Complex Analysis

Josephine J. Baculta-Nalzaro, PhD

Instructor

College of Technology and Allied Sciences

Bohol Island State University
CPG North Avenue,Tagbilaran City
bacultaj@yahoo.com

1 SETS and RELATIONS

Definition 1.1 A set is any defined list or collection of objects denoted by capital letters
A, B, X, Y, .... The objects comprising the set are called its elements or members and
will be denoted by the lower case letters a, b, x, y,...

The statement p is an element of A or equivalently, p belongs to A is written p ∈ A. The

negation of p ∈ A is written p ∈
/ A. There are essentially two ways to specify a particular
set.

Example 1.2 1. Listing method: The set A whose elements are the letter a, e, i, o and
u is written as A = {a, e, i, o, u}. Note that the elements are separated by commas
and enclosed in braces {}.

2. Rule Method - stating those properties which characterize the elements in the set.

Definition 1.3 The set B whose elements are the positive integers is written as B = {x :
x is an integer, x > 0} which reads B is the set of x such that x is an integer and x is
greater than zero. A letter x, is used to denote an arbitrary member of the set; the colon is
read as ’such that’ and the comma as ’and’.

Definition 1.4 Two sets A and B are equal written A = B, if they consist of the same
elements, i.e. if each member of A belongs to B and each member of B belongs to A. The
negation of A = B is written as A 6= B.

Example 1.5 Let E = {x : x2 − 3x + 2 = 0}, F = {1, 2} and G = {1, 2, 2, 1} Then

E = F = G. Observe that a set does not depend on the way in which its elements are
displayed. A set remains the same if its elements are repeated or rearranged.

Definition 1.6 A set can be finite or infinite. A set is finite if it consists of n different
elements, where n is some positive integer; otherwise a set is infinite. In particular, a set
which consists of exactly one element is called a singleton set.

Definition 1.7 A set A is a subset of a set B or equivalently, B is a superset of A,

written A ⊂ Bor B ⊃ A iff each element in A also beongs to B; that is, if x ∈ A implies
x ∈ B. We also say that A is contained in B or B contains A. The negation of A ⊂ B is
written as A 6⊂ or B 6⊃ A and states that there is an x ∈ A such that x ∈
/ B.

Example 1.8 COnsider the sets A = {1, 3, 5, 7, ...}, B = {5, 10, 15, 20, ...}, and C = {x :
x is prime, x > 2}={3, 5, 7, 11, ...}. Then C ⊂ A since every prime number greater than 2
is odd. On the other hand, B 6⊂ A since 10 ∈ B but 10 ∈ / A.
2 J. Baculta-Nalzaro

Example 1.9 We will let N enote the set of positive integers, Z denote the set of integers,
Q denote the set of rational numbers and R denoe the set of real numbers. Accordingly,
N⊂Z⊂Q⊂R

Definition 1.10 Two sets A and B are equal if and only if A ⊂ B and B ⊂ A. In case
that A ⊂ B but A =
6 B, we say that A is a proper subset of B or B contains A properly.

Theorem 1.11 Let A, B and C be any sets. Then (i)A ⊂ A; (ii) if A ⊂ B and B ⊂ A
then A = B; and (iii) if A ⊂ B and B ⊂ B then A ⊂ C.

Definition 1.12 All sets unde investigation are subsets of a fixed set called as the uni-
versal set or universe of discourse and denote it by U . The empty or null set is a
set which contains no elements. This set, denoted by ∅, is considered finite and a subset of
every other set.. Thus, for any set A, ∅ ⊂ A ⊂ U .

Example 1.13 1. In plane geometry, the universal set consists of all points in the plane.
2. Let A = {x : x2 = 4 , is odd }. Then A is empty, i.e. A = ∅.
3. Let B = {∅}. Then B 6= ∅ for B contains one element.

Frequently, the members of a set are sets themselves.

Example 1.14 Each line in a set of lines is a set of points.

To help clarify these situations, we use the words ”class”, ”collection” and ”family”
synonymously with set. Usually we use class for a set of sets, and the collections
or family for a set of classes. The subclass, subcollection and subfamily have meanings
analogous to a subset.

Example 1.15 The members of the class {{2, 3}, {2}, {5, 6}} are the sets {2, 3}, {2} and
{5, 6}.

Example 1.16 Consider any set A. The power set of A, denoted by P(A) is the class of all
subsets of A. In particular, if A = {a, b, c}, then
P(A) = {A, {a, b}, {a, c}, {b, c}, {a}, {b}, {c}, ∅}.

Definition 1.17 The word space shall mean a non-empty set which possesses some type
of mathematical structure, e.g. vector space, metric space or topological space. In such a
situation, we call the elements in a space point.

Definition 1.18 The union of two sets A and B, denoted by A∪B, is the set of all elements
which belong to A or B, i.e.
A ∪ B = {x : x ∈ A or x ∈ B}

Definition 1.19 The intersection of two sets A an B, denoted by A ∩ B, is the set of

elements which belong to both A and B, i.e.
A ∩ B = {x : x ∈ A and x ∈ B}

Definition 1.20 If A ∩ B = ∅, that is, if A and B do not have any elements in common,
then A and B are said to be disjoint or non-intersecting. A class A is called a disjoint
class of sets if each pair of distinct sets in A is disjoint.
Complex Analysis 3

Definition 1.21 The relative complement of a set B with respect to a set A, or simply
the difference of A and B, denoted by A\B, is the set of elements which belong to A but
which do not belong to B. In other words,

A\B = {x : x ∈ A, x ∈
/ B}

Observe that A\B are disjoint, i.e. (A\B) ∪ B = ∅.

Definition 1.22 The absolute complement or simply, complement of a set A, denoted

by Ac , is the set of elements which do not belong to A, i.e.

Ac = {x : x ∈ U, x ∈
/ A}.

In other words, Ac is the difference of the universal set U and A.

Theorem 1.23 Sets satisfy the laws below:

1. Idempotent Laws : A ∪ A = A and A ∩ A = A

2. Associative Laws: (A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C) and (A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C)

3. Commutative Laws : A ∪ B = B ∪ A and A ∩ B = B ∩ A

4. Identity Laws: A ∪ ∅ = A; A ∪ U = A; A ∪ U = U ; A ∩ ∅ = ∅

5. Complement Laws: A ∪ Ac = U ; A ∩ Ac = ∅; (Ac )c = A; U c = ∅; ∅c = U

6. De Morgan’s Laws: (A ∪ B)c = Ac ∩ B c ; (A ∩ B)c = Ac ∪ B c

Remark 1.24 Each of the above laws follows an analogous logical law. For example,

A ∩ B = {x : x ∈ A and x ∈ B} = {x : x ∈ B and x ∈ A} = B ∩ A

Theorem 1.25 Each of the following conditions is equivalent to A ⊂ B:

1. A ∩ B = A

2. A ∪ B = B

3. B c ⊂ Ac

4. A ∩ B c = ∅

5. B ∪ Ac = U

Definition 1.26 Let A and B be two sets. The product set of A and B, written A × B,
consists of all ordered pairs ha, biwhere a ∈ A and b ∈ B, i.e.,

A × B = {ha, bi : a ∈ A, b ∈ B}

The product of a set with itself say A × A, will be denoted by A2 .

Example 1.27 In Rc = R × R, each poiny P represents an ordered pair ha, bi of real

numbers and vice versa.

Example 1.28 Let {1, 2, 3} and B = {a, b}. Then

A × B = {h1, ai , h1, bi , h2, ai , h2, bi , h3, ai , h3, bi}

4 J. Baculta-Nalzaro

2 TOPOLOGICAL SPACES:DEFINITIONS
Definition 2.1 Let X be a nonempty set τ ⊆ P (X). Then τ is a topology in X if and
only if
1. X and ∅ belongs to τ .
2. The union of any number of sets in τ belongs to τ .
3. The intersection of any two sets in τ belongs to τ .
The members of τ are are called open τ -open sets, or simply open sets, and X together
with tau, i.e. the pair (X, τ ) is called a topological space.

Definition 2.2 Let (X, τ ) be a topological space, x ∈ X and U ⊆ X. U is a neighborhood

of x (nbd U (x)) if x ∈ U and U ∈ τ .

Example 2.3 Consider the following classes of subsets of X = {a, b, c, d, e}.

1. τ1 = {X, ∅, {a}, {c, d}, {a, c, d}, {b, c, d, e}}
2. τ2 = {X, ∅, {a}, {c, d}, {a, c, d}, {b, c, d}}
3. τ3 = {X, ∅, {a}, {c, d}, {a, c, d}, {a, b, d, e}}
Observe that τ1 is a topology on X since it satisfies the necessary three axioms given above.
But τ2 is not a topology on X since the union
{a, c, d} ∪ {b, c, d} = {a, b, c, d}
of two members of τ2 does not beolong to τ2 . Also τ3 is not a topology on X since the
intersection
{a, c, d} ∩ {a, b, d, e} = {a, d}
of two sets in τ3 does not belong to τ3 .

Example 2.4 Let D denote the class of all subsets of X. Observe that D satisfies the
axioms for a topology on X. This topology is called the discrete topology; and X together
with its discrete topology, i.e., the pair (X, D), is called a discrete topological space or
simply discrete space.

Example 2.5 The class I = {X, ∅}, consisting of X and ∅ alone, is itself a topology on
X. It is called the indiscrete topology, and X together with its indiscrete topology, i.e.,
(X, τ ) is called an indiscrete topological space or simply indiscrete space.

Example 2.6 Let X = {0, 1} and consider the two topologies: τ1 = 2 = P (X); τ2 =
{∅, {0}, X}. Let S = {X, τ2 }. Then S is called the Sierpinski space.

Remark 2.7 1. I ⊂ τ ⊂ D for any topology τ in X.

2. τ1 is larger (finer or with more open sets) than τ0 if τ0 ⊂ τ1

Example 2.8 Let X = {a, b, c} and consider that two topologies: τ1 = {∅, X, {a}, {a, b}};
τ1 = {∅, X, {a}, {c}, {a, b}, {a, c}}. Then τ0 ⊂ τ1 . Thus, τ1 is finer than τ0 .

Theorem 2.9 Let {τα |α ∈ A} be a family of topologies in X. Then ∩α τα = {U |∀α ∈

A, U ∈ τα } is also a topology in X, however, ∪α∈A τα need not be a topology.
Complex Analysis 5

Example 2.10 Let X = {l, m, n, o, p} and consider the topologies: τ1 = {X, ∅, {m}};
τ2 = {X, ∅, {l}}. Then τ1 ∪ τ2 = {X, ∅, {l}, {m}} is not a topology since {l} ∪ {m} =
{l, m} ∈
/ τ1 ∪ τ2 . Therefore, ∪α∈A τα need not be a topology.

Definition 2.11 Let A ⊂ X. Then A is closed if Ac is an open set.

Example 2.12 Consider the following classes of subsets of X = {a, b, c, d, e} and the topol-
ogy τ1 = {X, ∅, {a}, {c, d}, {a, c, d}, {b, c, d, e}}. Then the closed sets in X are: ∅, X, {b, c, d, e}, {a, b, e}, {b, e},
and {a}.

Theorem 2.13 1. The intersection of any family of closed sets is a closed set.
2. The union of finitely many closed sets is a closed set.
\ [
Proof: (1) Suppose that Ai is closed for all i. Note that ( Ai )c = Aci is open since Aci
\ i i
is open ∀. Hence, Ai is closed.
i
n
[ n
\
(2) Suppose that Ai is closed ∀i. Note that ( Ai ) c = Aci is open since Aci is open
i=1 i=1
n
[
∀i. Hence, is closed. 
i=1

3 ELEMENTARY CONCEPTS
Example 3.1 Consider Example 2.12. Then {b, c, d, e} and {a, b, e} are closed sets in X
and {b, c, d, e} ∩ {a, b, e} = {b, e} is closed. Also, {b, e} and {a} are closed sets in X and
{b, e} ∪ {a} = {a, b, e} is also closed in X.

Definition 3.2 Let A ⊂ X. A point x ∈ X is adherent to A if each nbd of x contains at

least one point of A (which may be x itself). The set
A = {x ∈ X| for all U (x) : U (x) ∩ A 6= ∅}
of all points in X adherent to A is called the closure of A.

Example 3.3 Let X = {a, b, c, d, e} and the topology τ = {∅, X, {a, b}, {c, d}, {e}, {a, b, e}, {c, d, e}, {a, b, c, d}}.
Consider A = {c, e}. Note that for a ∈ X, the nbd {a, b} of {a} and {b} intersection to the
set A = {c, e} is empty. Thus, {a} and {b} are not adherent points of A. However, for every
nbd of the sets c, d and e, its intersection to A is not empty. Hence, c, d and e are adherent
points of A. It follows that A = {c, e, d}.

Theorem 3.4 1. A ⊂ A, for any set A.

2. A is closed iff A = A.

Proof: Let x ∈ A. Then for all U (x), U (x)∩ =

6 ∅. Thus x ∈ A. Therefore, A ⊂ A.

⇒ Suppose A is closed. (Show: A = A; i.e. A ⊆ A and A ⊆ A ). Suppose x ∈ / A. Then

x ∈ Ac . Since A is closed, Ac is open. Hence, Ac is a nbd of x. Since Ac ∩ A = ∅, it follows
that x ∈ A. This implies that A ⊆ A. Since A ⊆ A, equality follows.

⇐ Suppose that A = A. (Show: Ac is open);Let x ∈ Ac . Then x ∈ / A. Since A = A,

x∈/ A. Thus, there exists nbd U (x) of x with U (x) ∩ A = ∅. Thus, x ∈ U (x) ⊂ Ac . Hence,
by a remark, Ac is open implying that A is closed. 
6 J. Baculta-Nalzaro

Example 3.5 Ccnsider Example 3.7. Note that the singleton {e} is a closed set since its
complement set {a, b, c, d} is open. Consider A = {e}. Then A = {e} since the nbds of
e intersection with the set A is not empty. (nbds {a, b}, {a, b, c, d}, {c, d} of a, b, c and d
respectively has empty intersection with the set A.)

Theorem 3.6 A is the smallest closed set set containing A; i.e. A = ∩{F |F is closed and F ⊃
A}

Example 3.7 Let X = {a, b, c, d, e} and the topology τ = {∅, X, {a, b}, {c, d}, {e}, {a, b, e}, {c, d, e}, {a, b, c, d}}.
Consider A = {c, e}. Then A = {c, e, d}. Take note that X, ∅, {c, d, e}, {a, b, e}, {a, b, c, d}, {c, d}, {a, b}
and {e} are the closed sets in X and the smallest closed set containing A is {c, d, e} which
is the closure of A.

Definition 3.8 Let A ⊂ X. A point x ∈ X is called a cluster point of A if each nbd of

x contains at least one point in A distinct from x. The set A0 = {x ∈ X| for all U (x) :
U (x) ∩ (A \ x) 6= ∅} of all cluster points of A is called the derived set of A.

Example 3.9 Consider the set X = {a, b, c} and the topology τ1 = {∅, X, {b}, {b, c}, {a}, {a, b}}.
Let A = {b, c}. For a ∈ X, the nbd {a} of a intersection ({b, c}\a) is empty. For b ∈ X, the
nbd {a, b} of b intersection ({b, c}\b) = {c} is empty. Thus, a and b are not cluster points
of A. However, for the nbds of c which are X and {b, c}, their intersection with ({b, c}\c) is
not empty. Thus c is a cluster point of A and A0 = {c}.

Theorem 3.10 A = A ∪ A0 . In particular, A is closed if and only if A0 ⊂ A; that is, A

contains all its cluster points.

Example 3.11 Consider Example 3.17. Note that A = {b, c} and A = {b, c} union A0 = {c}
is {b, c}. Thus, it follows from the above theorem.

Proof: Let x ∈ A. Either x ∈ A or x ∈ / A. If x ∈ A, then x ∈ A ∪ A and we’re done.

Assume, that x ∈ / A. Since x ∈ A, for every open set U with x ∈ U , U ∩ A 6= ∅. Since
x∈/ A, A \ {x} = A. Thus, U ∩ (A \ {x}) 6= ∅, ∀ open set U with x ∈ U . This implies that
0 0 0 0
x ∈ A . Hence,0 x ∈ A ∪ A . In either case, A ⊂0
A∪A .
Let x ∈ A ∪ A . Then either x ∈ A or x ∈ A . If x ∈ A, then for every open 0
set U with
x ∈ U , x ∈ U ∩ A, implying that U ∩ A 6= ∅. This means that x ∈ A. If x ∈ A , then for all
open set U with x ∈ U , U ∩ (A \ {x}) 6= ∅. Since A \ {x} ⊂ A, we must have U ∩ A 6= ∅.
0 0
Hence, x ∈0 A. Either case, x ∈ A ∪ A implies that x ∈ A. Thus, A ∪ A ⊂ A. Consequently,
A=A∪A .

Definition 3.12 Let A ⊂ X. The interior of A is the largest open set contained in A;
that is
Int(A) = ∪{U |U open and U ⊂ A}

Example 3.13 Let X = {a, b, c} and the topology τ = {∅, X, {b}, {b, c}, {a}, {a, b}}.
Consider A = {a, b}. The open sets contained in A are: ∅, {a}, and {a, b}. Note that
∅ ∪ {a} ∪ {a, b} ={a, b}. Thus, Int(A) = {a, b}.

Theorem 3.14 Int(A) = (Ac )c for any set A. In particular, A is open if and only if
A = Int(A).

Proof: ⇒ Assume that A is open. Since A ⊆ A, A is the largest open set contained in itself.
Hence, A = Int(A).
c c c c
⇐ Assume that A = Int(A) = (Ac ) . Then A = (Ac ) , that is, Ac = A . Since Ac = A is
a closed set, it follows that Ac is closed. Hence, A is open. 
Complex Analysis 7

Example 3.15 Let X = {a, b, c} and the topology τ = {∅, X, {b}, {b, c}, {a}, {a, b}}. Con-
sider A = {a, b}. Note that A is open and Int(A) = {a, b}. Hence, A = Int(A).

Definition 3.16 Let A ⊂ X. The boundary F r(A) of A is A ∩ Ac . The boundary of A is

a closed set, and both A and Ac have the same boundary. The boundary can be described
as the part of the closure not in the interior.

Example 3.17 Consider the set X = {a, b, c} and the topology τ1 = {∅, X, {b}, {b, c}, {a}, {a, b}}.
Let A = {b, c}. Note that A = {b, c} and Ac = {a}. Thus, F r({b, c}) = {b, c} ∩ {a} = X =
F r({a}).

Definition 3.18 D ⊂ X is dense in X if D = X. X is dense in X, and in fact X is the

only closed set dense in X.

Proof: Suppose there exist a closed dense subset of X such that D 6= X. Then X = D = D.


Definition 3.19 Let (X, τ ) be a topological space ad Y ⊆ X. The induced topology τY

on Y is {Y ∩ U |U ∈ τ }. (Y, τY ) is called a subspace of (X, τ ).