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Internship Report
Submitted by
Khawaja Abdul Basit Sohail (Reg No. 150475)
Muhammad Arslan (Reg No. 150520)

Submitted to
Mr. Muneeb
(Training Centre)

In-charge Training Center

Mr. Ali Asghar

Dated: 23th July, 2016

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Dedication
Dedicated to workers, staff members, supervisors and officers for their support and supervision
especially Mr. Ali Asghar (I/C MTC) and Mr. Muneeb for their guidance

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PREFACE
Practical knowledge have become important in the industrial environment to produce products
for the service of mankind. The knowledge of manufacturing practices is highly essential for all
engineers for familiarizing themselves with modern concepts of manufacturing technologies. The
basic need is to provide practical knowledge of manufacturing processes to all the internee
students. Therefore, an attempt has been made through this internship to present the practical
knowledge. Considering the general needs of internee students and the fact that they hardly get
any exposure to hand tools, equipment’s, machines and manufacturing setups, this internship will
be very useful to them in their future.

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Table of Contents
1. Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 9
1.1 Premises and Assets...................................................................................................................... 9
1.2 Departments ................................................................................................................................. 9
1.3 Facilities......................................................................................................................................... 9
1.4 Products ...................................................................................................................................... 10
1.5 Quality Certifications .................................................................................................................. 10
1.5.1 ASME ................................................................................................................................... 10
1.5.2 LLOYDS ................................................................................................................................ 10
1.5.3 ISO 9001 .............................................................................................................................. 10
1.6 Major Achievements: .................................................................................................................. 10
2 Production, Planning & Control .......................................................................................................... 11
2.1 Project planning: ......................................................................................................................... 11
2.2 Core Planning: ............................................................................................................................. 11
2.3 Material Management (MMG): .................................................................................................. 11
2.3.1 MMG Section: ..................................................................................................................... 11
2.3.2 General Stores:.................................................................................................................... 11
2.4 Production Technology: .............................................................................................................. 12
2.4.1 Feasibility/Quantitative Detail: ........................................................................................... 12
2.4.2 Process Planning: ................................................................................................................ 12
2.4.3 Tool designing: .................................................................................................................... 12
2.5 Dispatch Cell/Material Handling: ................................................................................................ 12
2.5.1 Material handling: ............................................................................................................... 12
2.5.2 Dispatch Cell:....................................................................................................................... 12
2.6 Income tax Cost and Revenue (ICR) ............................................................................................ 12
3 Fabrication Shop ................................................................................................................................. 13
3.1 Fabrication .................................................................................................................................. 13
3.2 Raw Materials ............................................................................................................................. 14
3.3 Layout.......................................................................................................................................... 14
3.3.1 Typical Tools for Layout ...................................................................................................... 14
3.4 Fabrication Techniques ............................................................................................................... 15
3.4.1 Cutting ................................................................................................................................. 15
3.4.2 Forming Processes .............................................................................................................. 15

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3.4.3 Welding ............................................................................................................................... 16

3.4.4 Surface Cleaning.................................................................................................................. 19
3.5 Boiler ........................................................................................................................................... 19
3.5.1 Fire tube boiler (Smoke Tube Boiler) .................................................................................. 19
3.5.2 Water tube Boiler................................................................................................................ 20
3.5.3 Boiler Fabrication: ............................................................................................................... 20
3.5.4 Inspection:........................................................................................................................... 21
3.5.5 Third Party Inspection ......................................................................................................... 21
3.5.6 Diverse Products of Fabrication Shop: ................................................................................ 21
4 Heat treatment Shop .......................................................................................................................... 22
4.1 Heat treatment of metals and alloys .......................................................................................... 22
4.1.1 Annealing ............................................................................................................................ 23
4.1.2 Normalizing ......................................................................................................................... 23
4.1.3 Hardening ............................................................................................................................ 23
4.1.4 Tempering ........................................................................................................................... 23
4.1.5 Stress Releasing................................................................................................................... 24
4.1.6 Carburizing .......................................................................................................................... 24
5 Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) Lab .................................................................................................... 24
5.1 Radiographic Testing ................................................................................................................... 24
5.1.1 Developing of Film .............................................................................................................. 25
5.2 Ultrasonic Testing ....................................................................................................................... 25
5.2.1 Probe types ......................................................................................................................... 25
5.2.2 Advantages.......................................................................................................................... 25
5.2.3 Limitations........................................................................................................................... 25
5.3 Magnetic Particles Inspection ..................................................................................................... 26
5.4 Liquid penetrant Testing ............................................................................................................. 26
5.4.1 Principle .............................................................................................................................. 26
5.4.2 Inspection steps .................................................................................................................. 26
5.5 Eddy Current Testing................................................................................................................... 26
6 Basic Machine Shop ............................................................................................................................ 26
6.1 Production Planning Section (PPS).............................................................................................. 26
6.2 Tools used in Machine Shop: ...................................................................................................... 27
6.3 Machines/Equipment installed in Machine Shop ....................................................................... 27

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6.4 List of Machines .......................................................................................................................... 27

6.5 Machines ..................................................................................................................................... 28
6.5.1 Lathe Machine..................................................................................................................... 28
6.5.2 Shaper Machine .................................................................................................................. 28
6.5.3 Planar Machine ................................................................................................................... 28
6.5.4 Radial Drill ........................................................................................................................... 28
6.5.5 Milling Machines ................................................................................................................. 28
6.6 Machining ................................................................................................................................... 29
6.6.1 Classification of Machined Parts ......................................................................................... 29
6.6.2 Turning and Facing Related Operations .............................................................................. 29
6.6.3 Drill Related Operations ...................................................................................................... 29
6.6.4 Milling ................................................................................................................................. 30
6.6.5 Hobbing ............................................................................................................................... 30
7 Assembly Shop .................................................................................................................................... 31
7.1 Assembly ..................................................................................................................................... 31
7.2 Fitting .......................................................................................................................................... 31
7.3 Fits ............................................................................................................................................... 31
7.3.1 Clearance fit ........................................................................................................................ 31
7.3.2 Interference fit .................................................................................................................... 31
7.3.3 Transition fit ........................................................................................................................ 31
7.4 System of Fits .............................................................................................................................. 32
7.4.1 Hole Basis System ............................................................................................................... 32
7.4.2 Shaft Basis System............................................................................................................... 32
8 Technology Department ..................................................................................................................... 32
8.1 Feasibility Study .......................................................................................................................... 32
9 PATTERN SHOP.................................................................................................................................... 33
9.1 Drawing Study ............................................................................................................................. 33
9.2 Allowance Approximation........................................................................................................... 33
9.3 Types Of Pattern: ........................................................................................................................ 33
9.4 Types of Core Prints: ................................................................................................................... 34
9.5 Types Of Core Box: ...................................................................................................................... 34
9.6 Machines In Pattern Shop: .......................................................................................................... 34
10 Foundry ........................................................................................................................................... 34

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10.1 Casting Process ........................................................................................................................... 35

10.2 Pattern Making ........................................................................................................................... 35
10.3 Mold Making ............................................................................................................................... 35
10.4 Melting and Pouring.................................................................................................................... 35
10.5 Fettling, Cleaning and Finishing .................................................................................................. 35
10.6 Advantages of Sand Casting ........................................................................................................ 35
10.7 Limitations................................................................................................................................... 35
10.8 Steel Melting Furnace ................................................................................................................. 36
10.9 Electric Induction Furnaces ......................................................................................................... 36
11 Forging Shop ................................................................................................................................... 36
11.1 Forging shop I:............................................................................................................................. 36
11.1.1 Die forging: .......................................................................................................................... 36
11.2 Forging shop II ............................................................................................................................. 37
12 Material Testing Lab........................................................................................................................ 37
12.1 Chemical Section: ........................................................................................................................ 37
12.1.1 Emission Spectrometer: ...................................................................................................... 37
12.1.2 WET Analysis: ...................................................................................................................... 37
12.2 Metallography: ............................................................................................................................ 37
12.3 Mechanical Testing ..................................................................................................................... 38
12.3.1 Universal Testing Machine (UTM)....................................................................................... 38
12.3.2 Charpy Impact Testing Machine ......................................................................................... 38
12.3.3 Brinell Testing Machine....................................................................................................... 39
12.3.4 Rockwell Testing Machine................................................................................................... 39
13 Inspection........................................................................................................................................ 40
13.1 Hold point (H).............................................................................................................................. 41
13.2 Witness Point (W) ....................................................................................................................... 41
13.3 Spot Witness (SW)....................................................................................................................... 41
13.4 Review (R) ................................................................................................................................... 41
13.5 Welding Procedure Specifications (WPS) ................................................................................... 41
14 References ...................................................................................................................................... 41

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1. Introduction
Heavy Mechanical Complex Pvt Ltd. Taxila is a State owned capital goods manufacturer which
brought Pakistan into the category of industrially advanced countries. Its performance is linked
with the policies and overall economy of the country
It was established in 1971 as a mechanical working company with the aim to shift emphasis from
manufacturing of consumer goods to capital goods, achieving optimum imports substitution in
plant, machinery and equipment, saving foreign exchange and achieving technological up
gradation. Its forgings and foundry section was established in 1977.

1.1 Premises and Assets

Total Factory Area: 226 Acres
Total Colony Area: 345 Acres
Total Area: 571 Acres
Covered Area in Factory: 46 Acres
Covered Area in Colony: 24 Acres
Total Covered Area: 70 Acres
Gross Assets: 2 billion PKR

1.2 Departments
• Sales and Marketing Department
• Design and Engineering Department
• Production Planning and Control Department
• Production Shops (HMC1 & HMC2)
• Quality Assurance Department
• Project Management Department
• Human Resources Department
• Finance and Budgeting Department

1.3 Facilities
• Fabrication
• Machining
• Heat Treatment
• Casting
• Forging
• Galvanizing
• Tool Making
• Assembly
• Design and Engineering with well-equipped Computer Aided Design (CAD) facility
• Well-equipped Quality Assurance Department with ISO 9001 Certification and authorization to
use ASME STAMPS, PP, S, U, U2

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1.4 Products
• Sugar Plants
• Alcohol Plants
• Cement Plants
• Chemical and Petro Chemical Plants
• Oil and Gas Processing Plants
• Industrial Steam Boilers
• Thermal and Hydral Power Plants
• Road Construction Machinery
• Railway Equipment
• Over Head Traveling Cranes
• General Steel Structures
• Highly Sophisticated Castings and Forgings
• Items for Defence and Strategic Industry

1.5 Quality Certifications

1.5.1 ASME
ASME STAMPS
U: Pressure vessel according to ASME section VIII, Div. I
U2: Pressure vessel according to ASME section VIII, Div. II
S: Power Boilers
PP: Pressure Piping

1.5.2 LLOYDS
• First class manufacturer of fusion welded pressure vessels
• Registered as Qualified construction Company

1.5.3 ISO 9001

Design, engineering, manufacturing and commissioning of plants and machinery including
Cement , sugar, thermal, hydro, chemical, oil and gas processing plants, agriculture machinery,
Boilers , pressure vessels, heat exchangers, cranes, road construction machinery, steel structures,
plain and alloyed steel castings, free and automatic die forgings, steel billets and other similar
heavy engineering equipment.

1.6 Major Achievements:

1. Pioneer in getting ISO 9001 certification and helped other local industries to acquire
2. ISO 9001 certification
3. Acquired Authorization from American Boiler Board to use ASME STAMPS for power
4. boilers, pressure vessels and pressure pipes
5. Attained capability to design, engineer, manufacture machinery for turn-key supply of
6. higher module sugar and cement plants
7. Pursue a dynamic marketing and engineering product diversification, policy as a
8. consequence diversified into energy sector (Thermal and Hydral Power Plants) and oil

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9. & gas processing industry etc.

2 Production, Planning & Control

The Production planning and control department has been organized with objective of improving
company performance. This department is responsible for production planning & control,
Dispatches of finished equipment’s and sales tax related activities. The department is headed by
General Manager PPC and comprise the following section

2.1 Project planning:

 To ensure receipt of all drawings and documentation from design as per contract and
 according to the schedule for production and procurement
 To issue ‘material purchase requirement to MMG’ for indenting
 To prepare and issue job orders
 To prepare data for ICR for survey by FBR
 To prepare necessary production documents for manufacturing i.e. casting and forging in
 case of FFW

2.2 Core Planning:

Core planning section has following works.
 Master schedule planning.
 Order Activity plans.
 Monitoring of all the schedules.
 Preparation of various periodic reports for MIS.
 Maintaining of balance order position.
 Maintaining sale and production report.
 Sale/production budget.
 Project review meeting and follow up.
 Data entry for DP list and updating of all files.
 Processing of all data and generation of reports.
2.3 Material Management (MMG):
2.3.1 MMG Section:
 Material requirement planning.
 Intending and follow up of indent.
 To keep updated purchase status of all project documents.
 Establish stock levels for general consumable items and raw materials.
 Coding of store items.
 Insurance of material to appropriate job.
 To keep and maintain updated stock status of all store items.
 To look after stores and related functions.
2.3.2 General Stores:
 To receive and issue all the materials and equipment in stores as per laid down procedure.
 Maintain detailed record of stock movement.

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 Maintain stock location system.

 Ensure daily submission of issue and receipt statement to concerned department.
 Ensure that all the storage areas (open/covered) are kept properly secured and organized

2.4 Production Technology:

2.4.1 Feasibility/Quantitative Detail:
 Feasibility study and quantitative details of client´s enquiries for cost estimates.
2.4.2 Process Planning:
Preparation of following documents.
 Detail parts list.
 Route card (machining and fabrication) if required.
 Cutting plans.
 Time sheets.
2.4.3 Tool designing:
 Designing of all types of press tools, dies, templates, jigs and fixtures.
 To produce drawings for machinery components for maintenance.
 Cutting plans, cutting/marketing templates for shop.

2.5 Dispatch Cell/Material Handling:

2.5.1 Material handling:
 To keep all the material handling equipment operation worthy.
 Provide material handling services to stores and dispatch cells and shops as and when
required.
 Keep the open yard tidy and organized.
 Receive materials from shops for surface preparation.
 Arrange sand blasting/paint as per contractual requirement.
 Receive raw materials from general stores for onward issuance to shops against job
orders.
2.5.2 Dispatch Cell:
 To receive finish goods from shops/material handling sections.
 To draw the standard items/equipment’s from stores for dispatch to costumer/sites.
 To organize preservation/packing.
 Maintain detailed dispatch records of finished goods, equipment’s, standard items against
each contract.
 Organize transportation.
 Ensure complete and accurate documentation along with each dispatch.
 To prepare the dispatch plans and ensure compliance.

2.6 Income tax Cost and Revenue (ICR)

 To defend in litigation/adjudication and contravention
 To organize industrial survey.
 To obtain the consumption certificates and release of guarantee.

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3 Fabrication Shop

3.1 Fabrication
Fabrication when used as an industrial term, applies to the building of machine, structures and
other equipment, by cutting, shaping and assembling components made from raw materials.
Small businesses that specialize in metal are called fabrication shop. Steel fabrication shops and
machine shops have overlapping capabilities, but fabrication shops generally concentrate on the
metal preparation, welding and assembly aspect while the machine shop is more concerned with
the machining of parts.
Fabrication shop located in mechanical works HMC-1 is setup to create an interracial fault on
materials/work pieces in order to obtain any type of useful assembly or equipment. In HMC
(Heavy Mechanical Complex) Fabrication shop consists of five bays i.e., one heavy bay, two
medium bays and two small bays. Bays are divided as per the capacity of the cranes.
► Heavy Bay
Crane capacity 50 ton
► Medium Bay
Crane capacity 25 ton
► Light Bay
Crane capacity 5 ton
These bays are further splits up into different sections as per work requirement according to the
following arrangements
 Layout Section
 Fabrication Sections 1 to 9
 Machining Section
HMC fabrication shop has full capacity to fabricate every part which is used in boiler, gas tanks,
Teem boiler, roar roller parts etc. HMC has following machine in fabrication shop.
 Power Presses
 Roller Machines
 Radial Drill Machines
 Submerged Arc welding Machines
 Circular Saws
 Edge Planner
 Shearing Machine
 Parallel Flame Cutting Machine
 CNC Flame cutting machine
 De-coiling Machine
 Photocell Cutting Machine
 Brake Press
 Panel bending Machine
 Nibbling Machine
 Plasma Cutting Machines
 Tube welders
 Pipe Squeezing Machine
 Pipe Cutting and Beveling Machine

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3.1.1.1.1 Tube Bending Machine

 TIG Welding Machine
 Welding Transformers

3.2 Raw Materials

Standard raw materials used by metal fabricators are:
 Flite metal Formed and expanded
 Tube stock
 Square stock
 Sectional metals (I beams, W beams, C-channel...)
 Castings

3.3 Layout
Marking out or layout is the process of transferring a design or pattern to a work piece, as the
first step in the manufacturing process. It is performed in many industries. Marking out consists
of transferring the dimensions from the plan to the work piece in preparation for the next step,
machining or manufacture.
3.3.1 Typical Tools for Layout
Typical tools include:
3.3.1.1 Surface plate or marking out table
It provides a true surface from which to work.
3.3.1.2 Angle Plates
It assists in holding the work piece perpendicular to the table.
3.3.1.3 Scriber
It is the equivalent of a pen or pencil. It literally scratches the metal surface leaving behind a
fine, bright line.
3.3.1.4 Height Gauge or Scribing Block
It allows lines to be scribed at a preset distance, from the table’s surface.
3.3.1.5 Surface Gauge
An ungraduated comparison measuring tool that performs much the same function as the Vernier
height gage. It is often used in conjunction with a dial indicator and a precision height gauge.
3.3.1.6 Marking Blue
To provide a usable writing surface by covering any existing scratches and providing a
contrasting background.
3.3.1.7 Protractor
To assist in the transfer of angular measurements.
3.3.1.8 Tri-Square
To transfer 90° angles to the work piece.
3.3.1.9 Punches
It pricks or center punch to create permanent marks or dimples for drill bits to start in Ball peen
hammer used in conjunction with the punches to provide the striking blow needed.

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3.3.1.10 Dividers or Measuring Compass

It is used for marking out circles of any desired radius.

3.4 Fabrication Techniques

To improve productivity of the process different types of production tools are used e.g. Fixtures,
Supports etc. these tools holds the work piece/Locate it or/and guide the tool, so reduce the time
to be used for locating or marking.
3.4.1 Cutting
The cutting part of fabrication is done via:
 Sawing
 Shearing (all with manual and powered variants)
 Oxy-Fuel Cutting (such as oxy-fuel torches or plasma torches)
 CNC cutters (using a laser, torch, or water)
 Semi-automatic cutting machines
 Electromagnetic cutting machines
 Plasma cutting machines
 Photocell cutting machines
 Parallel torch cutting machines

3.4.2 Forming Processes

The forming processes modify the work piece by deforming it i.e. without removing any
material. Forming is done with a system of mechanical forces and, especially for bulk metal
forming, with heat.
The Following is important forming processes:
 Bending
 Pre-Bending
 Roll Forming
 Drawing
 Deep Drawing
 Tube Expansion
 Tube Bending
 Coining
 Spinning
 Stamping

3.4.2.1 Bending
Bending is a manufacturing process that produces a V-shape, U-shape, or channel shape along a
straight axis in ductile materials, most commonly in sheet metal.
3.4.2.2 Pre-Bending
This process is performed before Roll Forming. A piece of sheet metal is bent slightly before it is
sent to a rolling machine for producing required curvature, this process is termed as pre-
bending.

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3.4.2.3 Roll Forming

Roll forming, also termed as rolling, is a continuous bending operation in which a long strip of
sheet metal (typically coiled steel) is passed through sets of rolls mounted on consecutive stands,
each set performing only an incremental part of the bend, until the desired cross-section profile is
obtained.
3.4.2.4 Drawing and Deep Drawing
Drawing is a sheet metal forming process in which a sheet metal blank is radially drawn into a
forming die by the mechanical action of a punch. It is thus a shape transformation process with
material retention. The process is considered "deep" drawing when the depth of the drawn part
exceeds its diameter.
3.4.2.5 Tube Expansion and Bending
In this process a tube is bended or expanded according to the desired Application.
3.4.2.6 Coining
Coining is a form of precision stamping in which a work piece is subjected to a sufficiently high
stress to induce plastic flow on the surface of the material.
3.4.2.7 Spinning
Metal spinning, also known as spin forming or spinning or metal turning, is a metalworking
process by which a disc or tube of metal is rotated at high speed and formed into an axially
symmetric part.
Spinning can be performed by hand or by a CNC lathe.
3.4.2.8 Stamping
Stamping (also known as pressing) is the process of placing flat sheet metal in either blank or
coil form into a stamping press where a tool and die surface forms the metal into a net shape.
Stamping includes a variety of sheet-metal forming manufacturing processes, such as punching
using a machine press or stamping press, blanking, embossing, bending, flanging, and coining.
3.4.3 Welding
Welding is a fabrication or sculptural process that joins materials, usually metals or
thermoplastics, by causing coalescence. This is often done by melting the work pieces and
adding a filler material to form a pool of molten material (the weld pool) that cools to become
strong joint, with pressure sometimes used in conjunction with heat, or by itself, to produce the
weld. This is in contrast with soldering and brazing, which involve melting a lower-melting-
point material between the work pieces to form a bond between them, without melting the work
pieces.
3.4.3.1 Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)
Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW), also known as stick welding, is a manual arc process that
uses a consumable electrode coated influx to lay the weld. An electric arc the form of either
alternating or current from welding is used to form a bond between the electrode and the metals
to be joined. As the weld is laid, the flux coating of the electrode disintegrates, giving off vapors
that serve as shielding and providing a layer of slag, both of which protect the weld area from
atmospheric contamination.
Because of the versatility of the process and the simplicity of its equipment and operation,
shielded metal arc welding is one of the world's most popular welding processes. It dominates
other welding processes in the maintenance and repair industry, and though flux welding is

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growing in popularity,The process is used primarily to weld iron and steels (including stainless
but aluminum, nickel and copper alloys can also be welded with this method.
3.4.3.1.1 Defects
As SMAW is manual welding process so it has no uniformity (for larger welds) and there is also
equality difference in welding (someplace thick and some other place thin). To remove this
defect SAW welding is used.
3.4.3.2 Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)
Submerged arc welding (SAW) is a common arc process. It requires a continuously fed
consumable solid or tubular flux cored electrode. The molten weld and the arc zone are protected
from atmospheric contamination by being “submerged” under a blanket of granular fusible flux
consisting of Lime, silica, manganese oxide, calcium and other compounds. When molten, the
flux becomes conductive, and provides a current path between the electrode and the work. This
thick layer of flux completely covers the molten metal thus preventing spatter and sparks as well
as suppressing the intense ultraviolet radiation and fumes that are a part of the shielded metal arc
welding (SMAW) process. SAW is normally operated in the automatic or mechanized mode,
however, semi-automatic (hand-held) SAW guns with pressurized or gravity flux feed delivery
are available. The process is normally limited to the flat or horizontal-fillet welding positions
(although horizontal groove position welds have been done with a special arrangement to support
the flux).Single or multiple (2 to 5) electrode wire variations of the process exist. SAW strip-
cladding utilizes a flat strip electrode (e.g. 60 mm wide x 0.5 mm thick). DC or AC power can be
used, and combinations of DC and AC are common on multiple electrode systems. Constant
voltage welding are most commonly used; however, constant current systems in combination
with a voltage sensing wire-feeder are available.
3.4.3.3 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)
Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), also known as tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding, is an arc welding
process that uses a non-consumable tungsten electrode to produce the weld. The weld area is
protected from atmospheric contamination by shielding (usually an inert such as argon), and
fillers normally used, though some welds, known as autogenously welds, do not require it. A
constant-current supply produces energy which is conducted across the arc through a column of
highly ionized gas and metal vapors known as plasma GTAW is most commonly used to weld
thin sections of stainless steel and non-ferrous metals such as aluminum, magnesium, and copper
alloys. The process grants the operator greater control over the weld than competing procedures
such as shielded and gas welding, allowing for stronger, higher quality welds. However, GTAW
is comparatively more complex and difficult to master, and furthermore, it is significantly slower
than most other welding techniques. A related process, plasma uses a slightly different welding
torch to create a more focused welding arc and as a result is often automated.
3.4.3.4 Gas metal arc welding (GMAW)
Gas metal arc welding (GMAW), sometimes referred to by its subtypes metal inert gas (MIG)
welding or metal active gas (MAG) welding, is a welding process in which an electric arc forms
between a consumable wire electrode and the work piece metal(s), which heats the work piece
metal(s), causing them to melt, and join. Along with the wire electrode, a shielding gas feeds
through the welding gun, which shields the process from contaminants in the air. The process
can be semi-automatic or automatic. A constant voltage, direct current power source is most
commonly used with GMAW, but constant current systems, as well as alternating current, can be
used. There are four primary methods of metal transfer in GMAW, called globular, short-

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circuiting, spray, and pulsed-spray, each of which has distinct properties and corresponding
advantages and limitations. Today, GMAW is the most common industrial welding process,
preferred for its versatility, speed and the relative ease of adapting the process to robotic
automation. Unlike welding processes that do not employ a shielding gas, such as shielded metal
arc welding, it is rarely used outdoors or in other areas of air volatility. A related process, flux
cored arc welding, often does not use a shielding gas, but instead employs an electrode wire that
is hollow and filled with flux.
3.4.3.5 Types of Welding Defects
3.4.3.5.1 Cracks
Cracks are produced due to properties difference of materials and wrong pre-heating.
3.4.3.5.2 Incomplete Penetration
This type of defect is found in any of three ways:
 When the weld bead does not penetrate the entire thickness of the base plate
 When two opposing weld beads do not interpenetrate
 When the weld bead does not penetrate the toe of a fillet weld but only bridges across it.

Welding current has the greatest effect on penetration. Incomplete penetration is usually caused
by the use of too low a welding current and can be eliminated by simply increasing the
amperage. Other causes can be the use of too slow a travel speed and an incorrect torch angle.
Both will allow the molten weld metal to roll in front of the arc, acting as a cushion to prevent
penetration. The arc must be kept on the leading edge of the weld puddle.
3.4.3.5.3 Distortion
Welding methods that involve the melting of metal at the site of the joint necessarily are prone to
shrinkage as the heated metal cools. Shrinkage then introduces residual stresses and distortion.
Distortion can pose a major problem, since the final product is not the desired shape. To alleviate
certain types of distortion the work pieces can be offset so that after welding the product is the
correct shape.
3.4.3.5.4 Gas Inclusion
Gas inclusions are a wide variety of defects that includes
 Porosity
 Blow holes
 Pipes

The underlying cause for gas inclusions is the entrapment of gas within the solidified weld. Gas
formation can be from any of the following causes: high sulfur content in the work piece or
electrode, excessive moisture from the electrode or work piece, too short of an arc, or wrong
welding current or polarity.
3.4.3.5.5 Undercut
Most structural failures originate from weld joint because it is the source of discontinuity or
defects. The most visible weld defect we can easily find in visual inspection is undercut.
Undercut is usually due to over current in electric arc welding. Over current causes wide melting
zone in base metal but not enough weld fusion metal to replace the gap. High lapping speed also
leaves the gap poorly filled with weld fusion metal and produces undercut. To avoid undercut,
welder and welding inspector must observe initial weld lap to see whether the current setting is

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appropriate. Post welding inspection can be tricky since welder can cover undercut by running
another lap using lower grade welding electrode and low current. Undercut is dangerous because
it amplifies the stress flow due to reduction in section area and stress concentration of the notch
form Undercut and overlap.
3.4.3.5.6 Incomplete Fusion
Other welding defect is incomplete fusion which is due to undercurrent. Arc welding uses
concentrated high-temperature electric arc to melt both base metal and welding electrode. These
melted base metal and electrode mix and fuse together into weld pool which subsequently bonds
adjoining base metals. If the welding current is set too low, ideal melting Temperature cannot be
achieved and base metal doesn’t melt completely. Furthermore, weld Pool material is not
adequate and gap between adjoining base metals is not properly filled. This will leave empty
holes inside or outside weld joints.
3.4.4 Surface Cleaning
It is done to preserve the surface from corrosion etc.
Following are the types of Surface Cleaning Process:
 Shot Blasting
 Sand Blasting
 Chemical Cleaning (pickling)

3.5 Boiler
Boiler is one of the major products of Heavy Mechanical Complex, Taxila. HMC has vast
experience of manufacturing small as well as large Power and Industrial Boilers.
There are two types of boilers:
 Fire tube boiler (Smoke Tube Boiler)
 Water tube Boiler (spelled water-tube)

3.5.1 Fire tube boiler (Smoke Tube Boiler)

A fire-tube boiler is a type of boiler in which hot gases from a fire pass through one or (many)
more tubes running through a sealed container of water. The heat of the gases is transferred
through the walls of the tubes by thermal conduction, heating the water and ultimately creating
steam.

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Fig. 4.1 Fire Tube Boiler

3.5.2 Water tube Boiler
A water tube boiler (also spelled water-tube and water tube) is a type of boiler in which water
circulates in tubes heated externally by the fire. Fuel is burned inside the furnace, creating hot
gas which heats water in the steam-generating tubes. In smaller boilers, additional generating
tubes are separate in the furnace, while larger utility boilers rely on the water-filled tubes that
make up the walls of the furnace to generate steam.

Fig. 4.2 Water Tube Boiler

3.5.3 Boiler Fabrication:

Some major machines used for boiler fabrication are:
 roller bending machines for making drums
 Booster pipe bending machine for making super heater

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 Reheated and economizer coils

Specialized machine for machining and welding of headers and complete train of machines for
manufacture of membrane walls in panel and bent form. Some boiler components are:
3.5.3.1 Super Heaters
One of the most important accessories of a boiler is a superheated. It affects improvement and
economy in the following ways.
 The superheated increases the capacity of the plant.
 Eliminates corrosion of the steam turbine.
 Reduces steam consumption of the steam turbine.
3.5.3.2 ECONOMISERS
This is feed-water heaters in which the heat from waste gases is recovered to raise the
temperature of feed-water supplied to the boiler. They offer the following advantages:
 Fuel economy
 Longer life of the boiler
 Increase in steaming capacity
 Finned Tube Economizers
 C.I. Gilled Tube Economizers
 Plain Tube Coil Economizers
3.5.3.3 Steam Generating Tubes
These are tubes in the Boiler where water is evaporated to steam and are also called Steam
Generating Tubes. These Tubes also form the Walls of the Boiler and are hence called Water
Walls or Water Wall Panels. These Tubes have very complicated shapes to allow Inspection
openings and burner throats and fabrication require bending Machines.
3.5.4 Inspection:
As each parts are manufactured and sub-assemblies are manufactured, they are checked by the
Quality Assurance department to ensure that each part manufactured according to the provided
international standard and given design tolerances are maintained. A detailed report is created
which is then analyzed and approved by a third party inspection
3.5.5 Third Party Inspection
In all type of pressure vessels an inspection company (termed as third party) accredited by boiler
boards or international standardizing organizations e.g. ASME also inspects the vessel time to
time during manufacturing this inspection is known as third party inspection.

3.5.6 Diverse Products of Fabrication Shop:

Besides Boiler Island, HMC have also capabilities and expertise for manufacture of balance of
plant equipment / parts such as:
 Condensers
 L.P. heater
 H.P. heater parts
 Water treatment plant
 Desecrator and feed water tank
 Pressure vessels
 Oil storage tanks

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 Cooling water system

 Heat exchangers
 Steel structure
 Elevator hoist and cranes
 Piping
 Other misc. items
With a team of well experienced engineers and technicians, HMC is well prepared to carry out
site construction work which includes:
 Site fabrication
 Erection / installation and commissioning
 Civil works (if part of complete construction work, package)
HMC is also providing services for repair / maintenance and BMR of existing power plant for its
boilers, turbines, condensers, heaters and other equipment.

4 Heat treatment Shop

Heat treatment is a method used to alter the physical and sometimes chemical properties of a
material. The most common application is metallurgical. Heat treatments are also used in the
manufacture of many other materials, such as glass. Heat treatment involves the use of heating or
chilling, normally to extreme temperatures, to achieve a desired result such as hardening or
softening of a material. It is noteworthy that while the term heat treatment applies only to
processes where the heating and cooling are done for the specific purpose of altering properties
intentionally, heating and cooling often occur incidentally during other manufacturing processes
such as hot forming or welding. Heat treatment techniques include
 Annealing.
 Hardening
 Tempering
 Normalizing
 Stress releasing
 Carburizing
HMC has following Types of Furnace and facilities which are used in heat treatment section
 HTS-1 Electric carbon furnace
 Electric box type furnace
 Flame hardening machine for surface hardening
 Chamber type Cleaner
 Electric tempering oil bath
 High temperature salt bath
 Low temperature salt bath
 Medium temperature salt bath
 High frequency induction heat treatment lab
4.1 Heat treatment of metals and alloys
Metallic materials consist of a microstructure of small crystals called "grains" or crystallites. The
nature of the grains (i.e. grain size and composition) is one of the most effective factors that can
determine the overall mechanical behavior of the metal. Heat Treatment provides an efficient

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way to manipulate the properties of the metal by controlling rate of diffusion, and the rate of
cooling within the microstructure.
4.1.1 Annealing
Annealing is a technique used to recover cold work and relax stresses within a metal. Annealing
typically results in a soft, ductile metal. When an annealed part is allowed to cool in the furnace,
it is called a "full anneal" heat treatment. During annealing, small grains recrystallize to form
larger grains.
4.1.2 Normalizing

Normalizing is a heat treatment process for making material softer but does not produce the
uniform material properties of annealing.. A material can be normalized by heating it to a
specific temperature and then letting the material cool to room temperature outside of the oven.
This treatment refines the grain size and improves the uniformity of microstructure and
properties of hot rolled steel.Normalizing is used in some plate mills, in the production of large
forgings such as railroad wheels and axles, some bar products. This process is less expensive
than annealing.

4.1.3 Hardening
4.1.3.1 Flame Hardening
Flame hardening uses direct impingement of an oxy-gas flame onto a defined surface area. The
result of the hardening process is controlled by four factors: the design of the flame head; the
duration of heating; the target temperature to be reached; and the composition of the metal being
treated. The process is also effective at preheating bars, strip and various contours prior to
forming and forging. Flame Hardening Systems, Inc. manufactures a full range of equipment for
efficiently applying heat to a broad assortment of component parts. Basically there are four
methods/types of systems we build, depending on many factors.
4.1.3.2 Induction Hardening
A widely used process for the surface hardening of steel. The components are heated by means
of an alternating magnetic field to a temperature within or above the transformation range
followed by immediate quenching. The core of the component remains unaffected by the
treatment and its physical properties are those of the bar from which it was machined, whilst the
hardness of the case can be within the range 37/58 HRC.
4.1.4 Tempering
Tempering is a process of heat treating, which is used to increase the toughness of iron-based
alloys. It is also a technique used to increase the toughness of glass. For metals, tempering is
usually performed after hardening, to reduce some of the excess hardness, and is done by heating
the metal to a much lower temperature than was used for hardening. The exact temperature
determines the amount of hardness removed, and depends on both the specific composition of
the alloy and on the desired properties in the finished product. For instance, very hard tools are
often tempered at low temperatures, while springs are tempered too much higher temperatures.
In glass, tempering is performed by heating the glass and then quickly cooling the surface,
increasing the toughness.

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4.1.5 Stress Releasing

Stress releasing is used to reduce residual stresses in large castings, welded parts and cold-
formed parts. Such parts tend to have stresses due to thermals cycling or work hardening. Parts
are heated to temperatures of up to 600-650 C (1112-1202 F), and held for an extended time
(about 1 hour or more) and then slowly cooled in still air.
4.1.6 Carburizing
Carburizing is a process used to harden low carbon steels that normally would not respond to
quenching and tempering. This is done for economic reasons (utilizing less expensive steel) or
design considerations to provide a tough part with good wear characteristics. Carburizing
introduces carbon into a solid ferrous alloy by heating the metal in contact with a carbonaceous
material to a temperature above the transformation range and holding at that temperature. The
depth of penetration of carbon is dependent on temperature, time at temperature, and the
composition of the carburizing agent. As a rough indication, a carburized depth of about 0.03 to
0.05 inches can be obtained in about 4 hours at 1700°F, depending upon the type of carburizing
agent, which may be a solid, liquid, or gas.
The primary object of carburizing is to secure a hard case and a relatively soft, tough core, only
low-carbon steels (up to a maximum of about 0.25% carbon), either with or without alloying
elements (nickel, chromium, manganese, molybdenum), are normally used. After carburizing,
the steel will have a high carbon case graduating into the low-carbon core. Once the
carburization is complete, the parts must be hardened and tempered to obtain the desired
properties of both the core and the case.

5 Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) Lab

Non-destructive testing (NDT) is a wide group of analysis techniques used in science and
industry to evaluate the properties of a material, component or system without causing damage.
The terms Non-destructive examination (NDE), Non-destructive inspection (NDI), and Non-
destructive evaluation (NDE) are also commonly used to describe this technology. Because NDT
does not permanently alter the article being inspected, it is a highly-valuable technique that can
save both money and time in product evaluation, troubleshooting, and research on Destructive
testing (NDT)
Some important NDT Methods are:

5.1 Radiographic Testing

Radiographic Testing (RT), or industrial radiography, is a non-destructive testing (NDT) method
of inspecting materials for hidden flaws by using the ability of short wavelength electromagnetic
radiation (high energy photons) to penetrate various materials. The followings steps are
involved:
 Job is divided into sections
 Separate room is used for testing
 After developing process, illuminators of different ranges are used to see the defects that
are capture through the film

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5.1.1 Developing of Film

This process is consisting of following steps
 Developer: alkaline changes the exposed salt to black metallic silver 5-6 minutes
 Stop bath: It neutralizes the developer and stop the developing process.
 Fixer: At this step, the effects of faults are fixed.
 Water tank: It cleans the film from chemicals.
 PF. Solution: It prevents water to make spot.

5.2 Ultrasonic Testing

Ultrasonic testing (UT) is a family of non-destructive testing techniques based on the
propagation of ultrasonic waves in the object or material tested. A typical UT inspection system
consists of several functional units, such as the pulser/receiver, transducer, and display devices.
A pulser/receiver is an electronic device that can produce high voltage electrical pulses. Driven
by the pulser, the transducer generates high frequency ultrasonic energy. The sound energy is
introduced and propagates through the materials in the form of waves.
When there is a discontinuity (such as a crack) in the wave path, part of the energy will be
reflected back from the flaw surface. The reflected wave signal is transformed into an electrical
signal by the transducer and is displayed on a screen. In the applet below, the reflected signal
strength is displayed versus the time from signal generation to when an echo was received.
Signal travel time can be directly related to the distance that the signal traveled. From the signal,
information about the reflector location, size, orientation and other features can sometimes be
gained.
5.2.1 Probe types
Normal beam probes: radiate their sound wave perpendicular to specimen surface
TR probes: separate crystal for receiving and transmitting waves
Angle beam probes: probes that radiate their sound wave at an angle.

5.2.2 Advantages
 It is sensitive to both surface and subsurface discontinuities.
 The depth of penetration for flaw detection or measurement is superior to other NDT
methods
 Only single-sided access is needed when the pulse-echo technique is used.
 It is highly accurate in determining reflector position and estimating size and shape.

5.2.3 Limitations
 Surface must be accessible to transmit ultrasound.
 Skill and training is more extensive than with some other methods
 It normally requires a coupling medium to promote the transfer of sound energy into the
test specimen.
 Materials that are rough, irregular in shape, very small, exceptionally thin or not
homogeneous are difficult to inspect.
 Cast iron and other coarse grained materials are difficult to inspect due to low sound
transmission and high signal noise.

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5.3 Magnetic Particles Inspection

Magnetic particle Inspection (MPI) is an NDT process for detecting surface and slightly
subsurface discontinuities in ferromagnetic materials such as iron, nickel, cobalt, and some of
their alloys. The process puts a magnetic field into the part. The piece can be magnetized by
direct or indirect magnetization. Magnet ink is used as magnetic powder which is attracted to
local pole sat defects. Mostly the white powdering is done on the job to increase the contrast
before magnetizing.
5.4 Liquid penetrant Testing
Penetrant testing (PT), is a widely applied and low-cost inspection method used to locate surface
breaking defects in all non-porous materials (metals, plastics, or ceramics).
5.4.1 Principle
DPI is based upon capillary action, where fluid having low surface tension penetrates into clean
and dry surface-breaking discontinuities. Penetrant may be applied to the test component by
dipping, spraying, or brushing. After adequate penetration time has been allowed, the excess
penetrant is removed and a developer is applied. The developer helps to draw penetrant out of
the flaw so that an invisible indication becomes visible to the inspector. Inspection is performed
under ultraviolet or white light, depending on the type of dye used - fluorescent or no fluorescent
(visible).
5.4.2 Inspection steps
 Pre-cleaning
 Application of Penetrant
 Excess Penetrant Removal
 Application of Developer
 Inspection
Mostly cleaner for the penetrant which used are solvent and water emulsifier.
5.5 Eddy Current Testing
Continuous wave eddy current testing is one of several non-destructive testing methods that use
the electromagnetism principle. Conventional eddy current testing utilizes electromagnetic
induction to detect discontinuities in conductive materials.
A specially designed coil energized with alternating current is placed in proximity to the test
surface generating changing magnetic-field which interacts with the test-part producing eddy
current in the vicinity.

6 Basic Machine Shop

Machine shop is considered as one of the most important shops of Heavy Mechanical Complex
as it contributes a major part in the income of the industry. In this shop different type of actions
and works can be performed with the help of different machines each perform unique work
which is performed under the supervision of experienced workers.
6.1 Production Planning Section (PPS)
This section is known as the main branch of machine shop. Working is Given Below:
 Job order receiving from PPS
 Drawing set receiving from PPS

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 Cutting plan received (if required)

 Material receiving
 Drawing/Job order Planning
 Loading
 Machining
 Inspection
 Movement
o Assembly Shop
o Dispatch Cell
o Fabrication Shop

6.2 Tools used in Machine Shop:

Tool is probably one of the most important component of any sort of machine. The ability and
durability of tool predicts the quality and nature of machining on the job.
There are lots of tools but few important tools we saw in machine shop are:
Boring Tool
Used in the process of boring.
High Speed Steel (HSS)
Used for different sort of purposes including threading. Mostly used in lathe machines.
Tapping Tool
Used for internal threading.
Broaching Tool
Used to produce splines.
Turning Tool
Used for turning operation.
6.3 Machines/Equipment installed in Machine Shop
Machine shop1&2 consist of various kinds of machines each having its unique identity and
importance in their sector. This kind may not only be classified as for functions only but the
maximum capacity of the machine may also be considered so according to the capacity of job
and the availability of crane the machine shop 1 is divided into three bays which are as follows
I. Small bay
II. Medium bay
III. Heavy bay
In the machine shop of Heavy mechanical Complex there are nearly 500 machines of different
sizes and capacities. The machine shop of HMC contains various types of machines.
6.4 List of Machines
 Lathe machine (Three jaws and four jaws chucks, turret)
 Planer machine
 Shaper
 Machine
 Milling machine
 Cylindrical Grinding Machine
 Drilling machine

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 HDL (Heavy duty lathe)

 BVT (Boring vertical turret lathe machine)
 Gear hobbling machine
 Gear shaper machine
 Straight bevel machine
 Horizontal lathe machine
 Radial drilling machine
 Slotting
 machine
 Double housing planner
 Face plate machine
 Column drilling machine

6.5 Machines
6.5.1 Lathe Machine
Most lathe machines are horizontal but vertical lathe machines are also used for jobs with large
diameter relative to the length and for heavy work. The size of the lathe is designated by swing
and maximum distance between centers. Swing is the maximum work part diameter that can be
rotated in the spindle.
6.5.2 Shaper Machine
A shaper is a type of machine tool that uses linear relative motion between the work piece and a
single-point cutting tool to machine a linear tool path. Its cut is analogous to that of a lathe,
except that it is (archetypally) linear instead of helical. (Adding axes of motion can yield helical
tool paths, has also done in helical planning.) A shaper is analogous to a planer, but smaller, and
with the cutter riding a ram that moves above a stationary work piece, rather than the entire work
piece moving beneath the cutter. The ram is moved back and forth typically by a crank inside the
column; hydraulically actuated shapers also exist.
6.5.3 Planar Machine
A planer is a type of metalworking machine tool that uses linear relative motion between the
work piece and a single-point cutting tool to machine a linear toolpath. Its cut is analogous to
that of a lathe, except that it is (archetypally) linear instead of helical. A planer is analogous to a
shaper, but larger, and with the entire work piece moving on a table beneath the cutter, instead of
the cutter riding a ram that moves above a stationary work piece. The table is moved back and
forth on the bed beneath the cutting head either by mechanical means, such as a rack and pinion
drive or a lead screw, or by a hydraulic cylinder.
6.5.4 Radial Drill
It is a large drill press designed for large parts. Its Head can be positioned at significant distance
from the column to accommodate large work. It is manually operated.
6.5.5 Milling Machines
Milling machines must provide a rotating spindle for the cutter and a table for fastening,
positioning and feeding the work part. Some types of milling machines available are:
 Knee-and-column milling machine

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 Universal milling machine

 Ram mill
 Bed type milling machine
 Planer type
 Tracer mills
 Tracer mills
 CNC milling machines
6.6 Machining
A material removal process in which a sharp cutting tool is used to mechanically cutaway
material so that the desired part geometry remains.
Most common application includes to shape metal parts. Machining is the most versatile and
accurate of all manufacturing processes in its capability to produce a diversity of part geometries
and geometric features (e.g. Screw threads, gear teeth, flat surfaces).
6.6.1 Classification of Machined Parts
 Rotational - cylindrical or disk-like shape
Achieved by rotation motion of the work part e.g. turning and boring.
 Non-rotational (also called prismatic) - block-like or plate-like
Achieved by linear motion of the work part e.g. milling, shaping, planning and sawing
6.6.2 Turning and Facing Related Operations
6.6.2.1 Turning
A single point cutting tool removes material from a rotating work piece to generate cylindrical
shape. The tool is fed linearly in a direction parallel to the axis of rotation Performed on a
machine tool called a lathe.
6.6.2.2 Facing
Tool is fed radially inward to create a flat surface.
6.6.2.3 Chamfering
Cutting edge cuts an angle on the corner of the cylinder, forming a "chamfer".
6.6.2.4 Threading
Pointed form tool is fed linearly across surface of rotating work part parallel to axis of rotational
a large feed rate, thus creating threads.
6.6.3 Drill Related Operations
6.6.3.1 Boring
Boring is similar to turning. It uses a single-point tool against a rotating work part Difference
between boring and turning:
 Boring is performed on the inside diameter of an existing hole
 Turning is performed on the outside diameter of an existing cylinder
In effect, boring is an internal turning operation Machine tools used to perform boring operations
are called boring machines. Boring machines are of two types
 Horizontal or vertical - refers to the orientation of the axis of rotation of machine spindle
6.6.3.2 Drilling
Machining operation used to create a round hole in a work-part. Drilling contrasts with boring
which can only enlarge an existing hole

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Cutting tool called a drill or drill bit-a rotating cylindrical tool which has two cutting edges on its
working end. Drilling is customarily performed on a drill press
6.6.4 Milling
A machining operation in which work is fed past a rotating tool with multiple cutting edges
In milling the axis of tool rotation is perpendicular to feed direction. Milling creates a planar
surface; other geometries are also possible either by cutter path or shape
Owing to the variety of shapes possible and its high production rates, milling is one of the most
versatile and widely used machining operations. Some important factors and terms:
is an interrupted cutting operation-the teeth of the milling cutter enter and exit work
during each revolution
milling cutter, cutting edges called "teeth"
milling machine
6.6.4.1 Peripheral Milling vs. Face Milling
In Peripheral milling or plain milling, Cutter axis is parallel to surface being machined and
cutting edges are present on outside periphery of cutter
In Face milling, Cutter axis is perpendicular to surface being milled and cutting edges on both
the end and outside periphery of the cutter
6.6.4.2 Types of Milling
• Peripheral Milling
 Slab milling
 Slotting
 Side milling
 Straddle milling
• Face milling
 Conventional face milling
 Partial face milling
 End milling
 Profile milling
 Pocket milling
 Surface contouring
6.6.5 Hobbing
Hobbing is a machining process for making gears, splines, and sprockets on a hobbling machine,
which is a special type of machine. The teeth or splines are progressively cut into the work piece
by a series of cuts made by cutting called a hob. Compared to other gear forming processes it is
relatively inexpensive but still quite accurate, thus it is used for a broad range of parts and
quantities
It is the most widely used gear cutting process for creating spur and helical gears and more gears
are cut by hobbling than any other process since it is relatively quick and inexpensive.
6.6.5.1 Types of Gears
 Spur Gears
 Helical Gears
 Worm Wheel
 Sprocket
 Bevel Gear
 Spiral Bevel

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 Rack and Pinion

6.6.5.2 Cutters Used for Gear Cutting
 Mechanical Cutter
 Hob Cutter
 Disc type Cutter
 Taper shank Cutter
 Sprocket Cutter
 Blades

7 Assembly Shop
Assembly shop in HMC is responsible for all type of assemblies generally including assembly of
road rollers, overheard cranes, and mobile cranes, sugar and cement plant components etc.
7.1 Assembly
Assembly is a manufacturing process in which parts (usually interchangeable) are added to a
product in a sequential manner to create a finished product
7.2 Fitting
Fitting is the process of joining two mechanical parts to each other
7.3 Fits
The relation between two mating parts is called fit. Depending upon the actual limits of the hole
or shaft sizes, fits may be classified as clearance fit, transition fit and interference fit.
7.3.1 Clearance fit
Clearance fit is defined as a clearance between mating parts. In clearance fit, there is always a
positive clearance between the hole and shaft.
7.3.2 Interference fit
Interference fit is obtained if the difference between the hole and shaft sizes is negative before
assembly. Interference fit generally ranges from minimum to maximum interference.
7.3.3 Transition fit
Transition fit may result in either an interference or clearance, depending upon the actual values
of the tolerance of individual parts.

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7.4 System of Fits

In identifying limit dimensions for the three classes of fit, two systems are in use:
7.4.1 Hole Basis System
The size of the shaft is obtained by subtracting the allowance from the basic size of the hole.
Tolerances are then applied to each part separately. In this system, the lower deviation of the
hole is zero. The letter symbol indication for this is 'H'.
7.4.2 Shaft Basis System
The upper deviation of the shaft is zero, and the size of the hole is obtained by adding the
allowance to the basic size of the shaft. The letter symbol indication is 'h'.

8 Technology Department
Technology department has two major functions:
 Provide feasibility study or quantitative details of a project before taking the order
 Technology Preparation for workshops
HMC I & II has different Technology departments e.g. Technology I and Technology II.
 Technology I is responsible for fabrication, machining and assembly.
 Technology II is responsible for casting and forging.
Technology department designs the entire process for completion of a project including all major
as well as minor details.
8.1 Feasibility Study
 Sales and marketing department receives a quotation about any project.
 It sends a letter to technology department and asks for its feasibility study.
 Then Technology department prepares a feasibility report to sales and marketing
department.
 Further, the report is sent to accounts department for cost analysis.
 Then, it is sent back to Sales and marketing Department, which replies the quotation or
receives the order.

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9 PATTERN SHOP
In this shop, the very first step for the casting is done. Patterns are made for molds to be for
casting purposes. All this work is performed under the supervision of Shop in charge. The
process is performed following various steps which explained with terms as below
 Drawing study of the job.
 Add appropriate allowances to the casting material on paper work.
 Making layout of the pattern according to the drawing on the layout board.
 Margining the material to be used in the pattern.
 Cutting and carving the margined parts using machines and tools.
 Prepare core boxes for the core prints.
 Paint according to casting parts required.
 Assembling the pattern parts using glues, nails and tools.
 Weighing them and noting all the dimensions.
 Check and clearance by quality control authority in the shop.
 Load and sending it to the desired foundry for casting processes.
 Prepare for the next job.
9.1 Drawing Study
Drawing study means the study of the paper work in the shop before making the pattern in shop.
This step is basic step of this shop as the job depends upon it all the time. Drawing shows, us the
pattern to be made and what its dimensions are. Drawing is actually the paper work of any job
either for pattern or casted product. It can be in two angle projections as
1st angle projection
3rd angle projection
Both angle of projection can be implemented in this shop but mostly 3rd angle of projection is
being implemented here as we follow the metric system in Pakistan mostly. Difference between
first and third is as below
In first angle the object is in between the eye and drawing plane whereas in third angle of
projection, drawing plane is in between the eye the object.
On drawing sheet, in first angle of projection, the front view is on the top left corner of sheet and
top view is on the bottom left corner of the sheet whereas for third angle projection these views
are inverted.
British units indicate the drawing to be 1st whereas metric system indicated of 3rd angle of
projection.
9.2 Allowance Approximation
Adding appropriate allowances which are given on the drawing and usually there are three types
of allowances in the sheet as:
1. Working allowance
2. Shrinkage allowance
3. Molding allowance
4. Casting allowance
5. Fabrication allowance
The purpose of pattern shop is to make wooden or metallic components for casting process.
9.3 Types Of Pattern:
 One piece or solid pattern

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 Two piece or split pattern

 Three piece pattern
 Loose piece pattern.
 Self-core pattern.
 Sweep pattern.
 Skeleton pattern.
 Match plate pattern.
 Connecting pattern.
 Master pattern
9.4 Types of Core Prints:
 Top print.
 Bottom print.
 Side print.
 Tail print.
 Hang print.
 Balancing print.
9.5 Types Of Core Box:
 Box type core box.
 Shake out type core box.
 Gang type core box
9.6 Machines In Pattern Shop:
 Band saw.
 Joint planner.
 Thickness planner.
 Disc and spindle sander.
 Wooden lathe machine.
 Wooden milling machine.

10 Foundry
A foundry is a workshop that produces metal castings. Metals are cast into shapes by melting
them into a liquid, pouring the metal in a mold, and removing the mold material or casting after
the metal has solidified as it cools. The most common metals processed are aluminum and cast
iron. HMC has 2 Foundries that are
 Steel Foundry
 Cast iron foundry
The process for both foundries is the same the difference is that in steel foundry various types of
steel (except stainless steel) are cast (depending upon material composition).In Cast-iron foundry
cast iron and various non-ferrous metals are casted. The casting process of both foundries is
explained below

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10.1 Casting Process

Casting process contain the following steps:
10.2 Pattern Making
Pattern making is the first stage for developing a new casting. The pattern, or replica of the
finished piece, is typically constructed from wood but may also be made of metal, plastic, plaster
or other suitable materials. These patterns are permanent so can be used to form a number of
molds. Pattern making is a highly skilled and precise process that is critical to the quality of the
final product. Many modern pattern shops make use of computer-aided design (CAD) to design
patterns.
10.3 Mold Making
The mold is formed in a mold box (flask), which is typically constructed in two halves to assist
in removing the pattern. Sand molds are temporary so a new mold must be formed for each
individual casting. A cross-section of a typical two-part sand mold. The bottom half of the mold
(the drag) is formed on a molding board. Cores require greater strength to hold their form during
pouring. Dimensional precision also needs to be greater because interior surfaces are more
difficult to machine, making errors costly to fix.
10.4 Melting and Pouring
Many foundries, particularly ferrous foundries, use a high proportion of scrap metal to make up a
charge. As such, foundries play an important role in the metal recycling industry. Internally
generated scrap from runners and risers, as well as reject product, is also recycled. The charge is
weighed and introduced to the furnace. Alloys and other materials are added to the charge to
produce the desired melt. In some operations the charge may be preheated, often using waste
heat.
In traditional processes metal is superheated in the furnace. Molten metal is transferred from the
furnace to a ladle and held until it reaches the desired pouring temperature.
10.5 Fettling, Cleaning and Finishing
After the casting has cooled, the gating system is removed, often using band saws, abrasive cut-
off wheels or electrical cut-off devices. A ‘parting line flash’ is typically formed on the casting
and must be removed by grinding or with chipping hammers. Castings may also need to be
repaired by welding, brazing or soldering to eliminate defects.
10.6 Advantages of Sand Casting
 Use is widespread; technology well developed.
 Materials are inexpensive, capable of holding detail and resist deformation when heated
 Process is suitable for both ferrous and non-ferrous metal castings.
 Handles a more diverse range of products than any other casting method.
 Produces both small precision castings and large castings of up to 1 ton.
 Can achieve very close tolerances if uniform compaction is achieved.
 Mold preparation time is relatively short in comparison to many other processes.
 The relative simplicity of the process makes it ideally suited to mechanization.
 High levels of sand reuse are achievable

10.7 Limitations
 Typically limited to one or a small number of molds per box.

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 Sand: metal ratio is relatively high.

 High level of waste is typically generated, particularly sand, bag house dust and spent
shot.

10.8 Steel Melting Furnace

Molten metal is prepared in a variety of furnaces, the choice of which is determined by the
quality, quantity and throughput required.
10.9 Electric Induction Furnaces
Electric induction furnaces are the most common type used for batch melting of ferrous, copper
and super alloys. This method involves the use of an electrical current surrounding a crucible that
holds the metal charge. Furnace sizes range from < 100 kg up to 15 tons. For production of super
alloys and titanium, melting may be undertaken in a vacuum chamber to prevent oxidation.

11 Forging Shop
Forging is a deformation process in which the work is compressed between two dies using either
impact or gradual pressure to form the part.”
Forging is an important industrial process used to make a variety of high strength components
for automotive, aerospace, defense and other applications. These components include engine
crankshafts and connecting rods, gears, aircraft structural components, jet engine turbine parts
etc. In addition, steel and other basic metal industries use the forging process to establish the
basic form of large components that are subsequently machined to final shape and dimensions.
11.1 Forging shop I:
In this shop die forging is done.
11.1.1 Die forging:
In this type of forging method specific dies are used to produce the specific job for this
allowance is very low.
11.1.1.1 Requirements:
For die forging we need:
 Furnace
 Hammers
In HMC forging shop 1 has following facilities:
 150kg hammering machine
 300kg hammering machine
 750kg hammering machine
 800 ton hydraulic press with 3 ton manipulator
 25 to counter blow
 Trimming press
 Crew presser
 63 ton power press
 400 ton press
 1250 ton press
 Swelling crane of 1 ton capacity

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11.2 Forging shop II

In this shop free forging is done. Free forging is method of producing jobs without using dies. In
free forging large allowance is present.
HMC have following facilities in this shop:
 1 ton hammer
 2 ton hammer
 3 ton hammer

12 Material Testing Lab

There are three sections of the lab;
1. Chemical section
2. Metallographic
3. Mechanical
12.1 Chemical Section:
The chemical section lies in the steel foundry. So, it mainly concerns with the determination of
the chemical composition of steel. However, samples from cast iron foundry are also brought
here to determine the chemical composition.
12.1.1 Emission Spectrometer:
In emission spectrometer, a 2”*2” sample is used. Arc is produced by using a tungsten electrode.
Argon gas is used for shielding. The atoms got excited. When they return to their ground state,
they emit radiations. Each element emits radiations of some specific wavelength. So, from the
wavelength element and its percentage can be calculated.
12.1.2 WET Analysis:
The chemical composition can also be determined by wet analysis. Different chemicals are used
in different proportions. The color achieved at the end is a measure of element and its
percentage.
Other facilities include;
1. Spectrophotometer
2. Carbon apparatus

12.2 Metallography:
Metallography is the process which involves the testing of materials using the microscopes and
other optical devices and then their internal structure is compared with the desired material’s
intermolecular structure.
The important uses of the metallographic study are following:
 Process control
 Presence and identity of defects
 Inclusion identification and determination of their density
 Examination of cracks, fractures and other failure mechanisms
 Evaluation of effects of corrosion and chemical attacks
 Identification of microstructure
 Grain or particle size
In metallographic section we studied and observed the microstructure of grey cast iron sample
which includes the graphite flakes with the simple microscope at 40 magnifications whereas its

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magnification is up to 450. Also we observed the structure of M.S sample by digital microscope
in which a digital camera is placed and the photograph of the structure is obtained and its
magnification is up to 5000.
Magnifications such as;
 100 X
 450 X
 1000 X
 2000 X
12.3 Mechanical Testing
In this section the tests being performed are:
 Tensile Tests
o Tensile strength
o Yield strength
o Elongation
o Reduction in area
 Bend Tests
 Impact Tests
 Crushing Test
 Hardness
 Shear Test
12.3.1 Universal Testing Machine (UTM)
A universal testing machine (UTM), also known as a universal tester, materials testing machine
or materials test frame, is used to test the tensile strength and compressive strength of materials.
It is named after the fact that it can perform many standard tensile and compression tests on
materials, components, and structures. The set-up and usage are detailed in a test method, often
published by a standards organization. This specifies the sample preparation, fixturing, gauge
length (the length which is under study or observation), analysis, etc.
The specimen is placed in the machine between the grips and an extensometer if required can
automatically record the change in gauge length during the test. If an extensometer is not fitted,
the machine itself can record the displacement between its cross heads on which the specimen is
held. However, this method not only records the change in length of the specimen but also all
other extending / elastic components of the testing machine and its drive systems including any
slipping of the specimen in the grips. Once the machine is started it begins to apply an increasing
load on specimen. Throughout the tests the control system and its associated software record the
load and extension or compression of the specimen.
12.3.2 Charpy Impact Testing Machine
Charpy impact testing involves striking a standard notched specimen with a controlled weight
pendulum swung from a set height. The standard Charpy-V notch specimen is 55mm long,
10mm square and has a 2mm deep notch with a tip radius of 0.25mm machined on one face. The
specimen is supported at its two ends on an anvil and struck on the opposite face to the notch by
the pendulum. The amount of energy absorbed in fracturing the test-piece is measured and this
gives an indication of the notch toughness of the test material.
The pendulum swings through during the test, the height of the swing being a measure of the
amount of energy absorbed in fracturing the specimen. Conventionally, three specimens are
tested at any one temperature and the results averaged.

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Charpy tests show whether a metal can be classified as being either brittle or ductile. This is
particularly useful for ferritic steels that show a ductile to brittle transition with decreasing
temperature. A brittle metal will absorb a small amount of energy when impact tested, a tough
ductile metal absorbs a large amount of energy. The appearance of a fracture surface also gives
information about the type of fracture that has occurred; a brittle fracture is bright and
crystalline, a ductile fracture is dull and fibrous.
The percentage crystallinity is determined by making a judgement of the amount of crystalline or
brittle fracture on the surface of the broken specimen, and is a measure of the amount of brittle
fracture.
Lateral expansion is a measure of the ductility of the specimen. When a ductile metal is broken,
the test-piece deforms before breaking, and material is squeezed out on the sides of the
compression face. The amount by which the specimen deforms in this way is measured and
expressed as millimeters of lateral expansion.
When reporting the results of a Charpy test, the absorbed energy (in J) is always reported, while
the percentage crystallinity and lateral expansion are optional on the test report. It should be
emphasized that Charpy tests are qualitative, the results can only be compared with each other or
with a requirement in a specification - they cannot be used to calculate the fracture toughness of
a weld or parent metal.
12.3.3 Brinell Testing Machine
The Brinell hardness test method as used to determine Brinell hardness, is defined in ASTM
E10. Most commonly it is used to test materials that have a structure that is too coarse or that
have a surface that is too rough to be tested using another test method, e.g., castings and
forgings. Brinell testing often use a very high test load (3000 kgf) and a 10mm wide indenter so
that the resulting indentation averages out most surface and sub-surface inconsistencies.
The Brinell method applies a predetermined test load (F) to a carbide ball of fixed diameter (D)
which is held for a predetermined time period and then removed. The resulting impression is
measured across at least two diameters – usually at right angles to each other and these result
averaged (d). A chart is then used to convert the averaged diameter measurement to a Brinell
hardness number. Test forces range from 500 to 3000 kgf.
A Brinell hardness result measures the permanent width of indentation produced by a carbide
indenter applied to a test specimen at a given load, for a given length of time. Typically, an
indentation is made with a Brinell hardness testing machine and then measured for indentation
diameter in a second step with a specially designed Brinell microscope or optical system. The
resulting measurement is converted to a Brinell value using the Brinell formula or a conversion
chart based on the formula. Most typically, a Brinell test will use 3000 kgf load with a 10mm
ball. If the sample material is aluminum, the test is most frequently performed with a 500 kgf
load and 10mm ball. Brinell test loads can range from 3000 kgf down to 1 kgf. Ball indenter
diameters can range from 10mm to 1mm.
Generally, the lower loads and ball diameters are used for convenience in “combination” testers,
like Rockwell units, that have a small load capacity. The test standard specifies a time of 10 to 15
seconds, although shorter times can be used if it is known that the shorter time does not affect the
result.
12.3.4 Rockwell Testing Machine
The Rockwell hardness test method, as defined in ASTM E-18, is the most commonly used
hardness test method. The Rockwell test is generally easier to perform, and more accurate than
other types of hardness testing methods. The Rockwell test method is used on all metals, except

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in condition where the test metal structure or surface conditions would introduce too much
variations; where the indentations would be too large for the application; or where the sample
size or sample shape prohibits its use.
The Rockwell method measures the permanent depth of indentation produced by a force/load on
an indenter. First, a preliminary test force (commonly referred to as preload or minor load) is
applied to a sample using a diamond indenter. This load represents the zero or reference position
that breaks through the surface to reduce the effects of surface finish.
After the preload, an additional load, call the major load, is applied to reach the total required test
load. This force is held for a predetermined amount of time (dwell time) to allow for elastic
recovery. This major load is then released and the final position is measured against the position
derived from the preload, the indentation depth variance between the preload value and major
load value. This distance is converted to a hardness number.
Preliminary test loads (preloads) range from 3 kgf (used in the “Superficial” Rockwell scale) to
10kgf (used in the “Regular” Rockwell scale) to 200 kgs. Total test forces range from 15kgf to
150kgf (superficial and regular) to 500 to 3000 kgf (macro hardness).
A variety of indenters may be used: conical diamond with a round tip for harder metals to ball
ndenter’s ranges with a diameter ranging from 1/16” to ½” for softer materials.

13 Inspection
Inspection is a process in which the material is just visually Checked by using many apparatus
like Vernier Caliper, Micro meter screw gauges, Tapes, Compasses etc. When this is done, then a
report is prepared containing all the references with respect to that the material was passed out
from the inspection stage and this is a necessary step to assure the quality of the product. And is
done where the status of the manufacturing industry is to be maintained and the Quality of the
manufactured product is too kept up to the standards.
The working process starts with agreement between purchaser and manufacture, the manufacture
provides Preformat Invoice (PI) to the purchaser which explains the equipment specification and
related price. Then the purchaser issues the Purchase Order (PO) which confirming the preformat
invoice. Before start of manufacturing, the purchaser must provide equipment inspection and test
plan (ITP) to the manufacture. The ITP identifies all inspection points for purchaser inspector.
Then the manufacture needs to prepare the project quality control plan based of this inspection
and test plan. The manufacture notifies purchaser inspector in advance to attend to her factory for
witnessing the inspections and tests. The communication and coordination channel between
manufacture, purchaser inspector and purchaser are agreed in the Pre-inspection meeting
(PIM).Based the international practice manufacture sends her notification to the purchaser, and
purchaser reviews the notification and after her approval sends to the inspector.
Then the inspector will be attended in the in manufacture shop to witness the test or inspection.
The purchaser inspector will send his/her inspection visit report to the purchaser. Purchaser can
assign his/her own inspector which is her own direct employee or hire a third party inspection
agency to carry out inspection.
Inspection and test plan has tabular format and its content extracted from construction code. In
each row of the table there is quality control and inspection requirement and determine which
party is responsible for control and inspection. There are three parties in ITP:
 Manufacturer
 Third Party Inspector (TPI)
 Client or purchaser.

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Final Inspection before manufacturing section consists of Pre-Inspection Meeting (PIM) and
review of quality control documents which need to be approved before start of manufacturing.
There are 3 or 4 important terminologies in the ITP which determines the responsibility of each
party. These are:
13.1 Hold point (H)
Hold on the production till TPI Inspector perform inspection and supervise the required test, as
general; attendance to the PIM meeting, raw material inspection and identification, Post Weld
Heat Treatment Review, Hydrostatic Test, Performance Test, Run-Out Test and Final Inspection
are Hold points. Normally manufactures shall notify TPI Inspector 7 working days in advance.
13.2 Witness Point (W)
Manufacture shall notify client and TPI Inspector but there is no hold on the production, client
can waive this inspection based on his discretion and inform TPI Inspector.
13.3 Spot Witness (SW)
For items with spot witness manufacture shall notify TPI inspector as fulfilling the monitoring
for example one random visit for whole UT Tests or one or two visit for whole surface
preparation work for painting.
13.4 Review (R)
Review means Review document, which includes the review of quality control records, test
reports and etc. When TPI Inspector make visit for hold or witness point, the inspector can
review the related documents.
13.5 Welding Procedure Specifications (WPS)
Welding procedure specifications is a report generated by an accredited welding engineer. This report
contains all the technical details of the process including what type of welding was done, what welding
position was used, what type of filler metal was applied and at what angle was the electrode held to
perform welding. This report is then checked and stamped by the Quality Assurance department and
sent to Third Party inspection for their approval.

14 References
Groover, M. P. (2007). Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing materials, processes and systems . John
Wiley & Sons,Inc.

W.A.J Chapman. (2001). Workshop Technology (Part I) , 4th Edition. Viva Books New Delhi .

W.A.J Chapman. (2001). Workshop Technology (Part II), 4th Edition. New Delhi: Viva Books .

William D. Callister, Jr. (2007). Material Science and Engineering an Introduction 7th Edition. Utah: John
Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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