Sets
Sets
Sets
Groups
2.1 Introduction
We are familiar with the notion of a set since the word is frequently used in
everyday speech, for instance, water set, tea set, sofa set. It is a wonder that
mathematicians have developed this ordinary word into a mathematical concept as
much as it has become a language which is employed in most branches of modem
mathematics.
For the purposes of mathematics, a set is generally described as a well-defined
collection of distinct objects. By a well-defined collection is meant a collection,
which is such that, given any object, we may be able to decide whether the object
belongs to the collection or not. By distinct objects we mean objects no two of which
are identical (same).
The objects in a set are called its members or elements. Capital letters A, B, C,
X, Y, Z etc., are generally used as names of sets and small letters a, b, c, x, y, z etc.,
are used as members of sets.
There are three different ways of describing a set.
i) The Descriptive Method: A set may be described in words. For instance,
the set of all vowels of the English alphabets.
ii) The Tabular Method: A set may be described by listing its
elements within brackets. If A is the set mentioned above, then we may
write:
A = {a,e,i,o,u }.
iii) Set-builder method: It is sometimes more convenient or useful to
employ the method of set-builder notation in specifying sets. This is done
by using a symbol or letter for an arbitrary member of the set and stating
the property common to all the members. Thus the above set may be
written as:
Textbook of Algebra and Trigonometry_
Q' = The set of all irrational numbers = , x Ix ^ , where p.qe Z and q & 0
l <i
HR, = The set of all real numbers = 0u'
Equal Sets: Two sets A and B are equal i.e., A=B, if and only if they have the same
elements that is, if and only if every element of each set is an element of the other set.
Thus the sets { 1, 2, 3 } and {2, 1, 3} are equal. From the definition of equality
of sets it follows that a mere change in the order of the elements of a set does not alter
the set. In other words, while describing a set in the tabular form its elements may be
written in any order.
Note: (1) A = B if and only if they have the same elements means if A - B they have
the same elements and if A and B have the same elements then A=B.
(2) The phrase if and only if is shortly written as iff.
Equivalent Sets: If the elements of two sets A and B can be paired in such a way that
each element of A is paired with one and only one element of B and vice versa, then
Chapter. 2: Sets, Functions and Groups 31
Itltt
{1.3.5. 7.9,...)
Thus the sets N and O are equivalent. But notice that they are not equal.
Remember that two equal sets are necessarily equivalent, but the converse may
not be true i.e., two equivalent sets are not necessarily equal.
Sometimes, the symbol ~ is used to mean is equivalent to. Thus N~ O.
Order of a Set: There is no restriction on the number of members of a set. A set may
have 0, 1, 2, 3 or any number of elements. Sets with zero or one element deserve
special attention. According to the everyday use of the word set or collection it must
have at least two elements. But in mathematics it is found convenient and useful to
consider sets which have only one element or no element at all.
A set having only one element is called a singleton set and a set with no
elements (zero number of elements) is called the empty set or null set. The empty
set is denoted by the symbol O or { }. The set of odd integers between 2 and 4 is a
singleton i.e., the set {3} and the set of even integers between the same numbers is
the empty set.
A Textbook of Algebra and Trigonometry
The solution set of the equation x 2 +1 = 0, in the set of real numbers is also the
empty set. Clearly the set {0} is a singleton set having zero as its only element, and
not the empty set.
Finite and Infinite sets: If a set is equivalent to the set {1, 2, 3, ...., n) for some
fixed natural number n, then the set is said to be finite otherwise infinite.
The set {1, 3, 5, ...., 9999} is a finite set but the set { 1, 3, 5, ...}, which is the
set of all positive odd natural numbers is an infinite set.
Power Set: A set may contain elements, which are sets themselves. For example if:
C = Set of classes of a certain school, then elements of C are sets themselves because
each class is a set of students. An important set of sets is the power set of a given set.
The power set of a set S denoted by P (S) is the set containing all the possible
subsets of S.
P(B) = {0, {1}, {2}, {3}, {1, 2}, {1,3}, {2,3}, {1,2,3}}
Example 5: If C = {a, b, c, d}, then
P(C)={0, {a}, {b}, {c}, {d}, {a, b}, {a,c}, {a,d}, {b,c}, {b,d}, {c,d},
{a,b,c}, {a,b,d}, {a,c,d}, {b,c,d}, {a,b,c,d}}.
Example 6: If D = {a}, then P(D) = {0 , {a}}
Note (1) The power set of the empty set is not empty.
(2) Let n (S ) denoted the number of elements of a set S, then n{P(S)} denotes
the number of elements of the power set of S. From examples 3 to 7
we get the following tab e of results:
n(S ) 0 1 2 3 4 5
rt
1=2 2= 21
II
For illustrating certain concepts of the Set Theory, we sometimes consider quite
small sets (sets having small number of elements) to be universal. This is only an
academic artificiality.
Exercise 2.1
1. Write the following sets in set builder notation:
i) {1,2,3, ...., 1000} ii) {0, 1,2,...., 100}
iii) { 0, 1, + 2,...., +1000} iv) {0,-1,-2.............,-500}
v) {100, 101, 102, ....,400} vi) {-100,-101,-102,....,-500}
vii) {Peshawar, Lahore, Karachi, Quetta}
viii) {January, June, July} ix) The set of all odd natural numbers
x) The set of all rational numbers
xi) The set of all real numbers between 1 and 2,
xii) The set of all integers between - 100 and 1000
2. Write each of the following sets in the descriptive and tabular forms: -
i) {xlxe N a x <10} ii) {xlxe N a 4 < x < 1 2 }
3. Which of the following sets are finite and which of these are infinite?
5. Is there any set which has no proper sub set? If so name that set.
7. Which of the following sentences are true and which of them are false?
8. What is the number of elements of the power set of each of the following sets?
10. Which pairs of sets are equivalent? Which of them are also equal?
vii) {5, 10, 15, 20, 55555}, {5, 10, 15, 20, ...}
Union of two sets: The Union of two sets A and B, denoted by AuB, is the set of all
elements, which belong to A or B. Symbolically;
AkjB = {xlxeAvxe#}
Notice that the elements common to A and B, namely the elements 2,3 have
been written only once in AuB because repetition of an element of a set is not
allowed to keep the elements distinct.
Intersection of two sets: The intersection of two sets A and B, denoted by AnB, is
the set of all elements, which belong to both A and B. Symbolically;
AnB ~{x\xe A a x g B}
Disjoint Sets: If the intersection of two sets is the empty set then the sets are said to
be disjoint sets. For example; if
______________ __ _____________________________ Chapter. 2: Sets, Functions and Groups 37
S, = The set of odd natural numbers and S 2 = The set of even natural numbers,
then Sf and S 2 are disjoint sets.
The set of arts students and the set of science students of a college are disjoint
sets.
Overlapping sets: If the intersection of two sets is non-empty but neither is a subset
of the other, the sets are called overlapping sets, e.g., if
L = {2,3,4,5,6} and M = {5,6,7,8,9,10}, then L and M are two overlapping sets.
Complement of a set: The complement of a set A, denoted by A' or Ar relative to the
universal set U is the set of all elements of U, which do not belong to A.
universal set. For the sake of beauty these regions are generally shown as circular
regions.
In the adjoining figures, the shaded circular region
represents a set A and the remaining portion of
rectangle representing the universal set U
represents A' or U-A.
Below are given some more diagrams
illustrating basic operations on two sets in different cases (lined region represents the
result of the relevant operation in each case given below).
9.
>
i
sets.
10. A and B are n (A - B) = n (A) -n ( A n B )
overlapping
11. A cB A- B = 0 ; n (A - B ) = 0.
12. Be A A-B*0: n (A - B) = n (A) - n (B)
13. A and B disjoint B-A = B n(B -A) = n (B)
14. A and B are n(B -A) = n ( B ) -n ( A n B )
overlapping
15. AeB B - A & 0 ; n (B - A) = n (B ) - n (A)
16. BeA B -A = 0 ; n (B -A) = 0
40 A Textbook of Algebra and Trigonometry
Note (1) Since the empty set contains no elements, therefore, no portion of U
represents it.
(2) If in the diagrams given on preceding page we replace B by the empty set
(by imagining the region representing B to vanish).
Au O = A (From Fig. 1 or 4)
A nth = 0 (From Fig. 5 or 8)
Exercise 2.2
1. Exhibit A k j B and A n B by Venn diagrams in the following cases: -
i) A e 5 ii) ficA iii) A u A '
iv) A and B are disjoint sets. v) A and B are overlapping sets
5. Using the Venn diagrams, if necessary, find the single sets equal lo the
following: -
i) A c ii)AnU iii)Au/ iv)Au<> v)(Pn<P
Properties:
i) A k j B - SuA (Commutative property of Union)
ii) A n B = B nA (Commutative property of Intersection)
iii) Au(BuC) = (AuB)uC (Associative property of Union)
iv) A n ( B n Q = ( A nB) n C (Associative property of Intersection).
v) A u (B n C) = (A u B) n (A u C) (Distributivity of Union over intersection)
vi) An(5uC) = (A n B) u (A n C)(Distributivity of intersection over Union)
In figure(2) A k j B is represented by
horizontally lined region and C by
vertically lined region. ( A u B ) u C is AuB =
represented by the region which is C III
lined in either one or both ways. (AuB)uC
=.|||v#
Fig. (2)
From fig (1) and (2) we can see that
Au(BuC) = (AuB)uC
(iv) In fig (3) doubly lined region
represents.
An(BnC)
Fig. (3)
Chapter. 2: Sets, Functions and Groups
#
Fig. (4)
(v) In fig. (5) A u ( f i n C ) is
represented by the region which is lined
horizontally or vertically or both ways.
Fig. (5)
In fig. (6) ( A u B ) n ( A u C ) is
represented by the doubly lined region. AuB =
Since the two region in fig (5) and (6) are 4uC.|H
the same, therefore.
( A u B ) n ( A u C)
m
Fig. (7)
46 A Textbook of Algebra and Trigonometry
Fig.(8)
(viii) Verify yourselves.
Note: In all the above Venn diagrams only overlapping sets have been
considered. Verification in other cases can also be effected similarly.
Detail of verification may be written by yourselves.
Exercise 2.3
1. Verify the commutative properties of union and intersection for the following
pairs of sets: -
i) A = {1,2,3,4,5}, B = {4,6,8,10} ii) N , Z
iii) A = { x l x e 'Tit a x>0}, B-'Jit-
2. Verify the properties for the sets A,B and C given below: -
i) Associativity of Union ii) Associativity of intersection.
iii) Distributivity of Union over intersection.
iv) Distributivity of intersection over union.
a) A = {1,2,3,4}, B= {3,4,5,6,7,8}, C = {5,6,7,9,10}
b) A = 0 , B = { 0}, C = {0,1,2}
c) N , Z , Q
3. Verify De Morgans Laws for the following sets:
U= { 1,2,3, ...., 20}, A = { 2,4,6,...., 20}and ={1,3,5, ....,19}.
4. Let U - The set of the English alphabet
A = { x I x is a vowel}, B ={ y I y is a consonant},
Verify De Morgans Laws for these sets.
5. With the help of Venn diagrams, verify the two distributive properties in (he
following cases w.r.t union and intersection.
______________________________________________ Chapter. 2: Sets, Functions and Groups
. Ill 1 2 4
iv) 1,4,7,... v) , , ,... vi)
3 12 36 10 iooiooo"'
48 A Textbook of Algebra and Trigonometry________________________________________________
iii) 4<5a8>10
iv) 2 + 2 = 3a6 + 6 = 10
Clearly conjunctions (i) and (ii) are true whereas (iii) and (iv) are false.
3) Disjunction of p and q is p or q . It is symbolically p pvq
q
written p v q . The disjunction p v q is considered
to be true when at least one of the components p and T T T
q is true. It is false when both of them are false. T F T
Table (3) is the truth table.
F T T
Example 2:
F F F
i) 10 is a positive integer or 5 is a rational number.
fable (3)
Find truth value of this disjunction.
Solution: Since the first component is true, the disjunction is true.
ii) A triangle can have two right angles or Lahore is the capital of Sind.
Solution: Both the components being false, the composite proposition is false.
If p then q F T T
is true when p is false and q is true and the compound F F T
proposition is true (according to the fourth row of the "able (4)
table) even when both its components are false. We attempt to clear the position with
the help of an example. Consider the conditional
If a person A lives at Lahore, then he lives in Pakistan.
If the antecedent is false i.e., A does not live in Lahore, all the same he may be
living in Pakistan. We have no reason to say that he does not live in Pakistan
We cannot, therefore, say that the conditional is false. So we must regard it as true. It
must be remembered that we are discussing a problem of Aristotlian logic in which
every proposition must be either true or false and there is no third possibility. In the
case under discussion there being no reason to regard the proposition as false, it has to
be regarded as true. Similarly, when both the antecedent and consequent of the
conditional under consideration are false, there is no justification for quarrelling with
the proposition. Consider another example.
A certain player, Z, claims that if he is appointed captain, the team will win the
tournament. There are four possibilities: -
i) Z is appointed captain and the team wins the tournament. Zs claim is true.
ii) Z is appointed captain but the team loses the tournament. Zs claim is falsified.
iii) Z is not appointed captain but the team all the same wins the tournament.
There is no reason to falsify Zs claim.
iv) Z is not appointed captain and the team loses the tournament. Evidently,
blame cannot be put on Z.
______________________________________________ Chapter. 2: Sets, Functions and Groups
q: He lives in Pakistan
When we say that this proposition is true we mean that in this case it is not
possible that A lives at Lahore is true and that 'A does not l i v e in Pakistan' is also
true, that is p - q and ~ ( p A ~ q) are both simultaneously true. Now the truth table
of ~ (pA ~ q) is as shown below:
p q ~q pA ~q ~{pA ~q)
T T F F T
T F T T F
F T F F T
F F T F T
Table (5)
Looking at the last column of this table we find that truth values of the
compound proposition ~ (p a ~ q ) are the same as those adopted by us for the
conditional p > q . This shows that the two propositions p q and ~ { p a ~ q ) are
logically equivalent. Therefore, the truth values adopted by us for the conditional are
correct.
2.7.1 Biconditional: p g s q
T T F F T T T T
T F F T F T T F
F T T F T F F T
F F T F T T T T
Talble (7)
i) Any conditional and its contrapositive are equivalent therefore any theorem
may be proved by proving its contrapositive.
Example 3: Prove that in any universe the empty set & is a subset of any set A.
VxeU,x&A>x0 (2)
iii) A statement which can be true or false depending upon the truth values of the
variables involved in it is called a contingency e.g., (p q) a (pv q) is a
contingency.
(You can verify it by constructing its truth table).
2.7.4 Quantifiers
The words or symbols which convey the idea of quantity or number are called
quantifiers.
In mathematics two types of quantifiers are generally used.
i) Universal quantifier meaning for all
Symbol used : V
ii) Existential quantifier: There exist (some or few, at least one) symbol used: 3
Example 5
i) Vjr g A, p(x) is true.
mm
1. Write the converse, inverse and contrapositive of the following conditionals: -
i) ~ p A q ii) q > p iii) ~ p > ~q iv) ~ q p
2. Construct truth tables for the following statements: -
i) (p^> ~ p)v(p-Aq) ii) (pA~p)->q
iii) ~{p^>q)<rA (pA ~ q)
3. Show that each of the following statements is a tautology: -
i) (p a < ? ) - > / ? ii) p > ( p v q )
iii) ~ ( p - > q ) - > p iv) ~ q a ( p -> q ) p
4. Determine whether each of the following is a tautology, a contingency or an
absurdity: -
i ) p A ~ p ii) p - A ( q > p ) iii) q v (~ q v p )
5. Prove that p v (~ p A ~ q ) v ( p a q ) = p v (~ p A ~ q )
Chapter. 2: Sets, Functions and Groups
P u Q ={x|p(x)istrueor^(x)istrue}
= { x \ p ( x ) is true a q { x ) is true}
p Q ~P ~q pwq ~{pvq) ~ pA ~q
T T F F T F F
T F F T T F F
F T T F T F F
F F T T F T T
The last two columns of the table establish the equality o the two sides of eq.(l)
(ii) Logical form of the theorem is
p A ( q v r) = (p A q ) v ( p a r)
T T T T T T T T
T T F T T T F T
T F T T T F T T
T F F F F F F F
F T T T F F F F
F T F T F F F F
F F T T F F F F
F F F F F F F F
Exercise 2.5
Convert the following theorems to logical form and prove them by constructing
truth tables: -
1. (AnB)' = A'ufl' 2. (Aufi)uC = Au(5uC)
2.9 Relations
In every-day use relation means an abstract type of connection between two
persons or objects , for instance, (Teacher, Pupil), (Mother, Son), (Husband, Wife),
(Brother, Sister), (Friend, Friend), (House, Owner). In mathematics also some
operations determine relationship between two numbers, for example: -
> : ( 5, 4); square: (25, 5); Square root: (2,4); Equal: (2 x 2,4).
i) Let A and B be two non-empty sets, then any subset of the Cartesian
product A x B is called a binary relation, or simply a relation,
from A to B. Ordinarily a relation will be denoted by the letter r.
ii) The set of the first elements of the ordered pairs forming a relation
is called its domain.
iii) The set of the second elements of the ordered pairs forming t
relation is called its range.
Example 1: Let c l t c 2 ,c 3 be three children and m , m2 be two men such that father
of both Ci,c 2 is m ] and father of c3 is m 2 . Find the relation { (child, father)}
C x F ={(c1,m1),(c1,m2), (c 2 ,m x ), (c2,m2),(c3,m1),(c3,m2)}
r = set of ordered pairs (child, father ).
Textbook of Algebra and Trigonometry
= {(c1,m1),(c2,m1),(t'm2)}
Example 2: Let A - {1,2,3}. Determine the relation r such thatxry iff x <y.
When x= 0, y - 1
* = -l, y = 0,
Chapter. 2: Sets, Functions and Groups
2.10 Functions
A very important special type of relation is a function defined as below. -
Let A and B be two non-empty sets such that:
i) /is a relation from A to B that is,/ is a subset of A x B
ii) Dom f - A
iii) First element of no two pairs of / are equal, then / is said to be a
function from A to B.
The function/is also written as:
/: A > B
which is read: /is a function from A toB.
If (jc, y) in an element of/when regarded as a set of ordered pairs,
we write y=f(x). y is called the value of/for x or image of x under/
In example 1 discussed above
i) r is a subset of C x F ;
ii) Dom r= {c,,c2,c3} = C;
iii) First elements of no two related pairs of r are the same.
Therefore, r in a function from C to F.
In Example 2 discussed above
i) r is a subset of A x A;
ii) Dom r * A
Therefore, the relation in this case is not a function.
In example 3 discussed above
i) r is a subset of
ii) Dom r - '7R,
iii) Clearly first elements of no two ordered pairs of r can be equal. Therefore,
in this case r is a function.
i) Into Function: If a function / : A B is a b
(a, z), (b, x ) and (c, y) are the pairs of corresponding elements i.e., in this case
/ = {(a, z), (b, x), (c, y)} which is a bijective function or (1-1) correspondence
between the sets A and B.
Set - Builder Notation for a function: We know that sub-builder notation is more
suitable for infinite sets. So is the case in respect of a function comprising infinite
number of ordered pairs. Consider for instance, the function
/={(U), (2, 4), (3, 9), (4, 16),...}
Dom/= (1, 2, 3,4, ...}.and Ran/= { 1 , 4 , 9 , 1 6 , . . . }
This function may be written as: f = {ft, y) I y =x 2 , x e N }
For the sake of brevity this function may be written as:
.Chapter. 2: Sets, Functions and Groups 61
Solution:
i) The equation defining the function is 3x + y = 2
=> y - -3x+2
We know that this equation, being linear,
represents a straight line. Therefore, for drawing
its sketch or graph only two of its points are
sufficient.
When x = 0, y = 2,
... 1 ,
11) The equation defining the function is y = x .
Solution:
i) The inverse is:
{( 2 , 1 ) , (4, 2), (9, 3), (16, 4 ) . . . } .
This is also a function.
Note: Remember that the equation
y = -Jx , x > 0
defines a function but the equation y 2 = x, x > 0 does not define a function.
Exercise 2.6
1. For A = {1,2,3,4}, find the following relations in A. State the domain and
range of each relation. Also draw the graph of each.
i) {(*,)0 I ? = *} ii) {(*.)0 I y + * = 5}
iii) {(x,y) I x + y <5} iv) {(x,y) \ x+y > 5}
Textbook of Algebra and Trigonometry_
2. Repeat Q-l when A -'TK, the set of real numbers. Which of the real lines are
functions.
3. Which of the following diagrams represent functions and of which type?
4. Find the inverse of each of the following relations. Tell whether each relation
and its inverse is a function or not: -
i) {(2,1), (3,2), (4,3), (5,4), (6,5)} ii) {(1,3), (2,5), (3,7), (4,9), (5,11)}
Example 7: Give the table for adition of elemnts of the set of residue classes modulo 4.
Solution: Clearly {0,1,2,3} is the set of residues that we 0 1 2 3
have to consider. We add pairs of elements as in ordinary 0 0 1 2 3
addition except that when the sum equals or exceeds 4, we 1 1 2 3 0
divide it out by 4 and insert the remainder only in the table. 2 2 3 0 1
Thus 3 + 2 = 5 but in place of 5 we insert 1(= 5 - 4) in the 3 3 0 1 2
table and in place of 1 + 3 = 4, we insert 0(= 4 - 4).
Example 8: Give the table for multiplication of elemnts of the set of residue classes
modulo 4.
Solution: Clearly {0,1,2,3} is the set of residues that we 0 1 2 3
have to consider. We multiply pairs of elements as in 0 0 0 0 0
ordinary multiplcation except that when the product equals 1 0 1 2 3
or exceeds 4, we divide it out by 4 and insert the remainder 2 0 2 0 2
only in the table, Thus 3 x2ss6 but in place of 6 we insert 3 0 3 2 1
2{- 6-4) in the table and in place of 2x2 = 4, we insert
oc-s 4 _ 4 ) ,
Chapter. 2: Sets. Functions and Groups i
Example 9: Give the table for multiplication of elemnts of the set of residue classes
modulo 8.
Solution: Table is given below : _________
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
9
z, 0 2 4 6 0 2 4 6
3 0 3 6 1 4 7 2 5
4 0 4 0 4 0 4 0 4
5 0 5 2 7 4 1 6 3
6 0 6 4 2 0 6 4 2
rr 0 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
a*b = b X a \ / a,beS
ii) Associativity: * is said to be associative on S if
a (b 5K c) = (a b) c V = a,b,ce S.
iii) Existence of an identity element: An element e e 5 is called an identity
element w.r.t >*; if
a e = e a = a, V a e S .
iv) Existence of inverse of each element: For any element a e S , 3 an element
a' e S such that
cn%a' = a ' % a = e (the identity element)
Note: (1) The Symbol 3 stands forthere exists.
(2) Some authors include closure property in the properties of an operation.
Since this property S is already included in the definition of operation we
have considered it unnecessary to mention it in the above list,
(3) Some authors define left identity and right identity and also left inverse
and right inverse of each element of a set and prove uniqueness of each
of them. The following theorem gives their point of view: -
68
A Textbook of Algebra and Trigonometry ______________________________________________
Theorem:
i) In a set S having a binary operation * a left identity and a right identity are
the same.
ii) In a set having an associative binary operation left inverse of an element is
equal to its right inverse.
Proof:
ii) Let <?'be the left identity and e"be the right identity. Then
e e = e (v e is a right identity)
= e (v e'is a left identity)
Hence e - e e
Therefore, e is the unique identity of S under %
ii) For any a e S , let a', a "be its left and right inverses respectively then
Ordinary addition is not a binary operation on A because the set is not closed w.r.t.
addition. For instance, 10 + 25= 25 A
Example 11: Addition and multiplication are commutative and associative
operations on the sets
N, Z, Q, TR, (usual notation),
e.g. 4x5 = 5 x 4 , 2 + (3 + 5) = (2 + 3) + 5 etc.
Example 12: Verify by a few examples that subtraction is not a binary operation
on N but it is an operation on Z, the set of integers.
Chapter. 2: Sets, Functions and Groups
Exercise 2.7
1. Complete the table, indicating by a tick mark those properties which are
satisfied by the specified set of numbers.
of numbers
Natural Whole Integers Rational Reals
Property i
Closure
Associative
Identity
Inverse
Commutative t
2. What are the field axioms? In what respect does the field of real numbers differ
from that of complex numbers?
3. Show that the adjoining table is that of * 0 1 2 3 4
multiplication of the elements of the set of
residue classes modulo 5. 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 2 3 4
2 0 2 4 1 3
3 0 3 1 4 2
4 0 4 3 2 1
t .. ; . J
4. Prepare a table of addition of the elements of the set of residue classes modulo 4.
5. Which of the following binary operations shown in tables (a) and (b) is.
commutative?
Textbook of Algebra and Trigonometry _
a b c d a b c. d
a a c b d a a c b d
b b c b a b c d b a
c c d b c c b b a c
d a a b b d a c d
d
(a) (b)
6. Supply the missing elements of the third row of the a b c d
given table so that the operation x may be a a b c d
associative. b b a c d
c - - - -
d d c c d
2.13 Groups
We have considered, at some length, binary operations and their properties. We
now use our knowledge to classify sets according to the properties of operations
defined on them.
First we state a few preliminary definitions which w i l l culminate in the
definition of a group.
Groupoid: A groupoid is a non-empty set on which a binary operation is defined.
Some authors call the system (5, ) a groupoid. But, for the sake of brevity
and convenience we shall call S a groupoid, it being understood that an operation
is defined on it.
In other words, a closed set with respect to an operation ^ is called a groupoid
Chapter. 2: Sets, Functions and Groups
: \ample 1: The set {E,0} where E is any even number and O is any odd number, (as
already seen) are closed w.r.t. addition.
It is, therefore, a groupoid.
l \ample 2: The set of Natural numbers is not closed under operation of subtraction
w.2.,
(e.g. A u ( 5 u C ) = ( A u 5 ) u C , w h i c h i s t r u e i n g e n e r a l ) .
Therefore, (P(S),u) is a semi-group.
x % y =x, V x, y e, A
Solution: Consider
xx y = x and y ^ x = y
Clearly y * y x
<P u A = AU0 - A
Example 10: The set of all non negative integers i.e., Z+ u {0}
(tt + 0 0 + tt a Vtz g Z + { 0 } )
a * b-b * a
A Textbook of Algebra and Trigonometry
\fa,b,ce N,a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c
(iii) and (iv) not satisfied i.e., neither identity nor inverse of any element
exists.
\/a,be N, a.be A
Example 14: Consider S = { 0,1,2 } upon which operation has been performed as
shown in the following table. Show that S is an abelian group under .
Solution:
0 1 2
i) Clearly S as shown under the operation is
closed. 0 0 1 2
ii) ' The operation is associative e.g. 1 1 2 0
0 +(1 + 2) = 0 + 0 = 0
2 2 0 1
(0 + l) + 2 = l + 2 = 0 etc.
Named after brilliant Norwegian mathematician, N.H. Abal (1802-29) who was killed in a duel at a
young age, probably by his political rivals.
Chapter. 2: Sets, Functions and Groups
0 + 0 = 0, 1 + 2 =0, 2 + 1 = 0
=> O'1 =0 r* = 2, 2" 1 = 1
} Also is clearly commutative e.g., 1 +.2 = 0 = 2 +1
1
(iii) is an identity matrix.
0
(iv) As G contains non-singular matrices only so, it contains inverse of
eaoh of its elements.
Textbook of Algebra and Trigonometry_
The given examples of groups are clearly distinguishable whether finite or infinite.
i) ax = b, ii) xa=b
Note: Since the inverse (left or right) of any element a of a group is unique, from
the above procedure, it follows that the above solution is also unique.
____ ____________________________________Chapter. 2: Sets, Functions and Groups 77
Note: The rule can obviously be extended to the product of three or more elements
of a group.
e e = e $6 e = / (e is an identity) (i)
Examples:
= a (a is an inverse of a).
= a' (e is an identity of G).
Thus inverse of a is unique in G.
Examples 16:
i) in group (Z, + ), inverse of 1 is -1 and inverse of 2 is -2 and so on.
Exercise 2.8
1. Operation performed on the two-member set G = {0,1} is shown in the
adjoining table. Answer the questions: -
Set Operation
5. Show that the set {l,ft),tu2}, when tu = 1, is an Abelian group w'.r.t. ordinary
multiplication.
equations: a % x = b, x a -b
7. Show that the set consisting of elements of the form a + 4?>b{a,b being rational),
* a b c
a c a b
b a b c
c - - a
10. Prove that all 2 x 2 non-singular matrices over the real field form a non-abelian
group under multiplication.
409
1. . i) {x | x e N a x< 1000}
{}
xii) The set of a rational numbers x satisfying
ii) {x\xeW ax<100}
x2 = 2 : { }
iii) { x | x & Z a-1000<x < 1000} xiii) The set of real numbers x satisfying x=x
set of real numbers.
iv) { x | x e Z a -500 < x < 0}
xiv) The set of rational numbers x satisfying
v) {x|xe./VAl00<;c< 400} x = -x: {0}
or {jc|xZa100<x<400} xv) The set of real numbers x satisfying X ^ X
vi) {x| xeZA-500<x<-100} {}
xvi) The set of real numbers x which are not
vii) { x | x is the capital of a province of rational, Q':
Pakistan}. 3.
viii) { x | x is a month of the Calendar year i) Finite ii) Finite iii) Finite iv) Infinite
v) Infinite vi) Infinite vii) Finite viii) Finite
beginning with J}
ix) Infinite x) Finite xi) Infinite xii) Finite
ix) { x | x is an odd natural number} xiii) Finite xi (Finite xv) Finite xvi) Infinite
x) { x \ x e Q } 4. i) {a,b,},{a,c} ii) {0}, {1}
xi) {x | X e 'JR, A1 < x < 2} iii) {1,3,5,...}, {2,4,6,...} or {1,3,},{2,4}
xii) {x|xZa-100<x<1000} iv) N,W or {-2,-1},{0,1)
2. Descriptive form and Tabular form v) N,Z or {1,0},{|,1}
i) The set of the first ten natural numbers.
{1,2,3,--,10} vi) Z,e or {0,2,4}, {-l,j,|}
ii) The set of natural numbers between 4 and 12
vii) {0,2,4,...}, {1,3,5,...} or {2,4},{1,3}
{5,6,7,....,11}
viii) { x \ x & Q / \ \ < x < 2 } ,
iii) The set of integers between -5 and 5
{ x | x e Q a 1 < x < 2 } or {1}, {2}
{-4,-3,-2,....,4} 5. Yes <J>or {}
iv) The set of even integers between 2 and 5. 6. {a, b,} is a set containing two elements a and
{4} b, but {{a, 6}} is a singleton containing only
v) The set of prime numbers less than 12. one element {a, b }
1. i) True ii) True iii) False
{2,3,5,7,11} iv) true v) False vi) False
vi) The set of odd integers between 3 and 12 8. i) 1, ii) 22=4 iii) 27 =128
{5,7,9,11} iv) 2s =256 v) 22 = 4 vi) 23 =8
vii) The set of even integers from 4 upto 10. 9. i) { 0 , {9}, {11}, {9,11}}
{4,6,8,10} ii) { 0 ,{+},{-},{*},H,{+,-},{+,x},
viii) The set of even integers between 4 and 6.
{+,-}, {,x}, {-,=}, K-s-}, {+,-, x}, {+,-,=}
{}
ix) The set of odd integers from 5 upto 7. {+,X,=},{-,X,4-}, {+,-,x=} jiii) {<, {0} }
{5,7} iv) { 0 ,{a},{{b,c}},{a,{b,c}}
410 A Textbook of Algebra and Trigonometry
iii) B c A
3. i) B q A ii) A c B iii) A = 0
B uA
iv ) v) A n B = 0 vi) AciB
vii) A n B 0 viii) AnB = 0
i x)B = A' x) It holds always,
AuB xi) B c; A xii) A = U
i) 11,3,5,7,9} ii) {6,7,8,9,10}
iii) {1,2,3,4,5,6,8,10} iv) {6,8,10}
iii) AuA' V) { } vi) U
vii) C = {1,3,5,7,9}viii) { }
iv) A and B are disjoint sets 5. i) U-A ii) A iii) U iv) A v) 0
Rational
Integers
Natural
Whole
Reals
>
Property 4-
+ V
Closure
iv) {(x, y) I x+y > 5}. A part of the graph of X V
(iv) is shown in the figure: + V
(iv) is not a function. Associative
X V V
+ X S
Identity
X V X
+ X X X
Inverse
X X X X X
+
Commutative
X
4.
3. Fig (i) does not represent a function. Fig + 0 1 2 3
(ii) and Fig. (iii) represent functions. Both 0 0 1 2 3
functions are one-one and onto.
1 1 2 3 0
Fig.(iv) represents a function which is
into. 2 2 3 0 1
4. i) {(2,1),(3,2), (4,3), (5,4), (6,5)}, the 3 3 0 1 2
inverse of
(i)={(l,2), (2,3), (3,4), (4,5), (5,6)}. Here 2 +2 =0 (mod 4), 2 + 3 =1 (mod 4) etc.
(i) is a function and the inverse of (i) is also 5. Binary operation in Table (a) is not
a function. commutative (v a c = b, c a = c).
ii) {(1,3),(2,5), (3,7), (4,9), (5,11)}, inverse of Binary operation in Table (b) is no:
(ii) ={(3,l), (5,2), (7,3), (9,4), (11,5)}. commutative (; a b = c, b a =b)
(ii) and the inverse of (ii) are functions. 6.
iii) {(x,v) I y = 2x + 3, x e 'JR,} and the * a b c d
inverse of (iii) - {(x, y ) | y = , x e a a b c d
b b a c d
functions. c c c c c
iv) {(x,y) I y2 = 4ax, x > 0} and the inverse d d c c d
7. i) The operation is addition mod 4.
of (iv)= {(x,y) I y = x 2 , x > 0 } (iv) is
4a ii) 0 is the identity element.
not a function but the inverse of (iv) is a iii) The operation is a associative.
function. iv) The inverse of 0 is 0, 1 and 3 are inverse?
of each other. The inverse of 2 is 2.
x. v i x2 +y2 = 9,1 x, y l< 3} and the
Exercise 2.8 ____________ on page 78
inverse of (v) ~
1 i) 0 ii) 1
= { x-y > - + x 2 =9,1x1 aI y l < j j }
iii) Yes, G is a group and it is abelian.
1Y) : _-\erse of i \) are not functions.
Answers
1 3 2_ ! -3 2
1 0 8
5. i) x = -l, y = 2 8. a=- , b - - l Exercise 3.3 _on page 111
2
9. a=0,b = -l 11. (9,
1. i) 1 ii) 10 iii) -9
iv) 9al2 v) 9 vi) 4abc
8 -19
4. A12 = 0, A22 = -5, A32 = 0,1A1= 10
9 9
12 [2 -1 ii) 29 52 B2 j = 1, S22 = 0,523 = -1,151= -1
.9 ~9 6. i) x = -2,3 ii) x= 1,0
iii) x = 3,4 7. i) 305 ii) -228 iii) 0
13. i) 4 8 'l -1 3'
13 31 ii) 2 1 -2 9. i) I AA' 1=171,1 A'A 1=0
ii) I AA' 1 = 0,1 A'A 1 = 45
11. A is singular if A = 3, B is singular if A = 4,