | 6 1 for all

SECOND SELECTION TEST

Problem 5. Let {an }n>1 be a sequence given by a1 = 1, a2 = 4, and for all

Problem 8. Let xi , 1 6 i 6 n be real numbers. Prove that

Adapted by the Editors from Putnam

THIRD SELECTION TEST

Problem 9. The circle of center I is inscribed in the convex quadrilateral

Problem 11. Let γ be the incircle of the triangle A0 A1 A2 . In what follows,