Resistance Furnaces: Main Parts of A Resistance Furnace

04/10/17
LEP
RESISTANCE
FURNACES
ELETTROTERMIA - Forni a Resistori-1 1
LEP
Main Parts of a Resistance
Furnace
(1) heating elements, (2) refractory lining, (3)

heat insulation, (4) temperature probe and
controller
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04/10/17
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FORNI A RESISTORI
MAIN PARTS
• heating chamber, made with TWO OR THREE LINING LAYERS:

walls refractory – high temperature
insulating materials - reduce the thermal losses
• external metal shell with mainly mechanical functions
• resistors, where the electrical energy is transformed into heat, and the
related power supply devices
• system of measurement and regulation of temperature
• System of loading and unloading, of supporting or moving the charge
• auxiliary devices
LEP
Resistance furnace
Thermal
exchanges due to
RADIATION
CONVECTION
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Die Anforderungen an die thermische Auslegung

der Öfen ergeben sich vor allem aus
LEP
folgendem Zusammenhang:
HEAT BALANCE
QGut QVSpeicher STORED

HEAT
USEFUL QVDurchgang
QZuGesamt HEAT
HEAT LOST BY
TOTAL CHARGE CONDUCTION
SUPPLIED AND
HEAT CONVECTION

QGut = QZuGesamt - QVDurchgang - QVSpeicher
QZuGesamt ..... gesamte zuzuführende

(zu bezahlende) Wärme
QGut ........... in das zu erwärmende Gut
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DESIGN ISSUES
eingebrachte Wärme (Nutzwärme)
QVSpeicher ..... Verlustwärme, die in der
• SIZING THE WALLS – stored energy –
thermal Ofenwand
losses gespeichert wird
QVDurchgang ... Verlustwärme, die durch die
• DIMENSIONING THE RESISTORS according
Ofenwand
to specific entweicht
laws of heat transmission
radiation and convection,
• MODES OF HEAT ABSORPTION BY THE

MATERIAL to be heated estimation of the
powers and heating times and to obtain
optimum conditions which avoid local
overheating, risks of deformation,
temperature differences in the body in
unwanted heating.
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CLASSIFICATION CRITERIA:
TYPE OF THE LOAD
• furnaces for melting processes, furnaces for heating liquids,
furnaces for heating of solid charges
HEATING MODE
• radiation furnaces, convection furnaces, conduction furnaces
(oven)
LOADING TYPE
• fixed charge furnace (BATCH) continuous feed, in which the
charge moves continuously through the furnace
INTERNAL ATMOSPHERE
• normal atmosphere (air)
• ovens with gas or controlled atmospheres (both fixed charge
and continuous feed)
• a vacuum furnace
WORKING TEMPERATURE
• ovens for low temperatures (up to 600 ° C)
• furnaces for medium temperatures (from 600 ° C to 1200 ° C)
• furnaces for high temperature (for temperatures greater than
1200 ° C)
LEP CHAMBER FURNACES – NATURAL CONVECTION
1 – resistors;
2 – external metal structure;
3 – inner metal wall;
4 - insulation;
5 – holding system.
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Seriengefertigte Öfen
LEP
© Werkbild Nabertherm
CHAMBER
FURNACE
Serienöfen 1:
Brennofen für Gla
Keramik, Porzella
Ceramotherm®
Typ: Kammerofen mit Schwenktür

®
Handelsname: Ceramotherm
Hersteller: Nabertherm
LEP
PIT FURNACETechnische Daten:

FORCED CONVECTION
Ofentemperatur: 900 - 1400 °C
Fassungsvermögen:
1-heating elements; 100 - 2200 l
2-support of the heated
Anschlußleistung: 7 - 140 kW
charge;
Anschlußspannung
3-refractory; 400 V 3/N
Masse:
4- insulating material; 220 - 3800 kg
5-movable pit cover;
6-fan;
7-devices for lifting and
rotation;
8-fan motor.
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CHAMBER FURNACE – FORCED
VENTILATION
Furnace with
load heating
chamber
separated from
the chamber
where the
heating elements
are located
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Different types of supports of the heating
elements
on the walls
the dome
on the sole
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CHAMBER FURNACE FOR MEDIUM
HIGH TEMPERATURE
1,2-porta del forno e dispositivo
di azionamento;
3-termoelementi;
4-struttura metallica del forno;
5-isolamento termico;
6-resistori;
7-resistori di riscaldamento della
volta;
8-piano refrattario costituente la
suola;
9-resistori di riscaldamento della
suola.
Ofentypen
Ofentypen 1: Banddurchlaufofen
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Batch
camera
furnace
© Werkbilder Kanthal
Ofentypen 2: Kammerofen
mit Hubtür
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CHAMBER FURNACE WITH MOVING BASEMENT
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PIT FURNACE
1-resistors;
2-refractory lining;
3- insulation;
4-cover;
5-electic supply of resistors;
6- thermocouples.
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è große Anwendungsbreite vom Haushalt
bis zur Industrieanlage
è Verwendung in fast allen Industriezweigen
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PIT FURNACE
Mittelbare Widerstandserwärmung:
Schachtofen im Maschinenbau
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BELL FURNACES
Mittelbare Widerstands-
erwärmung: Rohrofen in
der Elektronikindustrie
1-main bell; 2 - muffle furnace (bell

refractory material), 3-base
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04/10/17
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BELL FURNACES
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Elevator furnace 1-external frame;

2-refractory;
3-heating elements;
4-pneumatic elements;
5-floor of the heating chamber;
6-lifting mechanism;
7,9-supports of heating chamber;
8-hydraulic cylinder;
10-heating elements of the floor;
11-foor covering ;
12-sand seal;
13-basement
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LEP
Continuos furnaces for medium
temperature
Pusher furnace
1-refractory;
2-heating elements on
furnace walls;
3-conveyor span;
4-conveyor drive;
5-loading table;
6-unloading hopper

Ofentypen 9:
Vertikaler Rohrofen
(als Durchlaufofen)
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Tunnel furnace with movable hearth
Ofentypen10:
Tunneldurchlauf-
ofen (mit
Herdwagen)
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04/10/17
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Pusher furnace
1-refractory;
2-heating elements;
3-pusher;
4-unloading chute;
5-mechanism for
moving the chamber
door
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Pusher furnace
Ofentypen 6: Stoßofen
Ofentypen 7: Spezieller Kammerofen

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(Schmiedeofen)
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Walking beam furnace for high temperature
1-external metallic frame;

2-refractory and
insulation;
3-SiC heating elements;
4,5-walking beam device;
6-lifting device
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Rotary Drum
resistance furnace
1-Loading mechanism;
2-Rotating drum;
3-Heating elements;
4-Drive;
5-Cooling bath;
6,7- Unloading device
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LEP
Furnace for strip or wire
heating
1 – Heated wire or strip

2 – Heating elements
3 – Feed rollers
4 – Refractory
5 – Thermal insulation
Ofentypen
LEP
Furnace for thermal treatment

of metallic strips with
Ofentypen 1: Banddurchlaufofen
continuous movement
with continuous
movement
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04/10/17
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Furnace for thermal treatment
of metallic strips with
continuous movement
LEP
High temp furnaces
• Chamber walls – usually made by three layers, the internal one
of heavy refractory material (Al2O3), for high temperature, the
second made of “Schamotte” with lower thermal conductivity, the
external one of thermal insulating material.
• In furnaces with graphite heating elements, graphite powders

can be used for the wall construction.
• In vacuum furnaces are often used multiple reflecting

shields to insulate
• Construction materials – for parts exposed to high temperature metallic
alloys cannot be used, and are substituted by Silicon carbide (SiC) or
ceramic elements
• Heating elements – in these furnaces metallic heating elements

cannot be used. Silicon carbide (SiC) is used up to 1400-1600 °C,
Molibdenum disilicide (MoSi2) up to 1650-1750 °C (in vacuum) or up to
1900-2000 °C (in protective atmosphere), graphite up to 2600 °C (in
vacuum). ELETTROTERMIA - Forni a Resistori-1 30
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Pushing mechanisms
a) walking beam; b) cam shaft
LEP
Typical atmospheres used in
resistance furnaces
Composition % (excluded H2O)
H2 CO CO2 NH3 CH4 N2
Dissociated Ammonia 75 - - - - 25
endothermic gas
a) From natural gas 40 20 1 - 1 rest

(methane)
b) From Propane 30 22 1 - 1 rest
Esothermic Gas
a) rich 17 12 4 - 1 rest
b) 10 - - - - 90
c) poor 2 2 10 - - rest
Hydrogen 100 - - - - -
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04/10/17
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VACUUM FURNACES
FIELD OF APPLICATION OF VACUUM FURNACES
• PRODUCTION OF : SPECIAL METALS, SEMICONDUCTORS,
CERAMICS
• sintering of metal powders
• annealing of magnetic alloys, steels of low and high carbon content, of

stainless steel.
• soldering of steels, magnetic alloys and refractory
• hardening of special steels
• special processes: degassing of titanium and zirconium, combined

brazing and hardening, vacuum impregnation.
LEP
Vacuum Furnaces
Main advantages:
• Avoid oxidation and contamination of heated

loads; degassing of melted metals
• High purity of the heated material and clean

heated surfaces not requiring further machine
work after heating
• Protection of elements at high temperature

from oxidation of influence of chamber gases.
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04/10/17
LEP
Vacuum furnaces with hot walls

1 1
2 2
3
3
1
2
4 3
4
4
Bell and Pit Vacuum Furnaces
LEP
VACUUM FURNACES
FIELD OF APPLICATION OF VACUUM FURNACES
• PRODUCTION OF : SPECIAL METALS, SEMICONDUCTORS,
CERAMICS
• sintering of metal powders
• annealing of magnetic alloys, steels of low and high carbon content, of

stainless steel.
• soldering of steels, magnetic alloys and refractory
• hardening of special steels
• special processes: degassing of titanium and zirconium, combined

brazing and hardening, vacuum impregnation.
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04/10/17
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Vacuum Furnaces
Main advantages:
• Avoid oxidation and contamination of heated

loads; degassing of melted metals
• High purity of the heated material and clean

heated surfaces not requiring further machine
work after heating
• Protection of elements at high temperature

from oxidation of influence of chamber gases.
LEP
Vacuum furnaces with hot walls

1 1
2 2
3
3
1
2
4 3
4
4
Bell and Pit Vacuum Furnaces
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Vacuum furnaces with cold wall
LEP
Vacuum furnaces
Main issues:
• Vacuum-tightness
• Choice of thermal insulating materials: multilayer metallic

reflecting shields, graphite or graphite felts, light Schamotte, refractory
oxides
• Choice of the heating elements: Ni-Cr, Mo, Graphite,Tungsten

as a function of temperature, vacuum degree, cost, load characteristics
• Short times to cool and to create the required degree of vacuum for
increasing the furnace utilisation factor
•
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04/10/17
LEP
Special Furnaces
MELTING FURNACES ---- FURNACES FOR LIQUIDS
(1-resistors ; 2-refractory ; 3- thermal insulation)
LEP
Serienöfen 4:
Tiegelofen
®
Liquitherm
MELTING
FURNACE
Al, Cu
© Werkbild Nabertherm

Typ: Tiegelofen zum Schmelzen von Al, Cu, u.a.
®
Handelsname: Liquitherm
Hersteller: Nabertherm
Technische Daten: 21
Schmelzentemperatur: 1200 - 1300 °C
Fassungsvermögen: 550 - 3500 l
Ofentypen 7: Spezieller Kammerofen
(Schmiedeofen) 04/10/17
LEP
FURNACE for primary ALUMINIUM production
Ofentypen 8: Schmelz- und

Warmhalteofen
LEP
salt bath furnaces

COMPOSITION MELTING POINT WORKING
[ºC] TEMPERATURE [ºC]
28%NaCl 505 540÷870
+72%CaCl2
50%Na2CO3+50 560 590÷815
%KCl
50%NaCl 560 590÷815
+50%K2CO3
35%NaCl 620 650÷815
+65%Na2CO3
50%CaCl2 600 650÷900
+50%BaCl2
22%NaCl 630 650÷900
+78%BaCl2
44%NaCl 665 700÷870
+56%KCl
20%KCl 750 850÷1350
+80%BaCl2
Main types of salts and temperature range
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RESISTOR FURNACE
DESIGN OF THE
REFRACTORY AND
ISULATING WALLS
LEP
RESISTOR FURNACE
FUNCTIONS OF WALLS
• limit the heat dissipation to the outside to ensure the achievement of the
desired temperature with an optimal thermal efficiency, which means realize
the walls with the lowest possible values of thermal conductivity or, the
thermal capacity for furnaces with intermittent operation,
• store a certain amount of heat
• mantaing the technical atmosphere or the vacuum conditions

• good mechanical properties.
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RESISTANCE FURNACE
Physical properties of some refractories
Materiale Composizion Temperatura Peso Calore Coeff. di Conducibilità Resistività
e di fusione specifico specifico dilatazione termica
termica
% °C Kg/dm3 Wh/KgC 10-6/°C W/m°C W cm 103
Schamotte 15-45 Al2O3 1630-1750 1.7-2.1 0.25-0.29 4.6-7.6 1.24-1.38
55-85 SiO2
Silico- Sillimanite 60-72 Al2O3 1790-18809 2.2-2.4 0.28 4.6 1.24-1.38 2.
aluminum Mullite 28-40 SiO2
refractories Silica 93-96 SiO2 1700-1750 1.7-1.9 0.31 1.86-2.08 7.
Corindone 80-99 Al2O3 1850-2000 2.5-3.2 0.31 9.4 2.20 1.
Allumina Al2O3 2050
Magnesia MgO 2800
Magnesite 80-95 MgO, 2000 2.6-3.1 0.34 14.0 3.06-4.44 2.
Al2O3,
Fe2O3
resto
Cromo- 60 MgO, 1920-2000 2.8-3.2 0.31 8.0 2.08 1.
Magnesite Fe2O3 Cr2O3
Basic resto
Chromerz 15-33 Al2O3 1800-1900 3.0-3.8 0.26 7.1 2.08
refractories 14-19 MgO
10-17 Fe2O3
30-45 Cr2O3
Caolino CaO 2200-2570
Dolomite CO3Ca 2300
CO3Mg
Carburo di 90-95 SiC 1920 2.2-2.7 0.29 4.5-5.5 9.28 5.
Silicio Al2O3 resto
Refractories Carbone 90-98 C 2300-3000 1.3-1.8 0.44 5.0 1.05-36.0
for High Grafite
Zirconio 93 Zr2O3; 2677 5.9 1.57 9.4 2.3 0.03
Temperature 5 CaO
LEP
A common refractory:
SCHAMOTTE
SCHAMOTTE - obtained from refractory clays by pressing and flame cooking
Average characteristics
- Alumina content : 15 - 45 %
- melting point: 1630 - 1750 °C
- specific weight: 1700 - 2100 Kg/m3
- thermal conductivity (600 e 1200 °C): 1.0 - 1.4 W/m°C
- average specific heat: 0.25 - 0.29 Wh/kg°C
- Thermal expansion (600 e 1200 °C): 0.7 - 0.8 %
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RESISTANCE FURNACE
Thermal conductivity of some refractory materials
18 1
W/mK
16 Thermal conductivity vs
temperature
2
14 1,2-silicon carbide;
12 3,4- magnesite;
3
10 5- corundum;
4 6-”silika”;
8
7-schamotte
6
4
5
2 6
0 7
0 400 800 1200

J [°C]
LEP
losses in the refractory layer as a function of temperature
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Thermal expansion for

some refractories
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RESISTANCE FURNACE
Material Specific Thermal Max
Physical
weight conductivity Temperature
Kg/m3 W/m°C
properties of
Asbestos 5.76 0.14 600 - 800
Magnesium Carbonate 250 0.056 300
some
Mineral wood 120-250 0.03-0.06 450
Kieselguhr (bricks) 180-250 0.08 900 - 1000
260-900 0.06-0.20
insulating
Concrete
Fiber glass 220 0.056 450 - 500
Cork 80-100 0.04
Pressed cork 250-300 0.06 material
Wood 136 0.037
Kapok 18 0.034
Felts 120 0.031
water 1000 0.50
Dry air (in motion) 1.3 0.12
Still dry air 1.3 0.02-0.035
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A common insulating material
“Kieselgur”
"KIESELGUR“ - Very fine and light mineral powder, constituted mainly of silica and a
limited content of alumina (about 10%)
- max working temperature: 1000 °C

- specific weight: 350 Kg/m3
- Thermal conductivity @ 200 °C: 0.14 W/m°C
@ 400 °C: 0.16 W/m°C
@ 600 °C: 0.19
@ 800 °C: 0.21
@ 1000 °C: 0.23
- Specific heat: 0.27 Wh/Kg°C.
LEP Thermal conductivity of some insulating

materials
l 0,16
[W/m°C] 1
0,14 1- bricks of Kieselgur;
3 2 – slab of Kieselgur;
0,12
3 – felts of mineral wood;
0,10 4 – magnesium oxide
2
0,08
4
0,06
0,04
0,02
0,00
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
J [°C]
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METALS USED
IN MEDIUM TEMPERATURE FURNACES
There are some special requirements for the realization of parts operating at high
temperatures.
In parts mechanically unstressed: Cr steels

In mechanically stressed parts: Ni-Cr steels
The Cr is the element that increases corrosion resistance of steels:
13-15% Cr up to temperatures of about 700-750 ° C

25-30% Cr up to 1100-1150 ° C.
Steel, Cr-Al: fragility and susceptibility to cracking
LEP
RESISTANCE FURNACE
THERMAL CYCLE: POWERS AND TEMPERATURES
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RESISTANCE FURNACE
Energy balance
ì tT
ïE = Q AS + Q C = PN × t p + ò P( t ) × dt + P0 × ( t - t T )
ï tp
ï
ï t tT
ï
T
íQ AS = PN × t p + ò P( t ) × dt - ò Pc ( t ) × dt
ï tp 0
ï
ï tT
ïQ c = ò Pc ( t ) × dt + P0 × ( t - t T )
ïî 0
E – Electrical energy transformed into heat

Qc – energy losses to the enviroment
QAS – stored thermal energy
LEP
RESISTANCE FURNACE
Most convenient
wall thicknesses :
1 - by conduction
losses / costs;
2 - Stored energy /
construction
costs;
3 - Total losses /
total costs;
4 - Optimum
thickness
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RESISTANCE FURNACE
Losses in the refractory/insulating walls
Ji - Je Ji - Ja
P0 = =
s1 s2 sn s1 s2 1
+ + ××× + + + ××× +
l1A1m l 2 A 2m l n A nm l1A1m l 2 A 2m aEAE
P0 Steady state thermal losses[W]
s1,s2,....,sn Thickness of each layer [m]
l1, l2,....., ln Thermal conductivity of each layer [W/m°C]

(evaluated at the average temperature of the layer)
e Convection coefficent [W/m2°C]
AE External surface [m2]
A1, A2, ........, An Inner surface of each layer 1,2,...,n [m2]
A1m, A2m, ........, Average surface of each layer [m2]

Anm
LEP
RESISTANCE FURNACE
Specific heat losses
P0 J1 - J 2 J 2 - J3
pc = = = = ×××
Ai s1A i s 2Ai
l1A1m l 2 A 2m
Temperature of each layer
s n Ai
J n +1 = J n - × pc
l n A nm
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RESISTANCE FURNACE
P J
P1
Jio
J1 J3
J2
P2
P3
t
The electric power Pi modifies the thermal cycle.
LEP
Analogy with electric circuit
Ai = A1 AE
A2
s1 s2 sn-1 sn
Ji
JE
JA
R1 R2 Rn-1 Rn
V C1 C2 Cn-1 Cn RE
R E CE = m R T CT Þ tE = m tT DV = k DJ
RE = n RT DV æ k ö DJ é! C W ù
I[EA] = =ç ÷ , ê
RE è n ø RT ë ! C úû
æmö
CE = ç ÷ CT ænö
ènø PT[ W ] = ç ÷ I[EA]
èkø
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RESISTANCE FURNACE
Temperature distribution in the walls during heating up
q
1000 13
800 9 A – heating elements;

5
600 3 1,2,…,3 – heating time in
400 hours
2
200
1
0
X
LEP
Resistor Furnaces
1.70 2.65
1.10 2.05
1
0.65 0.90 1.50 3
0.30 0.85 1.80

0.125
Specifiche:
- anealing furnace
- max anealing temperature : 950 °C
- process time : 6 minuts
- production rate (per hour) : 100 Kg/h
- heating chamber dimensions : 1.80 x 0.85 x 0.65 m.
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HOW TO SIZE THE INSULATIONG WALL
LAYER1) – Schamotte;
LAYER 2) – KIESELGUR
Ji = J 1
J i = J 1 = 950 o C
J2
J 2 = 850 o C
J E = J 3 = 50 o C
1 2
JE = J3 J A = 20 o C
Specific Thermal Losses~ 800 - 1000 W/m²
Assuming a flat wall and steady state conditions, we have:
• Average temperature of the 1° layer: J1m =900 o C l1 =1 W / m o C

• Thickness of layer 1:
s1 = (J1-J2 ) l1 pc = (950-850)1/ 800 = 0.125 m
• Average temperature of the 2° layer: J 2 m = 450 o C l 2 = 0.15 W / m o C
• thickness of layer 2:
s2 = (J2 -J3) l2 pc = (850-50) 0.15 / 800 = 0.15 m
LEP RESISTOR FURNACES: heat transfer coefficient between

the outer wall and the environment
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Verification of specific losses
Ai=A1 = (0.85+0.65)x1.80x2 + (0.85x0.65)x2 = 6.51 m²
Real surfaces A2 = (1.10+0.90)x2.05x2 + (1.10x0.90)x2 = 10.18 m²
AE=A3 = (1.40+1.20)x2.35x2 + (1.40x1.20)x2 = 15.58 m²
Average surfaces A1 A 2 A2 A3
A1m = = 8,14 m²; A2m= = 12,59 m²
Thermal resistance of each layer R1 = s1 (l1A1m )= 0,0154 [C / W]

R 2 = s 2 (l 2 A 2m )= 0,0794 [C / W]
R E =1 (a E A E ) = 0,0064 [C / W]
Steady state thermal losses
Po = (J i - J a ) ( R 1 + R 2 + R E ) = 9190 W
Pc = Po/Ai = 1412 W/m² !!!
Solution: You have to increase the thermal resistance R2, and then the
thickness s2
LEP FORNI A RESISTORI – Esempio di calcolo

Verifica delle perdite specifiche
Prescribed thermal losses TOTAL: Po @ 3900 W

The sum ofthermal resistances must be: R1+ R2+ R3= 930/3900 @ 0,2385 oC/W
R2 = 0,2385 – (0,0154 + 0,0064) = 0,2167 oC/W
New thickness of layer 2: s2 = 0,15 x 12,59 x 0,2167 = 0,41 m @ 0,4 m
New surfaces of layer 2: AE=A3=26,98 m²; A2m= 16,57 m²
Thermal resistances are updated:
s2 0,4 1 1
R2 = = = 0,1609 [ o C / W]; RE = = = 0,0037 [ o C / W];
l 2 A 2m 0,15 16,57 a E A E 10 26,98
New losses:
930
P0 = = 5166 [ W ]
0,0154 + 0.1609 + 0,0037
5166
pc = = 793 [ W / m 2 ]
6,51
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FORNI A RESISTORI – Esempio di calcolo
Temperature of each layer:

s A 0,125 × 6,51 950 + 871
J2 = J1 - 1 i p c = 950 - 793 = 871 [ o C]; J1m = = 911 [ o C]
l1 A1m 1×8,14 2
s A 0,4 × 6,51 871 + 40
JE = J2 - 2 i p c = 871 - 793 = 40 [ o C]; J 2m = = 456 [ o C]
l 2 A 2m 0,15 ×16,57 2
Volumes of each layer: v1 = 1,04 [m3] ; v2 = 7,18 [m3]
Thermal capacities: C1 = g1 v1 c1 = 1700 x 1,04 x 0,25 = 442 [ Wh / o C] ;

C 2 = g 2 v 2 c 2 = 350 x 7,18 x 0,25 = 628 [ Wh / o C]
Time constant: R1 C1 = 0,0154 x 442 = 6,8 [h] ; R 2 C2 = 0,1609 x 628 = 101 [h]
Qas:
Q A1 = C1 (J1m - JA ) = 442 x (911 - 20) = 394 [kWh ]
Q A 2 = C 2 (J2m - JA ) = 628 x (456 - 20) = 274 [kWh ]
Q AS = Q A1 + Q A 2 = 668 [kWh ] ; q AS = Q AS / A i = 103 [kWh / m 2 ]
LEP
OTHER THERMAL LOSSES
During every operation of loading and unloading a volume of heated air is lost
Air specific heat: cA = 0.20 Wh/Kg°C; specific weight: γA = 1,29 kg/m3
Volume of air to heat: vA = 10 x (0.85 x 0.65 x 1.80) = 9.95 m3
Required energy for heating air:
QA = cA g A vA (J i - J A ) = 0,20 x 1,29 x 9,95 x 930 = 2387 [Wh]
35
04/10/17
LEP LOSSES FROM THE DOOR
• OPENING TIME: 30
sec
• 10 OPERATIONS PER
HOUR
• TOTAL OPEN TIME: 5
min/h
• SURFACE OF THE
DOOR: 1,11 m2
• RADIATION
LOSSES:
1,8 x 5 x 1,11 =
9,99 kWh
LEP
Losses in the CHARGING HOLDERS:
Q G = c G p G (J i - J f ) = 0.19 x 100 x 750 = 14300 Wh
total losses
- Without holders:
Qp1 = Qo + QA + Qi = 6043+2387+9925 = 18355 Wh
- With holders:
Qp2 = Qo + QA + Qi + QG =18355+14300 = 32655 Wh
Useful thermal energy
Q U = c p (J i - J A ) = 0.19x100x930 = 17700 Wh
36
04/10/17
LEP
Characteristics of materials for the heating
elements
•High working temperature
•High electrical resistivity
•Coefficient of variation of resistivity with temperature low and
positive
•Constance of electrical characteristics and dimensions
•Good mechanical properties at high temperature
•easy mechanical working and welding
•Low chemical reactivity
LEP
RESISTORS WORKING TEMPERATURE
Temperaturbereiche
für die Heizelementmaterialien
> 2000*
Max. Ofentemperatur in °C
2000 1900
1600
> 1400*
1500
1400
1200
1000
500
CrNi CrFeAl Mo/Wo SiC MoSi2 Graphit
* unter Schutzgas bzw. im Vakuum
37
04/10/17
LEP Construction shapes of metallic

heating elements
LEP Characteristics of different metallic materials for

the heating elements
Linear
METAL Ni Cr Fe Al Melting Max Temp. Specific Specific Electrical Thermal expansion
ALLOY temperature In air weight heat Resistivity conductivity
*
*
% % % % ºC ºC gr/cm³ Wh/kg·K µW·cm W/m·K 1·e-6/ºC
Ni-Cr
(1) 80 20 - - 1400 1200 8.3 0.12 * 109 14.7 15-18
70 30 - - 1400 1250 - - - - -
Fe-Ni-Cr
(2) 60 15 25 - 1390 1150 8.2 0.13 * 111 13.4 14-17
(3) 35 20 45 - 1390 1100 7.9 0.14 * 104 - 16-19
30 20 50 - 1390 1100 7.9 0.15 ** - 13.0 -
20 25 55 - 1380 1050 7.8 0.14 * 95 13.0 16-19
Fe-Cr-Al
- 15 80.7 4.3 ~ 1500 1050 7.28 0.13 * 125 - -
- 20 75 5.0 1500 1200 7.2 0.17 ** - 12.6 -
(4) - 22 72.2 5.8 1500 1400 7.1 0.13 * 145 - 11-15
(5) - 22 72.7 5.3 1500 1400 7.15 0.13 * 139 - 11-15
(6) - 22 73.2 4.8 ~ 1500 1300 7.25 0.13 * 135 - 11-15
- 25 70 5.0 1500 1350 7.1 0.17 ** 144 12.6 -
38
04/10/17
LEP
1,6
[ W m]10 6
1,5 CrAl 25 5
CrAl 20 5
1,4
NiCr 30 20
CrNi 25 20
Variation of resistivity 1,3
NiCr 60 15
with temperature for
1,2
some metallic alloys NiCr 80 20
1,1
1,0
0,9
0,8
0,7
0 400 800 1200 1600
J [°C]
LEP
RESITORS FOR HIGH TEMPERATURE

Main Characteristics
Material Pt Pt-Rh Pt-Rh Rh Mo W Ta

10% 20%
Specific weight, Kg/dm³ 21.5 20 18.75 12.48 9.6-10.28 19.32 16.65
Melting Point, °C 1769 1850 1884 1985 2610 3410 3000
vaporization temperature, °C - - - - 4800 5930 4100
Max Working Temp., °C 1400 1500 1600-1700 1850-1900 1500-1700 2200-2800 2400
Resistivity @ 0 °C, µW×cm 9.81 18.4 20.4 4.3 5.17 5.5 12.4
Temp. Coefficient for the electrical
resistivity , 10-3 °C 31.6 14.22 12.10 5.96 5.5 5. 3
Max Power Density., W/cm² 2 2 2 2 10-20 10-20 10-20
39
04/10/17
LEP
NON METALLIC RESISTOR
SILICON CARBIDE
LEP

Maximum working Temperature
Atomosphere MAX Temperature, ºC

Silicon Carbide Molybdenum silicide
Air 1575 - 1625 1700 - 1800

Nitrogen 1400 1600 - 1700
Argon/Elium/Neon 1575 - 1625 1600 - 1700
Hydrogen 1200 1350 - 1400
Exo-Gas 1250 - 1400 1600 - 1700
Endo-Gas 1250 - 1400 1500 - 1550
Vacuum 1000 - 1200 -
CO2 1575 - 1625 1600
hydrocarbons 1250 1350
dissociated ammonia - 1400 - 1450
40
04/10/17
LEP
electrical resistivity
Resistività Relativa
3
4
W mm 2 m -1 = 10 -6 W m
0.1 ohm·cm a 1200 °C 3
2
2
1
0
0 500 1000 1500 [°C] 0 600 1200 [°C] 1800
a) b)
Silicon Carbide Molybdenum silicide
LEP
Silicon Carbide characteristics
41
04/10/17
LEP
SiC resistors available on the market
LEP
NON METALLIC RESISTORS: Mo Si2
a 3xa
f13,5
35
f 0,12mm f 12mm
20
f 0,6mm
f 0,6mm
a a a
a) b)
42
04/10/17
LEP
OTHER RESISTORS TYPES
Characteristics of amorphous carbon
and graphite
Characteristics carbon Graphite
Specific weight, kg/dm3 1.8 2.25

Specific Heat, Wh/kg °C 0.20-0.23 * 0.20-0.23 *
0.33-0.55 ** 0.33-0.55
Resistivity, µW×cm 5000-8000 800-1300
Temp. Start oxidation,°C 400 500
Distillation temperature, °C 2200-2800 > 2700
Boiling temperature, °C 3600 3600
Max working temperature,°C 2200-2300 2600 ***
2800 ****
3000 *****
* - a 20 °C; ** - 1000 - 2000 °C; *** - vacuum; **** - argon; ***** - helium
LEP
GRAPHITE
RESISTIVITY (variation @20°C)

2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0
0 500 1000 1500 200 250 [°C]
43
04/10/17
LEP
RESISTOR LIFETIME
Maximum working temperature Furnace atmosphere
Temperature difference Construction shape
Material ® Ni-Cr Fe-Ni-Cr Fe-Ni-Cr Fe-Cr-Al Fe-Cr-Al Fe-Cr-Al

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
Temperature ¯
1100 °C 120% 95% 40% 340% 465% 250%
1200 °C 25% 25% 15% 100% 120% 75%
1300 °C ----- ----- ----- 30% 30% 25%
A D - years; qR – working temperature;

D=k ln
JR A – max temperature
(es: Ni-Cr - k@20; A@1250)
LEP
Modalità costruttive dei resistori a spirale
• Diameter of coil, diameter of wire: (D/d)

Max Temp, ºC Ratio D/d
Ni-Cr Fe-Cr-Al
800 10 8
900 9 7
1000 8 6
1100 - 5
• distance p between turns of the coil:

(p/d) > 2.5-3.0
44
04/10/17
LEP
RADIATION FURNACES
Design of heating elements for radiation furnaces
2 3 2 2
1 3 1 3
a) b) c)
LOAD
CARICA RESISTOR
RESISTORE WALLS
PARETE
A
2 R 23 3
R12 R 13
1
LEP
RADIATION FURNACES
2 3 2 2
1 3 1 3
a) b) c)
ìP = C (T 4 -T 4 ) S
ï u 12 1 2 2
Thermal exchanges due to radiation
í 4 4
ïîPp = C13 (T1 -T3 ) S1
45
04/10/17
LEP
EMISSIVITY
Material e
Steel, Ni-Cr e Carborundum /silicon carbide/(o.) 0.8
Copper (o.) 0.7
Brass (o.) 0.6
Steel (n.o.) 0.45
Aluminium (o.), Copper and brass (n.o.) 0.3
Molibdenum e Tungstenum (n.o.) 0.2
o. – Oxidized ; n.o. – Non Oxidized
LEP
SPECIFIC SURFACE POWER
2
pi [W/cm ]
JR1400°C Pi [W/cm2]
1300 JR1400°C
20 10
1300
1200
8
15
1200
1100
6
1000 1100
10
1000
900 4
900
5 800
2
800
0 0
0 500 1000 °C 1400 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
JC [°C] JC [°C]
STEEL ALUMINIUM
46
04/10/17
LEP
design the heating

element:
specific power
p
p= i = ×
(
5,67×10 -8 T14 -T24 )
F 1 1 F
+ -1
e1 e 2
F – view factor expressing the

percentage of the total
power radiated by resistors which
is transmitted to the charge
< 1
LEP
SIZING WIRE DIAMETER – LENGHT
from p and V
V2 ! !4 p d2
P= = p S = p (p d !) ; R = r =r ; G=g ! A=g !
R A p d 2
4
WIRE WOUND RESISTOR
r P2 P Pd
d = 0.740 3 ; != ; G=g
p V2 pd p 4p
47
04/10/17
LEP
DESIGN THE RESISTORS

INPUT DATA:
- TOTAL POWER P’= 66 kW
- 6 RESISTORS, 3 groups (delta connected) of 2
resistors (parallel connected)
- V = 220 V phase-phase rms voltage
- Power of each resistor P = 11 kW
- WIRE Ni-Cr 80/20 (l = 1.8 m, p/d =2)
- View factor F=0.65
- Temperature of the load 950°C
LEP
Design the resitors
CURRENT
RESISTANCE
THEORETICAL SPECIFIC POWER RESISTOR TEMPERATURE @1050 °C
SPECIFIC POWER OF RESISTOR TAKING INTO ACCOUNT THE VIEW FACTOR
48
04/10/17
LEP
Dimensionamento di massima dei resistori - 3
WORKING TEMPERATURE OF RESISTOR WITH p = 5 Kw/m2
Wire diameter
Wire diameter has to be greater than 2 and lower than 5 mm to avoid construction issues.
LEP
49
04/10/17
LEP
Furnaces with Forced convection
Specific power of resistor

V I
4 r I2
d
p = a (JR -JA ) =
p2 d 3
Wire diameter
QA QR
4 r I2
d=3
p2 a (JR -JA )
n
Nu = C Re
n
æa dö æv dö
ç ÷=Cç ÷ a = f (d, v, JA )
è l ø è n ø
LEP
Furnaces with Forced Convection
é W ù Temperatura
aê ú
ë m 2 °C û dell’aria
500
a
0°C
100, 800
400 d=1 mm
Coefficient of heat
transmission by 0°C
convection for ‘zig- 300
100, 200
800
d=2 mm
zag’ wire resistors.
0°C
100, 200
300, 800
200 d=4 mm
0°C
100, 200
500, 800
d=10 mm
100 0°C
100, 200
800
d=30 mm
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
v [m/s]
50
04/10/17
LEP
30
Nu 200°C
20 400°C
JR=800°C 600°C
15
Re
10
8
15 20 30 40 50 70 100 150 200
Nusselt number as a function of Reynolds number
Fe-Cr-Al Resistor spiral wound
LEP
°C DJ P 10W/cm 2
600 8
6
JA
800°C
500 500
4
p = a (JR -JA )
200
100
400 800
500
200
100
300 800
2W/cm 2 500
200
a = f (d, v, JA )
100
200 800
500
100
800
100 500
100
V
0
0 5 10 15 m/s
Over temperature of a resistor wire of 4 mm in diameter, in

function of the speed v of the air temperature
51

Resistance Furnaces: Main Parts of A Resistance Furnace

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Resistance Furnaces: Main Parts of A Resistance Furnace

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04/10/17

ELETTROTERMIA - Forni a Resistori-1 1

(1) heating elements, (2) refractory lining, (3)

• heating chamber, made with TWO OR THREE LINING LAYERS:

• external metal shell with mainly mechanical functions

• system of measurement and regulation of temperature

• System of loading and unloading, of supporting or moving the charge

ELETTROTERMIA - Forni a Resistori-1 3

ELETTROTERMIA - Forni a Resistori-1 4

Die Anforderungen an die thermische Auslegung

QGut QVSpeicher STORED

ELETTROTERMIA - Forni a Resistori-1 5

QZuGesamt ..... gesamte zuzuführende

• MODES OF HEAT ABSORPTION BY THE

ELETTROTERMIA - Forni a Resistori-1 7

LEP CHAMBER FURNACES – NATURAL CONVECTION

ELETTROTERMIA - Forni a Resistori-1 8

ELETTROTERMIA - Forni a Resistori-1 9

Typ: Kammerofen mit Schwenktür

PIT FURNACETechnische Daten:

ELETTROTERMIA - Forni a Resistori-1 10

ELETTROTERMIA - Forni a Resistori-1 11

ELETTROTERMIA - Forni a Resistori-1 12

ELETTROTERMIA - Forni a Resistori-1 15

ELETTROTERMIA - Forni a Resistori-1 16

ELETTROTERMIA - Forni a Resistori-1 17

1-main bell; 2 - muffle furnace (bell

ELETTROTERMIA - Forni a Resistori-1 18

ELETTROTERMIA - Forni a Resistori-1 19

Elevator furnace 1-external frame;

ELETTROTERMIA - Forni a Resistori-1 20

ELETTROTERMIA - Forni a Resistori-1 21

ELETTROTERMIA - Forni a Resistori-1 22

ELETTROTERMIA - Forni a Resistori-1 23

Ofentypen 7: Spezieller Kammerofen

1-external metallic frame;

ELETTROTERMIA - Forni a Resistori-1 25

ELETTROTERMIA - Forni a Resistori-1 26

1 – Heated wire or strip

Furnace for thermal treatment

ELETTROTERMIA - Forni a Resistori-1 28

ELETTROTERMIA - Forni a Resistori-1 29

• In furnaces with graphite heating elements, graphite powders

• In vacuum furnaces are often used multiple reflecting

• Heating elements – in these furnaces metallic heating elements

a) walking beam; b) cam shaft

ELETTROTERMIA - Forni a Resistori-1 31

Composition % (excluded H2O)

H2 CO CO2 NH3 CH4 N2

a) From natural gas 40 20 1 - 1 rest

ELETTROTERMIA - Forni a Resistori-1 32

• sintering of metal powders

• annealing of magnetic alloys, steels of low and high carbon content, of

• soldering of steels, magnetic alloys and refractory

• hardening of special steels

• special processes: degassing of titanium and zirconium, combined

ELETTROTERMIA - Forni a Resistori-1 33

• Avoid oxidation and contamination of heated

• High purity of the heated material and clean