Translation Analysis
Translation Analysis
Translation Analysis
1 Introduction .............................................................................................................3
2 Methodology ............................................................................................................5
2.1 Description of the Experiment ..........................................................................5
2.2 Analysis Methodology ......................................................................................7
3 Theoretical Foundations.........................................................................................8
3.1 Translation Quality Assessment .......................................................................8
3.1.1 Christiane Nord‟s Model ..........................................................................9
3.1.2 Malcolm Williams‟s Model ......................................................................9
3.1.3 Reiss and Vermeer‟s Model ....................................................................10
3.1.4 Jean Darbelnet‟s Model ..........................................................................11
3.1.5 Christopher Waddington‟s Model ..........................................................11
3.1.6 Jamal Al-Qinai‟s Model..........................................................................11
3.2 Translator Competence ...................................................................................12
3.3 Risk Analysis ..................................................................................................13
3.4 Style ................................................................................................................13
4 Christiane Nord’s Model ......................................................................................16
4.1 External Factors ..............................................................................................21
4.1.1 Sender .....................................................................................................21
4.1.2 Intention ..................................................................................................21
4.1.3 Recipient .................................................................................................21
4.1.4 Medium ...................................................................................................22
4.1.5 Place ........................................................................................................22
4.1.6 Time ........................................................................................................22
4.1.7 Motive .....................................................................................................23
4.1.8 Text Function ..........................................................................................23
4.2 Internal Factors ...............................................................................................23
4.2.1 Subject Matter .........................................................................................23
4.2.2 Content ....................................................................................................24
4.2.3 Presuppositions .......................................................................................25
4.2.4 Text Composition ...................................................................................26
4.2.5 Non-verbal Elements ..............................................................................26
4.2.6 Lexis........................................................................................................26
4.2.7 Sentence Structure ..................................................................................27
4.2.8 Suprasegmental Features ........................................................................27
5 Analysis ..................................................................................................................29
5.1 Summary of Nord‟s Model Analysis ..............................................................29
5.2 External Factors ..............................................................................................35
5.2.1 Intention ..................................................................................................35
5.2.2 Recipient .................................................................................................35
5.2.3 Conclusion on External Factors ..............................................................35
5.3 Internal Factors ...............................................................................................36
5.3.1 Content ....................................................................................................36
5.3.2 Presuppositions .......................................................................................42
5.3.3 Lexis........................................................................................................43
5.3.4 Sentence Structure ..................................................................................44
5.3.5 Suprasegmental Features ........................................................................47
5.3.6 Conclusion on Internal Factors ...............................................................47
6 Error Analysis – Translation Units .....................................................................49
1
6.1 Translation Error vs. Translation Problem .....................................................49
6.2 Error and Its Relevance...................................................................................50
6.3 Major vs. Minor Error .....................................................................................50
6.4 Scales for Evaluating Translations .................................................................51
6.5 Error Analysis .................................................................................................52
6.5.1 History TT...............................................................................................52
6.5.2 Welding STT...........................................................................................55
6.5.3 Welding PTT...........................................................................................58
6.6 Conclusion on Error Analysis – Translation Units .........................................59
7 Error Analysis – Errors .......................................................................................62
7.1 Natural vs. Directional Equivalence ...............................................................62
7.2 Directional Equivalents...................................................................................63
7.3 Natural Equivalents.........................................................................................65
7.4 Conclusion on Error Analysis – Errors ...........................................................67
8 Conclusion .............................................................................................................68
9 Bibliography ..........................................................................................................71
9.1 Primary Sources ..............................................................................................71
9.2 Secondary Sources ..........................................................................................71
Summary........................................................................................................................74
Resumé ...........................................................................................................................75
Appendices .....................................................................................................................76
Appendix I: History ST...............................................................................................76
Appendix II: Welding ST ...........................................................................................77
Appendix III: Instructions ...........................................................................................78
Appendix IV: Students‟ Translation of the “History” Text ........................................79
Appendix V: Students‟ Translation of the “Welding” Text .......................................84
Appendix VI: Professionals‟ Translation of the “Welding” Text...............................88
2
1 Introduction
The present thesis deals with the changes occurring in repeatedly translated texts. The
changes are being analysed on two technical articles from the field of engineering, the
topics of which are: welding and the history of roller bearings. The texts were translated
four times between Czech and English (Czech original – English translation – Czech
translation – English translation – final Czech translation) by a group of students
enrolled in a university English-language Translation program (soon-to-be translators),
and by professional translators working for various Czech translation agencies. The
reason for having two groups translating one of the texts simultaneously is their
different level of competence (further explained in Chapter 3.2).
The aim of the research is to reveal the processes negatively affecting the quality
of repeated translations, and consequently to help their prevention. The research results
shall provide some guidance for further research of e.g. relay translation – translation of
a translated text (Baker & Saldanha, 1998, p. 230) – commonly used in the European
Union or in subtitling. The present thesis may serve as a pilot study for further research
since relay translation is more complicated and concerns more than two languages.
Another aim of the present thesis is to provide advice to those translators who translate
texts intended for chain translation.
The thesis is divided into several parts. The first chapter (Chapter 2) explains the
process of the whole experiment with repeated translation accompanied by an
illustrative diagram. The chapter continues with the description of methodology.
The third chapter deals with various approaches to translation quality
assessment, and provides justification for the chosen method. Further, it also mentions
the concepts of translator competence, risk analysis, style, and their implications for the
research.
The following chapter (Chapter 4) provides detailed explanation of the first part
of the research methodology. It presents Christiane Nord‟s approach to translation
evaluation. She breaks the factors having effect on the translation quality down into
external (or extratextual) and internal (or intratextual) factors. Both groups then consist
of several subcategories, such as sender, intention, recipient, etc.
Right after the theoretical explanation of the model, the first part of the analysis
follows (Chapter 5). Given the extent of this part, the findings are displayed in three
3
separate tables (one for each target text) at the beginning of the chapter. The chapter
further provides detailed analysis of the most relevant factors mentioned in the
preceding methodology. It also contains two shorter conclusions on both the external
and internal factors, summarising the results arising from the comparison of source and
target texts.
The thesis continues with an error analysis of translation units (Chapter 6) which
explores the problem of defining an error and its relevance in translation. The chapter
presents several methods and scales used at universities and in professional agencies.
Later, it also contains the results of the error analysis conducted on the three target texts
accompanied by concrete examples of mistakes displayed in tables with commentaries.
The error analysis is concluded with the seventh chapter dealing with Pym‟s
concept of directional vs. natural equivalent. All the translation errors associated with
the problem of equivalence are examined and presented in separate tables containing all
the solutions from the whole process of repeated translation.
The thesis is finished with a conclusion (Chapter 8) summarising all the aspects
in which the repeatedly translated texts have changed and the evaluation of the thesis
results. The appendices contain all the materials used for the analysis.
List of acronyms used within the thesis:
TQA Translation Quality Assessment
ST Source Text
TT Target Text
SL Source Language
TL Target Language
STT Students‟ Target Text
PTT Professionals‟ Target Text
4
2 Methodology
2.1 Description of the Experiment
Two shorter texts from the field of engineering were selected for the present analysis.
First of them, the text entitled “The History of Roller Bearing1” (only “History”
thereinafter), focuses on the historical development of roller bearings, and the other one,
“Welded Structures and Components2” (only “Welding” thereinafter), deals with
various types of welded structures and components. Both texts were translated four
times between Czech and English by selected translators who can be divided into two
groups: professional translators and students of translation. The students were asked to
translate both the “History” and the “Welding text, whereas the professionals only the
latter one. The diagram (Figure 1) which shows the whole process of the experiment
follows:
Figure 1: Process of the Experiment
1
Historie vzniku valivých ložisek
2
Svařované konstrukce a součásti
5
The members of the groups were chosen with the aim to form two separate
groups of translators possessing approximately the same level of translator competence.
At the time of the experiment, students A, B, C, D, and E were students of the Master‟s
degree studies of the English-language Translation taught at the Faculty of Arts,
Masaryk University in Brno (the Czech Republic), and all of them were just about to
finish their fourth semester with the exception of student C, who was finishing his
second semester. The standard length of the program is two academic years (four
semesters). All members of this group were Czechs and full-time students.
The other group of translators consisted of professionals working for various
translation agencies all over the Czech Republic, as it is shown in the table (Figure 2)
below:
Figure 2: Translation Agencies
Translator Agency
Professional A Abiturient.cz, Brno
Professional B Eufrat, Plzeň
Professional C Jipka, Praha
Professional D Skřivánek, Plzeň
The agencies were selected randomly; however, a particular emphasis was laid on their
size due to the endeavour to create a representative sample of professionals. Most of the
agencies run more than one subsidiary in at least two Czech cities and offer translation
into several languages.
The translators were given clear instructions together with a source text which
contained, primarily, information about the source (but not a concrete title of the book –
to minimize the risk of copying), the target audience, and, secondly, a brief explanation
of the Risk Management concept designed by Anthony Pym (2004). The entire text of
the instructions can be found in the appendices (Appendix III). The reason for
incorporating two groups of translators with a different level of translator competence
translating the same text is explained later in the thesis (Ch. 3.2). None of the translators
was asked to translate a particular text more than once.
The result of such experiment with repeated or chain translation are 14 texts,
including the original ones.
6
2.2 Analysis Methodology
The analysis itself is composed of four parts and it moves from surface to core. The first
two parts, the analysis of external and internal factors, are based on Christiane Nord‟s
model of text analysis in translation (1991). The other two parts then combine several
approaches to mistakes in translation. Firstly, the translation units of all the final TTs
are being examined for language and translation errors and compared to the STs.
Secondly, the translation errors connected with the problem of equivalence are
presented together with the solutions from all TTs, and classified as directional or
natural equivalents according to Anthony Pym‟s definition (2010). The entire analysis
with all its parts is illustrated in Figure 3.
Figure 3: Individual Parts of the Analysis
7
3 Theoretical Foundations
The most challenging task, when trying to describe the changes emerging in repeatedly
translated texts, is to find an appropriate method. Moreover, translation studies are a
relatively new field of study, still developing, without any strict borders separating it
from other disciplines (e.g. linguistics). In addition, the problem of assessing translation
quality objectively does not seem to have any clear cut solution. As Hatim and Mason
(1997) say, “The assessment of translation performance is an activity which, despite
being widespread, is under-researched and under-discussed” (p. 199). However, the
“newborn” nature of the discipline has some advantages, too. For example, most of the
sources can be found on the Internet and they can therefore be accessed without much
effort or delay. The fact facilitates further research of various aspects of translation. The
present thesis has taken advantage of the Internet sources and some relevant recent
studies on translation quality assessment (TQA) will be presented further in this chapter.
8
presents a clear set of rules according to which a translation should be assessed, and,
moreover, it takes into account the target text skopos (function). Therefore, the thesis
focuses on the text-based approaches to TQA although the other ones are not less
interesting or not worth exploring. The only reason is objectivity and the text type of the
selected texts (scientific prose style).
9
of the theory rests in the number of arguments correctly or incorrectly rendered by a
translator, and the qualitative one in analysing the arguments and dividing them into
smaller components.
This approach, nonetheless, has evident drawbacks – it is rather a macrostructual
analysis (disregarding the micro level), and not every text must inevitably contain an
argument (or such an argument on which the theory can be applied). Further, as the
Routledge Encyclopaedia of Translation Studies argues “he [Malcolm Williams] totally
disregards the context- and culture-boundness of texts” (Baker & Saldanha, 1998, p.
223).
The same scholar also explores the assessment of professional translations and
the accompanying error analysis (more on the subject can be found later in the thesis –
Ch. 6.3 and 6.4) in one of his earlier works (1989). Apart from the error analysis and
models as e.g. Sical III, he also presents a list of extratextual factors which play specific
role in assessing a translation. However, some of them are more relevant for
commercial practice than for a scientific study (e.g. deadline). The list of the
extratextual factors follows (with Nord‟s equivalents in parentheses): purpose or end
use (intention, motive, and text function), distribution (medium), customer (sender),
deadline, source text (the difficulty of a translation task also mentioned by Nord but not
included in the thesis), end use and acceptability (recipient, presuppositions, medium).
10
3.1.4 Jean Darbelnet’s Model
Another scholar addressing the TQA problem is Jean Darbelnet (1977). He identifies
nine parameters important for any translation assessment. The list of the parameters,
supplemented by a corresponding part of the present analysis, in parentheses (to
illustrate the overlap), follows: accuracy of individual translation units (error analysis),
accuracy of translation as a whole (text function), idiomaticity (lexic), correctness of
target language (error analysis, medium), tone (intention, sender), cultural differences
(recipient, presuppositions), literary and other artistic allusions (not particularly relevant
for technical texts), implicit intentions of author (author, motive, intention), adaptation
to end user (recipient). It is, again, an example of a non-quantitative approach to TQA.
11
TQA unattended. The list of Al-Qinai‟s parameters follows together with an appropriate
part of the model used in the present thesis (Al-Qinai, 2000, p. 499):
Figure 4: Comparison of Al-Qinai's and Nord's Model
Al-Qinai’s model of TQA Present analysis
Textual Typology and Tenor: text function, content, lexis
linguistic and narrative structure of ST and TT, textual
function (e.g. didactic, informative, instructional,
persuasive, evocative, etc.)
Formal Correspondence: text composition, medium, non-
overall textual volume and arrangement, paragraph verbal elements, suprasegmental
division, punctuation, reproduction of headings, features
quotation, motos, logos… etc.
Coherence of Thematic Structure: subject matter, presuppositions
degree of referential compatibility and thematic
symmetry.
Cohesion: content
reference (co-reference, proforms, anaphora, cataphora),
substitution, ellipsis, deixis and conjunctions.
Text-Pragmatic (Dynamic) Equivalence: degree intention, presuppositions,
of proximity of TT to the intended effect of ST (i.e. recipient, motive
fulfillment or violation of reader expectations) and the
illocutionary function of ST and TT.
Lexical Properties (Register): lexis
jargon, idioms, loanwords, catch phrases, collocations,
paraphrases, connotations and emotive aspects of lexical
meaning.
Grammatical/ Syntactic Equivalence: sentence structure, content
word order, sentence structure, cleaving, number, gender
and person (agreement), modality, tense and aspect.
12
In the present analysis, the translator competence was no explored. The texts
were translated by two different groups of translators described hereinbefore (Ch. 2.1).
The reason for not exploring the translator competence in the thesis was, apart from its
limited space, that the competence within a group is supposedly equal. All of the
members should have almost the same chance to translate a text correctly. The
professional part of the translators then should, in all probability, have more experience
in translating technical texts (since the agencies have appointed particularly them for the
translation of such texts). One of the texts was translated by both the students and the
professionals due to the risk that the students‟ TT could have been too “damaged” at the
end of the process of repeated translation. In that case, the professionals‟ TT would
serve as a safety - if it was also of very low quality, then there are probably some
processes having a negative effect on repeatedly translated texts; if it, on the contrary,
was a TT of acceptable quality, then the problem of students‟ failure may lie in their
level of translator competence.
3.4 Style
With regard to the nature of the analysis, it is necessary to say a few words about the
style characterising the analysed texts – scientific prose style (a term used by Galperin
1971 or Urbanová 2008). Such texts are usually written monologues and they are rarely
intended for oral presentation, therefore they tend to be more condensed (e.g. semi-
predicative constructions, gerunds, present/past participles, nominal expression, etc.)
and information contained is more factual, objective, compact, tight and sententious
than in a speech (Urbanová, 2008, Ch. 7 and Knittlová, 2000, p 136-158). Urbanová
13
(2008) also adds that linear modification, clear sentence boundaries (full stop, comma,
conjunctions, capital letters, etc.), surveyability and preservability characterise the
grammar and lay-out of all written texts, including the technical ones (Ch. 7). Moreover,
written texts usually do not allow for any feedback from their recipients. Consequently,
both the content and form of the message being conveyed have to be exhaustive
(various connectors, reference and demonstrative expressions together with
subordinating conjunctions help to build a hierarchy) (Knittlová, 2000, p. 136-158).
A typical attribute of the English style is matter-of-factness (Urbanová, 2002, p.
48). Authors writing in scientific prose style generally verbalize sophisticated topics
(connected with abstract expressions, loan-words, complex sentences, terminology,
higher level of cohesion, etc.) as a subject-matter in their texts (Urbanová, 2008, p. 22),
which commonly perform a referential function (meaning they typically describe certain
things or phenomena rather than express feelings or make an artistic impression). The
language is generally formal (much like the relationship between the author and the
recipient - tenor) and the level of expressiveness, given by the occurrence of author‟s
subjective opinions, should be low. Apart from the formality, technical texts are usually,
not exclusively, impersonal, which is presented in the form of passive voice or third
person noun phrases (Leech et al., 1982, p. 146). In Czech, on the other hand, authors
often choose to address their audience and they often include themselves into the
addressing (e.g. nacházíme, nalézáme) in an effort to build a relationship with their
readers, yet still a formal one.
Dagmar Knittlová (2000, p. 136-158) presents several remarks on the topic some
of which have not been mentioned so far. The syntax of the scientific prose style,
according to her, is quite simple and stereotypical (not meaning simple sentences):
objective word order, condensed sentences, objective, impersonal sentential structures.
Regarding the lexis, the texts usually contain many nouns, adjectives, specific terms,
unambiguous (not necessarily univocal) terms; the lexis is usually quite stereotypical
with a high repetition rate. Marie Čechová (2003) emphasizes the greater numbers of
nouns, whole noun phrases and phrases containing a verb and a noun (zabývat se
výrobou vs. vyrábět) found in Czech technical texts (p. 187). Finally, I. R. Galperin
(1971) adds to the style characteristics that it tries to “devoid of any individuality” (p.
319).
In conclusion, apart from the aforementioned differences between the Czech and
English scientific prose styles, they mainly differ in their orientation. English technical
14
1 Introduction
The present thesis deals with the changes occurring in repeatedly translated texts. The
changes are being analysed on two technical articles from the field of engineering, the
topics of which are: welding and the history of roller bearings. The texts were translated
four times between Czech and English (Czech original – English translation – Czech
translation – English translation – final Czech translation) by a group of students
enrolled in a university English-language Translation program (soon-to-be translators),
and by professional translators working for various Czech translation agencies. The
reason for having two groups translating one of the texts simultaneously is their
different level of competence (further explained in Chapter 3.2).
The aim of the research is to reveal the processes negatively affecting the quality
of repeated translations, and consequently to help their prevention. The research results
shall provide some guidance for further research of e.g. relay translation – translation of
a translated text (Baker & Saldanha, 1998, p. 230) – commonly used in the European
Union or in subtitling. The present thesis may serve as a pilot study for further research
since relay translation is more complicated and concerns more than two languages.
Another aim of the present thesis is to provide advice to those translators who translate
texts intended for chain translation.
The thesis is divided into several parts. The first chapter (Chapter 2) explains the
process of the whole experiment with repeated translation accompanied by an
illustrative diagram. The chapter continues with the description of methodology.
The third chapter deals with various approaches to translation quality
assessment, and provides justification for the chosen method. Further, it also mentions
the concepts of translator competence, risk analysis, style, and their implications for the
research.
The following chapter (Chapter 4) provides detailed explanation of the first part
of the research methodology. It presents Christiane Nord‟s approach to translation
evaluation. She breaks the factors having effect on the translation quality down into
external (or extratextual) and internal (or intratextual) factors. Both groups then consist
of several subcategories, such as sender, intention, recipient, etc.
Right after the theoretical explanation of the model, the first part of the analysis
follows (Chapter 5). Given the extent of this part, the findings are displayed in three
3
separate tables (one for each target text) at the beginning of the chapter. The chapter
further provides detailed analysis of the most relevant factors mentioned in the
preceding methodology. It also contains two shorter conclusions on both the external
and internal factors, summarising the results arising from the comparison of source and
target texts.
The thesis continues with an error analysis of translation units (Chapter 6) which
explores the problem of defining an error and its relevance in translation. The chapter
presents several methods and scales used at universities and in professional agencies.
Later, it also contains the results of the error analysis conducted on the three target texts
accompanied by concrete examples of mistakes displayed in tables with commentaries.
The error analysis is concluded with the seventh chapter dealing with Pym‟s
concept of directional vs. natural equivalent. All the translation errors associated with
the problem of equivalence are examined and presented in separate tables containing all
the solutions from the whole process of repeated translation.
The thesis is finished with a conclusion (Chapter 8) summarising all the aspects
in which the repeatedly translated texts have changed and the evaluation of the thesis
results. The appendices contain all the materials used for the analysis.
List of acronyms used within the thesis:
TQA Translation Quality Assessment
ST Source Text
TT Target Text
SL Source Language
TL Target Language
STT Students‟ Target Text
PTT Professionals‟ Target Text
4
2 Methodology
2.1 Description of the Experiment
Two shorter texts from the field of engineering were selected for the present analysis.
First of them, the text entitled “The History of Roller Bearing1” (only “History”
thereinafter), focuses on the historical development of roller bearings, and the other one,
“Welded Structures and Components2” (only “Welding” thereinafter), deals with
various types of welded structures and components. Both texts were translated four
times between Czech and English by selected translators who can be divided into two
groups: professional translators and students of translation. The students were asked to
translate both the “History” and the “Welding text, whereas the professionals only the
latter one. The diagram (Figure 1) which shows the whole process of the experiment
follows:
Figure 1: Process of the Experiment
1
Historie vzniku valivých ložisek
2
Svařované konstrukce a součásti
5
bear in mind that a ST may have more than one function (“polyfunctionality of texts”
Nord, 1991, p. 21), which should be reflected in the corresponding TT.
Before any further explanation of the model is given, it appears useful to explain
some terms used within the analysis in greater detail to avoid ambiguity:
18
of the theory rests in the number of arguments correctly or incorrectly rendered by a
translator, and the qualitative one in analysing the arguments and dividing them into
smaller components.
This approach, nonetheless, has evident drawbacks – it is rather a macrostructual
analysis (disregarding the micro level), and not every text must inevitably contain an
argument (or such an argument on which the theory can be applied). Further, as the
Routledge Encyclopaedia of Translation Studies argues “he [Malcolm Williams] totally
disregards the context- and culture-boundness of texts” (Baker & Saldanha, 1998, p.
223).
The same scholar also explores the assessment of professional translations and
the accompanying error analysis (more on the subject can be found later in the thesis –
Ch. 6.3 and 6.4) in one of his earlier works (1989). Apart from the error analysis and
models as e.g. Sical III, he also presents a list of extratextual factors which play specific
role in assessing a translation. However, some of them are more relevant for
commercial practice than for a scientific study (e.g. deadline). The list of the
extratextual factors follows (with Nord‟s equivalents in parentheses): purpose or end
use (intention, motive, and text function), distribution (medium), customer (sender),
deadline, source text (the difficulty of a translation task also mentioned by Nord but not
included in the thesis), end use and acceptability (recipient, presuppositions, medium).
10
The translator thus moves backwards from the TT to the ST and back to the TT
which closes the circle. Nord (1991) says, “If the translator has succeeded in producing
a functional text conforming to the initiator‟s needs, the target text will be congruent
with the TT skopos” (p. 33). As regards the second part of the second step in the
translation process, it seems to bear some resemblance to Pym‟s concept of risk
management (also risk analysis) (2004), since he also admits that not all of the ST
elements should be treated with the same attention and precision: “Some elements are
high risk, others are low risk [...] work hard on the high-risk elements, and do not work
too hard on the low-risk elements” (p. 2).
Not only does the model try to be as universal as possible, but it also attempts to
include all possible aspects which may have some effect on the translation process,
translator‟s decisions, and, finally, the target text. Therefore, a more detailed and
practical explanation of such aspects should follow.
Extratextual (or external) factors, analysed by the translator right before reading
a text, are the starting point of the analysis. They help the translator to determine a
source text function. Translator‟s task is to observe a ST situation as both a ST recipient
and the translator build up certain expectations about the intratextual factors of a text
which will hopefully be verified by further reading. The translator should particularly be
interested in the effect the text has on the ST recipient (Nord, 1991, p. 37). The set of
extratextual factors follows: sender, intention, recipient, medium, place, time, motive,
and text function.
After exploring the extratextual factors, the translator or reviewer should
continue with the intratextual (internal) ones. These, on the contrary, relate to a text
itself and include even non-verbal elements (Nord, 1991, p. 35, 36). Among the
intratextual factors are: content, subject manner, presuppositions, text composition, non-
verbal elements, lexis, sentence structure, and suprasegmental features. Taking into
account the looping nature of the translation process, the sequence in which the
translator observes each extratextual or intratextual factor is irrelevant. The key term
determining the relations between the factors is interdependence (Nord, 1991). Each of
the factors can and should give the translator a clue about some of the others (e.g. if an
author lived between 1900 and 1958, the text was probably published at that time, if not
later – this shows the interdependence of the author and time).
20
4.1 External Factors
4.1.1 Sender
“The sender of a text is the person (or institution, etc.) who uses the text in order to
convey a certain message to somebody else and/or to produce a certain effect, whereas
the text producer writes the text according to the instructions of the sender, and
complies with the rules and norms of text production valid in the respective language
and culture” (Nord, 1991, p. 43). As it has been said before, the categories of sender and
text producer often overlap. The translator then finds himself in a situation comparable
to the one of the text producer. He has to produce a text having the same effect on TT
recipients as the ST had on ST recipients, and he will exert himself to produce a text
which would be in compliance both with the ST and the TT norms (unless there exist
other instructions from the translation initiator). This, however, is not to discredit
translator‟s creativity in translation.
4.1.2 Intention
Intention determines structuring of a text (what to mention and what to omit) and its
form (e.g. the choice of a TT text type, non-verbal elements, etc.). It is the sender who
defines the intention, and the translator should exert himself to adhere to it when
creating a TT. Christiane Nord (1991) adds, “At the same time, the particular
organization of a text marks the text type and is a pre-signal which tells the recipient in
which function he is expected to use the text” (p. 48). The category of intention is
especially important for literary texts (since a non-literary text, namely a technical one,
tends to be as clear as possible, not ambiguous, without any hidden meanings), which is
not the case of the present analysis.
4.1.3 Recipient
At this stage of the analysis, a text recipient is in question; later (Ch. 5.2.2), it will
particularly be the ST recipient followed by the TT recipient. These two are, according
to Nord (1991), different from each other at least in two aspects – cultural background
and linguistic community (p. 52). Though, in the present thesis, both the ST recipient
and the final TT recipient share the same background and community. However, it is
still vital to take their characteristics into account when translating. Adjustments
concerning the TT recipient should be found only in the texts translated into English.
21
4.1.4 Medium
This extratextual factor can be defined as a “medium or vehicle which conveys the text
to the reader” (Nord, 1991, p. 56). On the basis of the medium through which the
message comes to its recipient, he builds certain presuppositions (or expectations)
which are based on his experience with the medium (e.g. offensive language certainly
has a different effect in a film dubbing, or even in subtitles, and in a textbook). The
translator should thus bear in mind the prospective recipient‟s presuppositions.
4.1.5 Place
The dimension of place can be ambiguous because not everyone shares the same image
when thinking about the term. On account of this, it ought to be said that the place
stands not only for the place of production, but also for the place of reception (Nord,
1991, p. 60). The place factor is, undoubtedly, closely connected to the medium since a
person would not search for a book in a cinema theatre. Likewise, a close connection
can be found between the place and time because of e.g. the political influence on
literature at a certain time. When considering the place, the translator should account for
linguistic aspects as well as cultural and political conditions. The dimension of place
grows in importance when there exist more language varieties used in different regions
of the same language culture (Nord, 1991, p. 61).
4.1.6 Time
The time dimension is important for the text analysis performed before every translation
for two reasons, the first of which is generally applicable on literary texts rather than
technical ones. Firstly, summarised by Nord (1991), “Certain text types are linked to a
particular period (e.g. oracles and epic poems as opposed to weather reports and
television plays), and, of course, text-type conventions also undergo change” (p. 63).
Secondly, the translator should consider, whether the information given in the source
text is still valid (Nord, 1991, p. 64). If so, it can be considered a “modern” piece of
work (e.g. the probability that the text will contain more than just a few adverbial
participles, in case of Czech, is quite low) written by a “contemporary” author, and its
translation can thus, according to Popovič (1981), be regarded a synchronous one.
The translator should also bear in mind that, especially with technical texts, the
field terminology is constantly undergoing minor or major changes (e.g. computer
science). It goes hand in hand with development as it attempts to name new inventions,
events, etc.
22
4.1.7 Motive
The category of motive represents the reasons why a sender decided to establish
communication with a recipient/s. This also includes the occasion for which the text
was produced (Nord, 1991, p. 67). The motive may signal conventions that will “guide
the recipient‟s expectations” (Nord, 1991, p. 68).
23
initial clue about the amount of research he is about to conduct (in case he lacks
specialised knowledge), and whether it is worth conducting (since a good translator
should be aware of his own professional limits). In the case of students‟ translations, the
ability to perform detailed research will probably be more relevant than possessing
expert knowledge, even though the texts were selected with regards to the students‟
level of competence, and they do not differ much from the texts which may be, at some
point, presented to them in their future professional careers. Really the key ability here
seems to be the risk analysis (Pym, 2004) – to decide which translation units bear a
higher degree of risk (as discussed in Ch. 3.3).
Fourth, from the subject matter analysis, the translator may gain information
about the role (function) of the headline and sub-headlines which differs culture from
culture (Nord, 1991, p. 86).
Finally, “the elicitation of the subject matter occasionally yields some
information about certain extratextual factors (e.g., sender, time, text function), where
these have not already been ascertained by external analysis” (Nord, 1991, p. 86).
Further, the expectations concerning the subject matter developed in the course of the
external factors analysis may be confirmed or adjusted.
4.2.2 Content
In most cases, being a translator presupposes a good command of a source language and
a target langue as well as knowledge of the rules and norms governing text production.
This leaves little space for possible misunderstanding caused by ST (content)
comprehension. Still, Christiane Nord provides some useful guidelines for determining
the precise content of a text; mostly on the level of lexical items. To start with, she
defines content as “the reference of the text to objects and phenomena in an
extralinguistic reality” (Nord, 1991, p. 90), and adds that such reference is generally
expressed by the semantics of the lexical and grammatical structures. These structures
work well together (ideally), complement each other and significantly contribute to the
coherence of the text (and also the coherence of the text and other texts in the same
language culture). By the lexical and grammatical structures, the author means: linking
devices (including anaphora, cataphoric reference, substitution, recurrence, paraphrase,
etc.), other logical connections, theme-rheme relationship, functional sentence
perspective, words and phrases, sentence patterns, tense, mood, etc. (Nord, 1991, p. 91).
This corresponds (not fully overlaps, for it contains more than just a mere analysis of
24
cohesion) with the concept of cohesion presented by Halliday and Hasan (1976) as it
takes into account all the five sources of cohesion suggested by the scholars: cohesion
through reference (anaphoric reference, cataphoric reference...), substitution, ellipsis,
conjunction, and lexical items (repetition, hyponyms and hypernyms...).
At least two more things ought to be mentioned when describing the category of
content – the denotative vs. connotative meaning of a word and the “internal situation”
of a text. Nord (1991) very clearly states, “The amount of information verbalized in a
text includes not only denotative but also connotative (or „secondary‟) meaning, i.e. the
information expressed by a language element by virtue of its affiliation to a certain
linguistic code (stylistic levels, registers, functional style, regional and social dialects,
etc.)” (p. 92). With respect to this fact, the translator should read and understand a
source text and then create the target text accordingly.
Last but not least, the information contained in a text can be either “factual”
(based on reality – the one that both the sender and the recipient can agree on) or
“fictional” (referring to a fictional world invented by the author, and therefore separated
from the reality of the communicative act) (Nord, 1991, p. 93).
This is assumingly the first factor which may lay some foundations for a
quantitative analysis of translation quality (rather than qualitative, as it was so far).
Although, these are only clues since the fact that e.g. a target text holds the very same
number of particular verb forms as the source text, or that the translator managed to use
exactly the same variety of conjunctions, does not ensure a high standard of translation.
4.2.3 Presuppositions
Pragmatic presuppositions are those “implicitly assumed by the speaker, who takes it
for granted that this will also be the case with the listener” (Nord, 1991, p. 95); such
presuppositions usually refer to objects and phenomena of the source culture (p. 96).
Problems arise if the thesis does not work. For example, in cases when the target reader
is not fully aware of the source culture aspects presented in the ST and transferred into
the TT. Therefore, the translator may want to “adjust the level of explicitness to the
(assumed) general background knowledge of the intended TT recipient” (Nord, 1991, p.
98). Nord also suggests that he will take advantage of the translation procedures of
„expansion‟ or „reduction‟.
It is vital, to mention the problem of redundancy, too. The main aim of the
redundancy is to assist comprehension by repeated verbalization (e.g. explanation,
25
repetition, paraphrase, summary, tautology, etc.). Since both texts analysed in the
present thesis are technical ones written by experts for experts or almost experts, the
redundancy should be minimal.
4.2.6 Lexis
The category of lexis is quite large. It may refer to the affiliation of a word to stylistic
levels and registers, word formation, connotations, rhetorical figures (metaphors,
26
repetition of lexical element, metonymy, metaphor), parts of speech, morphological
aspects (suffixes, prefixes, compositions, acronyms, abbreviations, etc.), collocations,
idioms, addressing, selection of words (with respect to the sender‟s intention, time,
place, medium, occasion...), degree of originality (words invented by the author, phrases
coined by him, intentional violation of norms), etc. Nord (1991) also states that “the
choice of lexis in a particular text is determined by both extratextual and intratextual
factors” (p. 112), and Crystal and Davy (1969) add, “In any text, the stylistically
significant characteristics of lexis clearly reflect the extratextual factors of the situation
in which the text is used, including the participants using it for communication” (p. 81).
3
„when [...] the speaker breaks off his speech before the sense is completed, in order to aggravate the
purpose of his address“ (Boyd, 1860, p. 281/282)
27
asyndetic enumerations (higher tempo), theme-rheme structures (e.g. stress the most
important one by putting it at the end), selection of words, word order, onomatopoeia,
and so forth (Nord, 1991, p. 120-124). From the above list and from other additional
aspects, such as rhythmicity, melody, alliteration, rhyme, and tone, it seems that the
suprasegmental features play a bigger role in poems and spoken discourses than in
strictly technical texts.
28
5 Analysis
5.1 Summary of Nord’s Model Analysis
Due to the extent of the analysis, three tables (Figure 6, Figure 7, and Figure 8)
summarising the findings will unconventionally be presented first (prior to the analysis
itself). Each table represents one final TT. Right after the tables (Chapters 5.2 and 5.3),
attention will be drawn to those parts of the analysis where there were some problems
on the translators‟ side, or where an example was needed. Such parts are marked with
asterisk in the first column of the tables.
Figure 6: Summary of the "History" Text Analysis
HISTORY
ST TT
EXTRATEXTUAL FACTORS
SENDER Ing. Jan Fröhlich (supposedly the no problems
text producer, too), experienced
(more books), monologue
INTENTION* referential intention4, neutral some of the text type
tone, more past verb forms than it conventions are
is usual for the text type stronger than in the ST,
others are weaker
(more simple
sentences, informal
vocabulary, etc.)
RECIPIENT* age: 15+; sex: both; education: at Czech title of the book
least basic school; geographic referred to in the text
origin: Czech speaking people; changed to German
social status: students (secondary original title
school), specialists
MEDIUM published writing, the book may slight change of layout
also be used as a secondary (bold type, italics, and
school textbook spaces between
paragraphs), still
acceptable
PLACE Czech Republic, Prague; no no problems
regional dialects, standard neutral
Czech
TIME 1978 (contemporary), published no problems
under the Communist regime –
could have been censured
MOTIVE to provide an introduction to a no problems
book, rather general intended to
be read only once
TEXT FUNCTION informative (non-literary) no problems
4
“inform the recipient about a certain issue” (Nord, 1991, p. 49)
29
INTRATEXTUAL FACTORS
SUBJECT MATER the historical development of no problems
roller bearings; thematically
coherent; a topic sentence
summarising the subject matter at
the beginning; not bound to
cultural context
CONTENT* factual internal situation; anaphoric references
scientific prose style; formal (6), cataphoric
register; slightly positive references (0);
vocabulary; anaphoric references conjunctions: 16
(3), cataphoric references (1), coordinating (14
substitution, paraphrase, additive, 0 gradation,
recurrence; conjunctions: 1 adversative, 1
coordinating 17 (14 additive, reason), subordinating
3 gradation), subordinating 5; verbs: majority
5; verbs: all indicative mood, active (13:11), past
majority in 3rd person tense prevails (19:5),
singular/plural, majority active no addressing; more
(15:9), past tense prevails pronouns, some
(14:10); the author addresses the complex sentences cut
audience in 1st person plural into simple ones
PRESUPPOSITIONS* Leonardo da Vinci, Egyptian, missing references to
pyramid, ISO standards, books, German title
references to two books, instead of Czech one,
explicitation (the Bronze Age) missing references to
ISO norms
TEXT part of a book (introduction); two missing offset at the
COMPOSITION embedded references to books; beginning of every
no headline, divided into paragraph
paragraphs
NON-VERBAL no specific non-verbal elements no problems
ELEMENTS
LEXIS* formal, no figurative speech; low slightly less formal,
degree of originality; not clear missing addressing,
author; addressing (1. p. pl.); less positive
objective; some positive vocabulary, missing
vocabulary; references to books, references to ISO and
da Vinci; mentioned ISO and ISA ISA norms (fewer
standards; dates/years; not limited abbreviations), verb +
in space – few abbreviations; a noun became a verb
lot of terminology
SENTENCE sentences 18 (12 simple, sentences 19 (15
STRUCTURE* 2 complex, 4 complex- simple, 2 complex, 2
compound) complex-compound)
clauses 25 (20 independent, clauses 26 (21
5 dependent); average sentence independent,
length: 17,06 5 dependent); average
sentence length: 15;
more simple sentences;
30
on the other hand, and liberty (being free) and libertinage (being too free,
i.e. adapting or „even‟ paraphrasing) on the other [...]” (p. 22).
Intertextual coherence simply means that a TT should be coherent with
other texts of the same text type in a target culture as the ST is in the source
culture. Likewise, the ST should be coherent with the TT. However, “[...] in
a skopos-oriented translation the observance of the skopos is performed
prior to intertextual coherence with the source text” (Nord, 1991, p. 24).
It is obvious from Figure 5 that the looping model can be divided into several steps:
1. TT skopos analysis
2. Source text analysis
a. Determining whether the source text is compatible with the
requirements for the prospective target text.
b. Detailed analysis focused on the elements of particular importance
for TT production.
3. Final structuring of the target text
19
16 coordinating (10 additive, additive, 2 gradation, 3
4 adversative, 2 gradation), adversative),
7 subordinating; verbs: indicative 10 subordinating;
mood prevails (1 conditional), verbs: majority active
majority in 3rd person (17:5), present tense
singular/plural, majority active prevails (1 future), no
(15:6), all in present time, the addressing, mostly
author does not addresses the indicative mood
audience (1 conditional, 1
imperative)
PRESUPPOSITIONS* elasticity modulus, spatial no specification
rigidity, bevels, fillet welds, one
specification (stykové, tupé,
svary)
TEXT part of a book (introduction); some paragraphs and
COMPOSITION embedded references to other headlines are separated
chapters of the book and a by a separate line
picture; headline; name of the
author; two sub-headlines;
divided into paragraphs
NON-VERBAL no specific non-verbal elements no problems
ELEMENTS
LEXIS* formal, no figurative speech; low no problems
degree of originality; clear author
and his education; no addressing;
objective; some positive
vocabulary; references to
previous chapters and pictures;
no temporal references; not
limited in space – few
abbreviations; a lot of
terminology
SENTENCE sentences 12 (7 simple, sentences 12 (8 simple,
STRUCTURE* 1 complex, 4 complex- 1 complex, 3 complex-
compound) compound)
clauses 22 (13 independent, clauses 22 (13
9 dependent); average sentence independent,
length: 19,25 9 dependent); average
sentence length: 18; one
more simple sentence,
less condensed
SUPRASEGMENTAL bold headline; author‟s name, the main headline is no
FEATURES reference to a picture, and sub- longer in bold type, the
headline in italics name of the author and
the reference to a
picture are no longer in
italics
32
Figure 8: Summary of the "Welding" Text Analysis - Professionals
WELDING
ST PTT
EXTRATEXTUAL FACTORS
SENDER sender: Ing. Svatopluk Černoch; missing academic title
text producer: Ing. Josef Jedlička (Ing.)
(explicitly mentioned);
monologue
INTENTION* referential intention, neutral tone, more recurrences
text type conventions are not (repetition), some
broken conventions are
stronger but others are
weaker
RECIPIENT age: 20+; sex: both; education: no problems
university degree in technical
area; geographic origin: Czech
speaking people; social status:
specialists, students (university)
MEDIUM published writing, the book may slight change of layout
also be used as a textbook for (bold type, italics, and
university students spaces between
paragraphs), still
acceptable
PLACE Czech Republic, Prague; no no problems
regional dialects, standard neutral
Czech
TIME 1977 (contemporary), published no problems
under the Communist regime –
could have been censured
MOTIVE to explain and to provide no problems
introduction to a chapter
TEXT FUNCTION informative and educative (non- no problems
literary)
INTRATEXTUAL FACTORS
SUBJECT MATTER welded structures and no problems
components; thematically
coherent; the subject matter is
verbalised in the headline; not
bound to cultural context
CONTENT* factual internal situation; anaphoric references
scientific prose style; formal (3), slightly more
register; slightly positive recurrences;
vocabulary; anaphoric references conjunctions: 16
(2), substitution, paraphrase, coordinating (11
recurrence; conjunctions: additive, 1 gradation, 4
16 coordinating (10 additive, adversative),
4 adversative, 2 gradation), 8 subordinating; verbs:
33
7 subordinating; verbs: indicative majority active (16:4),
mood prevails (1 conditional), present tense only,
majority in 3rd person mostly indicative mood
singular/plural, majority active (1 conditional)
(15:6), all in present time
PRESUPPOSITIONS* elasticity modulus, spatial no specification
rigidity, bevels, fillet welds, one
specification (stykové, tupé,
svary)
TEXT part of a book (introduction); all paragraphs are now
COMPOSITION embedded references to other separated by a separate
chapters of the book and a line
picture; headline; name of the
author; two sub-headlines;
divided into paragraphs
NON-VERBAL no specific non-verbal elements no problems
ELEMENTS
LEXIS* formal, no figurative speech; low no problems
degree of originality; clear author
and his education; no addressing;
objective; some positive
vocabulary; references to
previous chapters and pictures;
no temporal references; not
limited in space – few
abbreviations; a lot of
terminology
SENTENCE sentences 12 (7 simple, sentences 12 (7 simple,
STRUCTURE* 1 complex, 4 complex- 1 complex, 4 complex-
compound) compound)
clauses 22 (13 independent, clauses 20 (13
9 dependent); average sentence independent,
length: 19,25 7 dependent); average
sentence length: 19,67;
fewer dependent
clauses, some
formulations are less
condensed but others
are condensed even
more
SUPRASEGMENTAL bold headline; author‟s name, one case of missed
FEATURES reference to a picture, and sub- italics
headline in italics
34
5.2 External Factors
5.2.1 Intention
History TT
Concerning the students‟ final translation of the “History” text, the TT corresponds with
the ST intention and most conventions of scientific prose style, described in Chapter
3.4, are even stronger: fewer instances of ellipsis (avoid ambiguity); more passive verb
forms; both the ST and the TT contain a lot of recurrences (repetition of the same
element or term to avoid ambiguity); more references (anaphora); more demonstratives
(pronouns); bigger variety of connectors (namely additive conjunctions). For concrete
examples see Chapter 5.3.1. On the other hand, some complex sentences were
simplified in the TT and some are less condensed (see Ch. 5.3.4), the register is slightly
less formal than the original one (see Ch. 5.3.3), and, sporadically, a verb phrase
consisting of a verb and a noun was substituted by a verb (see Ch. 5.3.3).
Welding TTs
The students captured the style conventions quite well. Their TT, however, contains
slightly more active verbs, one extra imperative which was not present in the original
(see Ch. 5.3.1), and some of the formulations are less condensed (see Ch. 5.3.4).
Likewise, the translation done by the professionals also presents slightly more active
verb forms than the original, and, in addition, more recurrences (repetition to avoid
ambiguity); see Chapter 5.3.1 for concrete examples. Finally, some ST formulations
became less condensed while others are condensed even more (see Ch. 5.3.4).
5.2.2 Recipient
History TT
The only problem, with respect to the target recipient, is the title of the book mentioned
in the text. Originally, the text referred to the Czech translation of the book, while the
final TT refers to the German original. The ideal solution for a Czech reader would
probably be the Czech translation (possibly with the German title in parentheses).
35
one). As a result, the number of translation problems arising from the external factors
analysis is limited. However, neither of the translator groups did avoid making a
mistake: the German title of a book instead of the Czech one and the omission of an
academic title, for example.
36
repetition, paraphrase, summary, tautology, etc.). Since both texts analysed in the
present thesis are technical ones written by experts for experts or almost experts, the
redundancy should be minimal.
4.2.6 Lexis
The category of lexis is quite large. It may refer to the affiliation of a word to stylistic
levels and registers, word formation, connotations, rhetorical figures (metaphors,
26
asyndetic enumerations (higher tempo), theme-rheme structures (e.g. stress the most
important one by putting it at the end), selection of words, word order, onomatopoeia,
and so forth (Nord, 1991, p. 120-124). From the above list and from other additional
aspects, such as rhythmicity, melody, alliteration, rhyme, and tone, it seems that the
suprasegmental features play a bigger role in poems and spoken discourses than in
strictly technical texts.
28
Finally, Figure 10 below provides a detailed summary of the grammatical part of
the content analysis. It is clear from the table that the only significant change is the
addressing which is not present in the TT. The slight shift in numbers of active/passive
and past/present verb forms can be considered minor because the overall results of these
parts of the analysis are still the same (i.e. the majority of the verbs are in past tense and
active voice).
Figure 10: Verb Forms in the "History" Text
Verbs ST TT
Most common mood indicative (only) indicative (only)
Most common form 3rd person singular/plural 3rd person singular/plural
Most common voice active (15:9)7 active (13:11)
Most common tense past (14:10)8 past (19:5)
Addressing audience 1st person plural no addressing
Welding ST
The other analysed text, “Welding”, does not differ radically from the previous one: a
factual text which corresponds with the real world, written in scientific prose style with
formal register, etc. It also contains some examples of rather positive vocabulary:
podstatně tenčí, větší pevnost, dokonalá jakost, bohatý výběr, etc. In this text, as well,
there are some instances of anaphoric references:
Svařování umožňuje výrobu konstrukcí a součástí s podstatně tenčími stěnami,
než jaké jsou obvyklé u litých konstrukcí. [...] Tato hospodářsky velmi významná
výhoda svařovaných konstrukcí…
Dokonalá jakost vyžaduje stykové (tupé) svary, pokud možno oboustranné, s
dokonale provařeným kořenem; ty ovšem potřebují…
at least three instances of substitution:
tlumící účinek – útlum kmitání
vytvořit – navrhnout
levná výroba – jen tak nákladné, jak je nezbytně nutné
one example of paraphrase:
Dokonalá jakost vyžaduje stykové (tupé) svary, pokud možno oboustranné,
s dokonale provařeným kořenem;
7
active:passive
8
past:present
39
no examples of cataphoric reference or ellipsis, and, again, quite a lot of
recurrences especially of technical terms, e.g. lité konstrukce, svařované konstrukce,
koutové svary, svarové spoje, etc. Regarding the text cohesion, the number and kind of
connectors should be mentioned. The text contains ten additive conjunctions (a,
jednak), four adversative conjunctions (však, ovšem, zase, ale), and two conjunctions
expression gradation (i, a to i) – as for the coordinating conjunctions. Further, the
number of subordinating conjunctions is seven (než, že, -li, pokud, které, jak).
Concerning the text grammar, most of the verbs are in active voice (15:6) and in
the third person singular or plural. All the verbs are in present tense. There is only one
verb in the conditional mood (dbá-li se), the rest of them is then in indicative mood. The
author does not address the audience in any way.
Welding TTs
The “Welding” text was translated by both the students and the professional translators.
Much like the “History” text, the “Welding” text does not seem to be difficult or
ambiguous concerning its style, register or internal situation for neither of the translator
groups. The students again showed the tendency to moderate the author‟s positive
attitude to the topic, presented by rather positive vocabulary. Nevertheless, the students‟
translation does contain some: pevnější, vyšší koeficient, finanční výhody, předčí, vyšší
tlumící účinek. A sample of expressions with positive connotations used by the
professionals: podstatně tenčí, větší pevnost, dokonalá jakost, bohatý výběr.
Concerning cohesion, the students‟ final target text includes more instances of
anaphoric reference than the original text:
Finanční výhody svařovaných konstrukcí jsou ale vyváženy jejich špatnou
rozměrovou stálostí a nízkým tlumicím účinkem.
Zkušenost ale ukazuje, že pokud jsou během fáze návrhu dodrženy jisté
konstrukční postupy, lze vytvořit konstrukce, jež svými vlastnostmi předčí ty
lité…
K dosažení dokonalé kvality je třeba použít oboustranný tupý spoj. Ten ale
vyžaduje…
Náklady lze snížit použitím rohového spoje, v jehož případě nejsou nutná…
anaphoric references from the professional translation for comparison:
Svařování umožňuje vyrábět konstrukce a součásti se stěnami, které jsou značně
tenčí, než je běžné u litých konstrukcí. V případě ocelových konstrukcí je to
40
zvýšenou pevností materiálů trubek a vyšším koeficientem pružnosti oceli v
porovnání s šedou litinou. Tato výhoda svařovaných konstrukcí…
Vyšší kvalita vyžaduje tupé svary, nejlépe oboustranné s řádně provařeným
kořenem; u tohoto druhu svarů jsou ovšem důležitá přesně připravená zkosení a
dokonale lícující součásti.
None of the final TTs contained a cataphoric reference. The professional
translation presents more recurrences than the ST, and the students‟ translation repeats
the expression “tlumící účinek” which is both in the ST and in the professional TT
substituted rather than repeated. Further, the overview of the conjunctions used in the
texts follows:
Figure 11: Conjunctions in the "Welding" Text
Additive 10 12 11
Gradation 2 2 1
Adversative 4 3 4
As can be seen from the above table, the professionals were better at preserving
the exact mixture of different kinds of conjunctions. This, however, does not mean that
their translation should be better than the students‟ one. It only proves that they were
more loyal to the ST.
Finally, the grammatical features of the subject matter analysis are in question.
Figure 12 below demonstrates that only two deviations can be found and both in the TT
translated by the students. Their version of translation contains one extra imperative
(“viz” is however not a typical imperative, but one used especially in technical texts for
references), and also one extra verb in the future tense form (bude muset odolávat).
Therefore, it appears that it was again the students who deviated more from the original.
Yet still, these deviations do not appear to have any greater impact on the quality of the
translated texts.
9
Students‟ target text
10
Professionals‟ target text
41
Figure 12: Verb Forms in the "Welding" Text
Verbs ST STT PTT
indicative indicative
Most common indicative
(1 conditional, (1 conditional)
mood (1 conditional)
1 imperative)
3rd person 3rd person 3rd person
Most common form
singular/plural singular/plural singular/plural
Most common
active (15:6)11 active (17:5) active (16:4)
voice
Most common
present (only) present (1 future) present (only)
tense
Addressing
no addressing no addressing no addressing
audience
5.3.2 Presuppositions
History
Given the fact that the “History” text is based on reality, it may contain some pieces of
information about the source culture realia (culture-specific expressions or notions) or,
in this case, some terminology. The author presupposes that the reader is aware of the
following expressions, since he does not provide them with any explanation: Leonardo
da Vinci, Egypt a pyramida. The text refers to the ISO standards for the field with
which the reader should be familiar, as well as with the two books mentioned in the
same text. Finally, the author considered it necessary to include one paraphrase or
explicitation of the time period of the Bronze Age:
Na počátku doby bronzové, tedy asi 1900 let před n.l., nacházíme…
11
active:pasive
42
Dokonalá jakost vyžaduje stykové (tupé) svary, pokud možno oboustranné…
The exact form of the specification was not transferred into neither of the TTs – both
groups of translators decided to omit “stykové” and preserved only the specification
“tupé” together with the original noun “svary”.
5.3.3 Lexis
History
The “History” text does not violate any conventions of the style of scientific prose
concerning the lexis – it is formal, not rich in figurative speech and it was written with
minimal degree of originality (e.g. no puns). It contains structures typical of scientific
prose style, as described in Chapter 3.4, for instance “zabývat se výrobou/pokusy”, and
many nouns. From the text itself, it is not clear, who the author is, although he clearly
and explicitly addresses the audience with verbs in the first person plural (nacházíme,
nalézáme). The author is obviously aware of the text type conventions and, in
compliance with his intention (to inform), he tries to be objective with the exception of
some instance of rather positive vocabulary (mentioned in Chapter 5.3.1). This clearly
marks his positive attitude to the subject matter. He also reinforces his view with the
references to two other technical books, the work of well-known and distinguished
Leonardo da Vinci, and with illustrative examples (např. u náprav vozů a u jízdních
kol). The author made his text more reliable by mentioning international technical
standards (ISO, ISA) and exact dates (years). At the very beginning of the article, the
author presents a basic insight into the topic. The medium is not very limited in space
(as opposed to e.g. newspaper advertisements) and allows the author to almost avoid
abbreviations (there are just few: ISO, ISA, n.l., r., např.; and they improve text
fluency). Further, the temporal references found in the text should not be actualised as
they refer to unchanged “events”. Finally, in order to reduce ambiguity to minimum, the
article contains a lot of terminology.
Most of the lexical features remained unchanged. However, it is possible to spot
some exceptions as e.g. the aforementioned (Ch. 5.3.1) missing addressing, less positive
vocabulary, or the missing references to ISO and ISA norms. In some cases, the
students inclined to slightly informal vocabulary: vývoj šel dál (ST: vývoj pokračuje
dál), první opravdové zkoušky tření (ST: vážně se zabýval pokusy se třením), již dávno
(ST: v dávnověku), etc. Finally, some of the verb phrases consisting of a verb and a
43
Finally, Figure 10 below provides a detailed summary of the grammatical part of
the content analysis. It is clear from the table that the only significant change is the
addressing which is not present in the TT. The slight shift in numbers of active/passive
and past/present verb forms can be considered minor because the overall results of these
parts of the analysis are still the same (i.e. the majority of the verbs are in past tense and
active voice).
Figure 10: Verb Forms in the "History" Text
Verbs ST TT
Most common mood indicative (only) indicative (only)
Most common form 3rd person singular/plural 3rd person singular/plural
Most common voice active (15:9)7 active (13:11)
Most common tense past (14:10)8 past (19:5)
Addressing audience 1st person plural no addressing
Welding ST
The other analysed text, “Welding”, does not differ radically from the previous one: a
factual text which corresponds with the real world, written in scientific prose style with
formal register, etc. It also contains some examples of rather positive vocabulary:
podstatně tenčí, větší pevnost, dokonalá jakost, bohatý výběr, etc. In this text, as well,
there are some instances of anaphoric references:
Svařování umožňuje výrobu konstrukcí a součástí s podstatně tenčími stěnami,
než jaké jsou obvyklé u litých konstrukcí. [...] Tato hospodářsky velmi významná
výhoda svařovaných konstrukcí…
Dokonalá jakost vyžaduje stykové (tupé) svary, pokud možno oboustranné, s
dokonale provařeným kořenem; ty ovšem potřebují…
at least three instances of substitution:
tlumící účinek – útlum kmitání
vytvořit – navrhnout
levná výroba – jen tak nákladné, jak je nezbytně nutné
one example of paraphrase:
Dokonalá jakost vyžaduje stykové (tupé) svary, pokud možno oboustranné,
s dokonale provařeným kořenem;
7
active:passive
8
past:present
39
Some of the ST formulations became less condensed in the “History” TT:
ST: V současné době dosáhla mezinárodní a národní normalizace valivých
ložisek vysokého stupně...
TT: Dnešní mezinárodní a národní normy zabývající se valivými ložisky...
Several instances can also be found in the “Welding” TT translated by the students:
ST: Svařování umožňuje výrobu konstrukcí a součástí s podstatně tenčími
stěnami...
TT: Svařování je vhodné u dílů a konstrukcí, jejichž stěny jsou mnohem
tenčí ...
ST:...je to dáno jednak větší pevností použitého válcového materiálu, jednak
vyšším modelem pružnosti oceli proti šedé litině.
TT:...proto, že válcovitý materiál používaný v ocelových svařovaných
konstrukcích je ve srovnání s šedou litinou pevnější a poskytuje vyšší
koeficient pružnosti.
ST: Na konečné řešení má vliv nejen druh výrobku a jeho namáhání…
TT: Výsledné řešení je ovlivněno i dalšími faktory: typem produktu a
tlakem, kterému bude muset odolávat...
There are also a few examples in the “Welding” PTT:
ST: Svařování umožňuje výrobu konstrukcí a součástí s podstatně tenčími
stěnami...
TT: Svařování umožňuje vyrábět konstrukce a součásti se stěnami, které
jsou značně tenčí...
ST: ...navrhnout vhodný tvar svařované součásti, dokonale vyhovující
požadavkům daného případu...
TT: ...navrhnout vhodný tvar svařované součásti tak, aby plně odpovídal
předpokládanému použití…
These formulations are, however, compensated by condensation of other pieces of the
“Welding” PTT:
ST: ...dbá-li se při navrhování několika základních konstrukčních zásad...
TT: ...za předpokladu dodržení základních konstrukčních zásad...
ST: ...jen tak nákladné, jak je nezbytně nutné.
TT: ...při nejnižších možných nákladech.
45
The total numbers of sentences in both the “History” and “Welding” text are put
in contrast with their corresponding TTs in tables, Figure 13 and Figure 14, below:
Figure 13: Sentence Structure of the "History" Text
Sentence structure ST TT
Total number of sentences 18 19
Simple 12 15
Complex12 2 2
Complex-compound13 4 2
Total number of clauses 25 26
Independent 20 21
Dependent 5 5
Average length of sentences14 17,06 15
Taking into consideration that the number of simple sentences, and the total
number of all sentences as well, rose during translation, it seems that the students had
split some originally complex-compound sentences into simple ones, or otherwise
simplified the syntactic structures:
ST: Nejjednodušší bylo uložení pomocí válečků oddělených jednoduchou
klecí, jak pro přímočarý, tak i pro rotační pohyb.
TT: V nejjednodušších ložiscích byly pro přímočarý a rotační pohyb použity
malé válečky. Tyto válečky byly odděleny jednoduchou klecí.
Therefore, it is not a startling discovery to claim that the average length of
sentences is also lower in the target text. However, the number of clauses and its
subcategories did not change much.
12
A complex sentence consists of at least one independent clause and one dependent clause.
13
A complex-compound sentence consists of multiple independent clauses, at least one of which has at
least one dependent clause.
14
The number of words in all the sentences in the text without headlines, sub-headlines and numbers
divided by the actual number of sentences.
46
Some of the ST formulations became less condensed in the “History” TT:
ST: V současné době dosáhla mezinárodní a národní normalizace valivých
ložisek vysokého stupně...
TT: Dnešní mezinárodní a národní normy zabývající se valivými ložisky...
Several instances can also be found in the “Welding” TT translated by the students:
ST: Svařování umožňuje výrobu konstrukcí a součástí s podstatně tenčími
stěnami...
TT: Svařování je vhodné u dílů a konstrukcí, jejichž stěny jsou mnohem
tenčí ...
ST:...je to dáno jednak větší pevností použitého válcového materiálu, jednak
vyšším modelem pružnosti oceli proti šedé litině.
TT:...proto, že válcovitý materiál používaný v ocelových svařovaných
konstrukcích je ve srovnání s šedou litinou pevnější a poskytuje vyšší
koeficient pružnosti.
ST: Na konečné řešení má vliv nejen druh výrobku a jeho namáhání…
TT: Výsledné řešení je ovlivněno i dalšími faktory: typem produktu a
tlakem, kterému bude muset odolávat...
There are also a few examples in the “Welding” PTT:
ST: Svařování umožňuje výrobu konstrukcí a součástí s podstatně tenčími
stěnami...
TT: Svařování umožňuje vyrábět konstrukce a součásti se stěnami, které
jsou značně tenčí...
ST: ...navrhnout vhodný tvar svařované součásti, dokonale vyhovující
požadavkům daného případu...
TT: ...navrhnout vhodný tvar svařované součásti tak, aby plně odpovídal
předpokládanému použití…
These formulations are, however, compensated by condensation of other pieces of the
“Welding” PTT:
ST: ...dbá-li se při navrhování několika základních konstrukčních zásad...
TT: ...za předpokladu dodržení základních konstrukčních zásad...
ST: ...jen tak nákladné, jak je nezbytně nutné.
TT: ...při nejnižších možných nákladech.
45
since absolute perfection is unreachable. Translator‟s unremitting endeavour to get as
close to it as possible is, on the other hand, highly desirable. It arises from the internal
factors analysis that the professional translators were more successful in translating a
technical text, whereas the students sometimes missed smaller pieces of information.
The professionals proved to be better at preserving the ST structure.
48
6 Error Analysis – Translation Units
This part of the thesis will mainly be devoted to the problem of errors in translation. The
chapter will go even further in analysing the translated texts focusing primarily on the
errors made by the translators. Therefore, it is necessary, firstly, to address the problem
of what exactly can be considered an error in translation and, consequently, how to
determine its relevance or impact on a target text. To define a mistake (disregarding
language mistakes conforming to set and clear rules) is quite challenging, and different
scholars would not agree on the definition. However, most of them would share the
opinion that a microtextual analysis (e.g. in the form of the present error analysis)
should form a part of translation quality assessment. For example, Malcolm Williams
(2001) states that “microtextual analysis [...] provides error counts as a justification for
a negative assessment,” and adds that “it is felt that quantification lends objectivity to
the assessment” (p. 328).
First, Nord‟s approach to the problem is explained followed by some views of
other scholars, and the error analysis of the target texts. Second (Ch. 7), Pym‟s concept
of natural vs. directional equivalents concludes the present error analysis.
49
when the translator has to decide between more than one way of rendering it” (p. 3). In
one of his former works, he also breaks such problems down into binary (there is only
one right solution) and non-binary errors (Pym, 1992).
50
take into account the target text skopos since a minor error (e.g. wrong spelling in a
footnote) can be major one in a different context (e.g. wrong spelling on a big sign or a
billboard). According to Williams, the translator should never jeopardize the usability of
a translation by allowing a critical defect, but a limited number of minor errors are
acceptable.
His approach bears some resemblance to Pym‟s risk analysis (2004) since
mistakes in high-risk elements will probably be the major or even critical ones.
Williams (1989) also mentions the Translation Bureau (and its official TQA system –
Sical III) which has combined a critical and a major error into one category, and added
the categories of translation and language errors (p. 25). Consequently, there are four
categories of errors according to the Translation Bureau: a major/minor language error
and a major/minor translation error. The last step in translation evaluation is then to
determine how many minor/major errors in a text (of a standard length) still allow for a
translation to be acceptable.
51
into account the negative effect of errors on the overall quality of the translation”
(Waddington, 1999, Ch. 7). In his later work (Waddington, 2001), he describes a
concrete scale for language and translation errors (p. 314). He proposes to deduct one
point for every language error and two points for every translation error which
negatively affects from one to five words. The bigger piece of the text the translation
error affects, the more points should be deducted from the classification. Once again,
Waddington‟s model of error analysis is congruent with Pym‟s risk analysis (2004) –
failure to correctly render the meaning of a high risk translation unit will affect more
words in the target text than if it was a low risk one.
6.5.1 History TT
The first analysed TT is the “History” text translated by the students:
2nd sentence of the “History” text
ST Výhody valivého tření byly známy již v dávnověku.
TT Výhody valivého odporu jsou známy již dávno.
The phrase “valivé tření” changed to “valivý odpor”, which is a slightly shift in
the meaning. The shift is however compensated by the context of the phrase.
4th sentence of the “History” text
ST Na počátku doby bronzové, tedy asi 1900 let před n.l., nacházíme kromě
dřevěných kol též kola kovová.
TT V ranné době bronzové, tj. okolo roku 1900 př. n. l., se vedle dřevěných kol
začala objevovat kola železná.
52
The adjective “kovová” changed to “železná”, which is more concrete than the
original expression, and the translator cannot be sure of the exact kind of metal used. It
also sounds strange in a sentence beginning with the time set of the Bronze Age.
5th sentence of the “History” text
ST Také válečná technika ve středověku používá pečlivě provedená uložení, aby se
snížilo tření.
TT Středověké válečné stroje využívaly ke snížení tření důmyslná ložiska.
The noun “uložení” was replaced by its hyponym “ložiska”, which is again more
concrete than the original term. Moreover, experts from the field doubt that there were
any bearings (in the modern sense of the word) in the Middle Ages.
6th sentence of the “History” text
ST První, kdo se vážně zabýval pokusy se třením a zkoumal valivé tření, byl
Leonardo da Vinci.
TT Leonardo da Vinci byl první, kdo se odporem začal zabývat, a provedl první
opravdové zkoušky tření.
The phrase “valivé tření” changed to “valivý odpor”, which is exactly the same
mistake as discussed with the second sentence. There is also a language mistake in
punctuation since the two dependent clauses are additive and equal to each other – they
should not be separated by a comma.
9th sentence of the “History” text
ST Je to zřejmě proto, že bylo snazší vyrobit válečky než kuličky.
TT a to především proto, že výroba válečků byla v té době jednodušší než výroba
kuliček.
The word “zřejmě” changed to “především”. This influences the degree of
probability with which the event happened. “Zřejmě” just suggests the most probable
possibility, contrary to “především” which is much stronger.
10th sentence of the “History” text
ST Teprve použití kuličkových ložisek ve větším rozsahu, např. u náprav vozů a u
jízdních kol, dalo základ k hromadné výrobě kuliček a vývoji technologie
výroby ložisek.
TT K začátku masové výroby kuliček a vývoji výrobní technologie došlo společně s
rozšířením používání kuličkových ložisek, například ve vlacích či jízdních
kolech.
The phrase “náprav vozů” changed to the noun “vlacích”, which is just one
example of a machine in which axle a ball bearing could be used.
11th sentence of the “History” text
ST Postupně bylo uděleno velké množství patentů v mnoha zemích na různá
kuličková, válečková, kuželíková, soudečková a jehlová ložiska.
TT Postupem času byly v mnoha zemích patentovány různé typy valivých ložisek:
kuličková ložiska, válečková ložiska, kuželíková ložiska, kloubová ložiska či
jehlová ložiska.
53
According to the experts on engineering with whom the author of the thesis
could consult the matter, the expression “soudečková” refers to a different kind of
bearing than the word “kloubová”, the translation is therefore misleading.
13th sentence of the “History” text
ST Závažným mezníkem ve vývoji valivých ložisek jsou klasické práce prof.
Stribecka [1] zveřejněné v r. 1901, vycházející z teoretických prací H. Hertze
„O styku pružných těles“ z r. 1895 [2].
TT Velmi důležitá byla původní studie Prof. Stribecka z roku 1901, vytvořená na
základě teoretické práce Heinricha Hertze z roku 1895 „Über die Berührung
Fester Elastischer Körper”.
As it has already been discussed in the previous text analysis (Ch. 5.2.2), the
Czech title of the book mentioned was replaced with a German one (in all probability
the original one). In a technical text, where sources are of great importance, this seems
to be a major translation mistake arising from insufficient research. A high-risk element
was not devoted enough attention from the translators.
Another translation error are the missing references to two books from the field.
Without them, the reader does not have the slightest idea that the books are referred to
in the bibliography or footnote which may be translated by someone else (as quite often
more translators work on the same paper or book at one time due to a tight deadline).
14th sentence of the “History” text
ST V době před r. 1900 se zabývala výrobou kuličkových nebo válečkových ložisek
řada firem.
TT V letech před rokem 1900 mnoho podniků vyrábělo pouze kuličková nebo
válečková ložiska.
The adverb “pouze” changed the meaning of the sentence. The original says that
many companies did manufacture ball or roller bearings, but they could have
manufactured other things, too, whereas the TT suggests that those companies focused
solely on the production of the mentioned bearings.
15th sentence of the “History” text
ST Již v r. 1903 byly podniknuty první kroky ke stanovení rozměrů pro lehkou,
střední a těžkou řadu, z nichž většina se pak stala základem rozměrového
mezinárodního plánu ISA, později ISO.
TT Průměry lehkých, středních a těžkých sérií byly poprvé nastaveny v roce 1903,
The noun “rozměr” changed to “průměr”, which is a specific kind of dimension;
more concrete than the original and thus misleading it this case. Further, there is a major
translation error in the form of the omission of a part of the text containing references to
the ISA and ISO norms which are well-known standards lending credibility to the text.
Finally, the unit also contains a punctuation language error – the two independent
clauses should not be separated by a comma in this particular sentence.
54
16th sentence of the “History” text
ST V roce 1915 byly stanoveny tolerance rozměrů děr a povrchů ložisek a později
s malými změnami přijaty jako doporučení.
TT a v roce 1915 byly zavedeny tolerance pro umístění ložiska a pro dotykovou
plochu. Později se hodnoty těchto specifikací (lehce upravené) staly hodnotami
doporučenými.
This is exactly the point where a reviewer has to take into account the motive of
the text which is to give introductory information to the rest of the book. Therefore, the
mistranslation, probably caused by translator‟s incorrect rendering of the expression, is
not a major translation error in this context. However, if such mistake occurred later in
the book, it would have more serious impact on the rest of the text and, chiefly, on
reader‟s comprehension of the information contained.
17th sentence of the “History” text
ST V současné době dosáhla mezinárodní a národní normalizace valivých ložisek
vysokého stupně nejen co se týče rozměrů, ale i přesnosti rozměrů a chodu
běžných ložisek a ložisek s vysokou přesností, i některých vnitřních rozměrů.
TT Dnešní mezinárodní a národní normy zabývající se valivými ložisky se liší v
detailech nejen vnějších a vnitřních rozměrů, ale také operační a
rozměrové přesnosti standardů a přesně vypracovaných ložisek.
In this case, on the other hand, not even the fact that the text is a “mere”
introduction can justify such change of the meaning. The ST informs about the high
standard of nation and international norms concerning different aspects of roller
bearings, whereas the TT suggests that the norms are of low standard, and summarises
in which aspects they still differ. Such mistranslation can be considered a major
translation error in this context.
The total score of the “History” text is then two language errors, nine minor
translation errors (one of which occurs twice – “valivý odpor”), and four major
translation errors. Given the number of major errors together with the two language
errors, the translation would be evaluated unacceptable as e.g. Sical III suggests that
only a translation with fewer than 18 minor and maximum of one major error is
acceptable.
55
1st sentence of the “Welding” text
ST Svařování umožňuje výrobu konstrukcí a součástí s podstatně tenčími stěnami,
než jaké jsou obvyklé u litých konstrukcí.
STT Svařování je vhodné u dílů a konstrukcí, jejichž stěny jsou mnohem tenčí než
v případě jejich litých protějšků,
The verb “umožňuje” changed to “je vhodné”, which is a slight shift in the
meaning. In the ST, welding is an important action enabling the manufacturing of
specific parts, meaning they cannot be made in any other way. However it arises from
the TT that the welding is only one of many possibilities how to manufacture the parts
(though the best one).
2nd sentence of the “Welding” text
ST U ocelových konstrukcí je to dáno jednak větší pevností použitého válcového
materiálu, jednak vyšším modulem pružnosti oceli proti šedé litině.
STT a to obzvláště proto, že válcovitý materiál používaný v ocelových svařovaných
konstrukcích je ve srovnání s šedou litinou pevnější a poskytuje vyšší
koeficient pružnosti.
The collocation “koeficient pružnosti” does not occur in engineering (used in
mathematics), but a specialist would understand the intended meaning. There are
several expressions equivalent to “modul pružnosti” in English one of which is the
“coefficient of elasticity” – a so called false friend for Czech “koeficient” in this
particular case.
3rd sentence of the “Welding” text
ST Tato hospodářsky velmi významná výhoda svařovaných konstrukcí je oslabena
nevýhodou menší prostorové tuhosti tenkostěnných svařovaných konstrukcí a
malým tlumícím účinkem.
STT Finanční výhody svařovaných konstrukcí jsou ale vyváženy jejich špatnou
rozměrovou stálostí a nízkým tlumicím účinkem.
The expression “vyváženy” is illogical in this sentence. It would work well with
different word-order – if the down sides were mentioned first. Concerning the phrase
“rozměrová stálost”, it is not a precise translation of the original “prostorová tuhost”.
4th sentence of the “Welding” text
ST Zkušenosti však ukazují, že je možno vytvořit svařované konstrukce i lepších
vlastností, než jaké mají lité konstrukce, a to i co do prostorové tuhosti a
útlumu kmitání, dbá-li se při navrhování několika základních konstrukčních
zásad [26, 27, 82].
STT Zkušenost ale ukazuje, že pokud jsou během fáze návrhu dodrženy jisté
konstrukční postupy (viz 26, 27 a 28), lze vytvořit konstrukce, jež svými
vlastnostmi předčí ty lité, či dokonce dosáhnout lepší rozměrové stálosti a
vyššího tlumicího účinku.
“A to i” changed to “či dokonce” which definitely has a different meaning. The
former one means “including” in the ST, and the latter one, from the TT, signifies
56
Figure 14: Sentence Structure of the "Welding" Text
Sentence structure ST STT PTT
Total number of sentences 12 12 12
Simple 7 8 7
Complex 1 1 1
Complex-compound 4 3 4
Total number of clauses 22 22 20
Independent 13 13 13
Dependent 9 9 7
Average length of sentences 19,25 18 19,67
Here, again, the students were those who were inclined to making sentences
simpler during translation. But the tendency was not as strong as with the previous text.
The professional translators, on the other hand, managed to almost copy the sentence
structure of the ST. Nevertheless, they did change the ration of independent and
dependent clauses by avoiding some of the dependent clauses by other non-predicative
constructions (e.g. verbal nouns instead of verbs) with the result of slightly more
condensed text.
ST: dbá-li se při navrhování několika základních konstrukčních zásad
TT: za předpokladu dodržení základních konstrukčních zásad
47
referring to the two main groups of welds, the translator should have used the precise
term, “tupý svar”.
11th sentence of the “Welding” text
ST Bohatý výběr detailních tvarů je dán rozmanitostí úpravy návarových ploch.
STT Obě skupiny obsahují řadu rozdílných tvarů s různými zkoseními.
The phrase “úprava návarových tvarů” changed to “tvary s různými zkoseními”.
The original noun “úprava” may stand for chamfer15 or roughness16. However, the
target text expression suggests only the latter possibility, therefore, it is not precise.
12th sentence of the “Welding” text
ST Přehled základních tvarů svarových spojů je na obr. 6.123.
STT Viz přehled typů svárů na obrázku 6.132.
The above translation unit contains exactly the same language error as the one
discussed with the tenth sentence.
The overall score of the “Welding” text translated by the students is then: three
language errors (one of which is repeated twice), ten minor translation errors (one of
which occurs twice in the TT), and no major translation mistake. The fact that the
translation does not contain any major translation error is highly positive. On the other
hand, the number of language errors made by soon-to-be translators is quite high and
cannot be justified by the repeated translation. Further, a translation containing ten
minor translation errors is not an ideal one and probably would not be acceptable.
However, concerning that it is a repeatedly translated text, ten is not such a great
number.
15
zkosení
16
drsnost
58
2nd sentence of the “Welding” text
ST U ocelových konstrukcí je to dáno jednak větší pevností použitého válcového
materiálu, jednak vyšším modulem pružnosti oceli proti šedé litině.
PTT V případě ocelových konstrukcí je to zvýšenou pevností materiálů trubek a
vyšším koeficientem pružnosti oceli v porovnání s šedou litinou.
The phrase “válcový materiál” changed to “materiál trubek”, which does not
exactly correspond with the original meaning. Also, the collocation “koeficient
pružnosti” presents exactly the same mistake as commented on in the second sentence
of the students‟ translation.
7th sentence of the “Welding” text
ST Levná výroba zase vyžaduje koutové svary, které nemusí mít obrobené
návarové plochy a nejsou náročné na lícování před svařením.
PTT Na druhé straně nízkonákladová výroba vyžaduje koutové svary, které
nevyžadují obrobené svařované povrchy a slícování před svařováním není
obtížné.
The inserted depended clause is separated by a comma only at its beginning.
There is no comma right after it, which is a language error.
11th sentence of the “Welding” text
ST Bohatý výběr detailních tvarů je dán rozmanitostí úpravy návarových ploch.
PTT Široký výběr specifických tvarů je důsledkem rozmanitosti obrábění
svařovaných povrchů.
Last but not least, even a specialist in the field may get confused at this point
because both the ST and the TT suggests something slightly different. “Úprava
návarových ploch” stands for the processes done before the welding, whereas “obrábění
svařovaných povrchů” represents the processes done after the welding.
The total score of the “Welding” target text translated by the professionals
follows: one language error, four minor translation errors, and no major translation
error. If there was no language error, the quality of the text would be surprisingly high,
especially given the fact that the text was repeatedly translated. However, there is one
language error despite the fact that the target texts translated by the professionals were,
in all probability, proofread.
59
complement to a holistic approach taking into consideration the aforementioned, it
works perfectly well.
As it has already been mentioned before and in compliance with Nord‟s opinion,
the text analysis presented in the thesis does not have to be performed in its entirety
with every translation task. Once a translator or a reviewer has mastered the whole
analysis and its application on various types of texts, he is able to determine which parts
of the analysis may be relevant for a particular text, and which may be skipped (it saves
time and makes the whole process more efficient). With such proficiency in the
translation relevant text analysis, the error analysis represents the next level of
evaluating translations from a more quantitative point of view.
Nord‟s division of various types of translation problems and difficulties is more
relevant for students‟ training since it shows them the particular area they should work
on (in case they constantly fail to solve a particular translation problem or have specific
translation difficulty). Nonetheless, for the purposes of the present thesis, it is not
necessary to consider such details. It seems that an error analysis revealing and
commenting on language errors, and minor/major translation errors is wholly sufficient.
Concerning the error analysis of the three repeatedly translated texts, a reviewer
could have expected that the results would be worse than with a text translated only
once. However, the results, displayed in Figure 15, appear to be better than expected:
Figure 15: Error Analysis of the TTs
History STT Welding STT Welding PTT
Language errors 2 3 1
Minor translation errors 9 10 4
Major translation errors 4 0 0
Total 15 13 5
The error analysis suggests that the texts did not change as dramatically as one
may think. The text containing the highest number of errors of all kinds is the “History”
text, although it contains less terminology and it is slightly more narrative than the other
one. Four major translation errors together with two language errors signal poor quality
of the translation. Contrary to the “Welding” text translated by the professional
translators which is exactly on the opposite end of the scale with only four minor
translation errors and a language error. However, the students were also more successful
in translating the “Welding” text. According to the author‟s opinion, a TT (of a
60
repeatedly translated text) containing only minor translation errors (to some extent) can
be considered a success.
To give a concrete example of evaluating a translation by means of error
analysis, according to the aforementioned Sical III (Williams, 1989, pp. 25-27), there
are three acceptable quality levels and one unacceptable. In short, among other criteria,
a translation of superior quality (A rating) can contain maximum of six minor errors, a
fully acceptable translation (B rating) may contain up to twelve minor translation or
language errors (here the distinction of major/minor errors is applied on the language
errors, too), a revisable translation (C rating) can even present one major translation
error together with as many as 18 minor ones but no major language error, and, finally
an unacceptable translation (D rating) contains too many errors to be effectively revised
(meaning cost-effective revision). The scale is applicable on a standardised sample of a
text with 400 words. Due to the length of the analysed texts (“History” text – 316
words, “Welding” text – 247 words) which are shorter than the standardised sample, the
scale was adjusted accordingly:
Figure 16: Sical III Adjusted to the Analysed Texts
A B C
Major 0 0 1
History
Minor 5 9 14
Major 0 0 1
Welding
Minor 4 7 11
According to Sical III (more precisely according to its simplified version taking
into consideration only the error analysis which is, however, the core of it), only the
“Welding” PTT is a fully acceptable translation (B) since there were only four minor
translation errors and one minor language error. The same text translated by the students
can be considered an unacceptable translation (D) with thirteen minor errors. The case
of the “History” text with four major errors is clear – an unacceptable translation (D)
according to Sical III.
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7 Error Analysis – Errors
7.1 Natural vs. Directional Equivalence
With respect to the text type of the analyzed texts, it seems relevant to explore some of
the translation errors from one last point of view. Technical texts are expected to flow
with terminology and the analyzed texts are no exception to the rule. Accordingly, there
is an important link between the text type and Anthony Pym‟s (2009) concept of natural
and directional equivalence for he says about the former one: “They [the natural
equivalents] are most frequently the stuff of terminology, or artificially standardised
words that are made to correspond to each other exactly,” and “[the specialized fields of
knowledge] are unnaturally creating „natural‟ equivalents all the time” (p. 90). Anthony
Pym suggests the existence of a certain dichotomy in equivalence – he distinguishes
between a natural and a directional equivalent. The definition of the former one will be
presented first, since the connection with the analysed texts has just been shown.
To mark an equivalent as a natural one, it must not be affected by directionality
(Pym, 2010, p. 7). In other words, an expression translated from a SL into a TL and
again back-translated into the SL should stay the same – there does not exist any other
appropriate equivalent to the notion neither in the SL nor in the TL but the one used.
The directional equivalent, on the other hand, is an equivalent which is affected by the
directionality and changes when being back-translated – there are more possible
equivalents to an expression in at least one of the languages.
The analysis may show whether the translators had greater difficulty in
translating natural or directional equivalents. It may seem that the first case is the easier
way out, however, having to find one specific term in a TL may be more challenging
than chose from a list of possible solutions. The analysis will address only the
translation errors connected to equivalence (i.e. the cases of omission or addition will
not be observed).
62
7.2 Directional Equivalents
A list of possible back-translations (with respect to the context) follows after each table.
63
16th sentence of the “History” text
ST V roce 1915 byly stanoveny tolerance rozměrů děr a povrchů ložisek a později
s malými změnami přijaty jako doporučení.
1TT bearings‟ hole and surface dimensions
2TT uložení ložiska a rozměr styčného povrchu
3TT bearing placement and for contact surface
3TT umístění ložiska a pro dotykovou plochu
díra = hole, leak, gap, etc.
povrch = surface, face, circumference
hole = otvor, díra, mezera
surface = povrch, plocha
64
6th sentence of the “Welding” text
ST Dokonalá jakost vyžaduje stykové (tupé) svary, pokud možno oboustranné,
s dokonale provařeným kořenem; ty ovšem potřebují správně připravené
úkosy a dokonale slícovaní součásti.
1STT aligned 1PTT matched
2STT zarovnané 2PTT lícující
3STT evening out 3PTT fitting
4STT vyhlazení 4PTT lícující
slícování: fitment, fitting, mating
65
6th sentence of the “History” text
ST První, kdo se vážně zabýval pokusy se třením a zkoumal valivé tření, byl
Leonardo da Vinci.
1TT friction
2TT tření
3TT resistance
4TT odporem
tření = friction
66
7th sentence of the “Welding” text
ST Levná výroba zase vyžaduje koutové svary, které nemusí mít obrobené
návarové plochy a nejsou náročné na lícování před svařením.
1STT corner joints 1PTT fillet welds
2STT spoje rohové 2PTT svary koutové
3STT corner joint 3PTT fillet welds
4STT rohového spoje 4PTT koutové svary
koutový svar = fillet weld
It is clear from the above table that the number of mistakes made during the translation
of directional equivalents is higher than the same number with natural ones. Such
results may suggest that the repeated translation of directional equivalents bears a
higher degree of risk and, also, that the risk is inversely proportional to the level of
translator competence.
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8 Conclusion
In conclusion, I would like to describe the significant changes which have emerged in
the texts during the process of repeated translation. Given the limited number of
materials used in the thesis, its results should serve only as guidance for further research
– a pilot study.
The first thing to be considered is the most obvious change in the form of
errors. All the target texts contain some language errors, mostly punctuation mistakes
when a translator put a comma between two sentences where it is unnecessary, or vice
versa. Apart from the punctuation mistakes, the texts contained one noun used in a
wrong case (not in agreement with the preceding context), one illogical use of a positive
expression in a negative context (výhody jsou vyváženy nevýhodami), and one word with
an incorrect diacritical mark affecting its meaning (sváry vs. svary). I would not
consider most of the aforementioned language errors major ones because they do not
present an insurmountable obstacle to readers‟ comprehension of the texts. They may
only divert readers‟ attention from the text itself. Nonetheless, I would not expect a
professional (probably even proofread) or almost professional translation done into
one‟s mother tongue to contain any language errors. Such failure cannot be justified by
the fact that the texts were translated more than once.
Furthermore, the texts contained some translation errors as described in the two
previous chapters (Chapter 6 and 7). The vast majority of them were minor errors, but a
few of them were major ones. The error occurring with the highest frequency was the
loss of a piece of information included in a ST but missing in a TT, or the inaccurate
rendering of source text information resulting in mistranslation. The second part of the
error analysis (Chapter 7) has proven that the translation of directional equivalents bears
a higher degree of risk than the translation of natural ones, and, in addition, that the risk
is inversely proportional to the level of translator competence.
Moving on to other changes in the texts, I have come to the conclusion that some
of the translation units were standardized. To name just a few instances, a cleft
sentence from a ST was not preserved in the TT (a cataphoric reference became an
anaphoric one, see Ch. 5.3.1 and 5.3.5), the TTs contained less positive vocabulary (Ch.
5.3.1), and the addressing from a ST was missing in the TT (Ch. 5.3.1). Moreover, some
of the style conventions were even stronger in the TTs – more passive verb forms, more
68
references (mostly in the form of demonstrative pronouns), fewer dependent clauses
(substituted by e.g. a verbal noun), which made some of the texts more condensed (Ch.
5.2.1). On the other hand, the text type conventions were broken in some cases, e.g. the
“Welding” STT is less condensed that the original (Ch. 5.3.4), and the “History” text
contains several rather informal formulations (Ch. 5.3.3). The fact that some translation
units or text features were standardized by the translators corresponds with one of the
two laws proposed by Gideon Toury (1995). He argues that one of the laws which
characterise the process of translation is the law of growing standardization, when ST
textemes (units unique to a ST) are converted into TT repertoremes (units typical of a
TL genre) (p. 267). Another concept dealing with the process of translation also bears
resemblance to the findings. It is a translation universal – normalization – defined by
Mona Baker (1996) as “the tendency to conform to patterns and practices, which are
typical of the target language, even to the point of exaggerating them” (p. 176-177).
Concerning the translation universals (Baker & Saldanha, 1998, p. 306-310),
there were also some instances of explicitation and simplification in the target texts.
The explicitation is presented in the form of more instances of anaphoric reference (and
demonstratives), bigger variety of conjunctions (explicitation of relations between
clauses), and slightly more examples of recurrence (explicit repetition instead of
implicit ellipsis), for examples see Chapter 5.3.1. The latter translation universal,
simplification, is then represented by repetition rather than substitution (Ch. 5.3.1),
shorter sentences or simplified syntactic structures (Ch. 5.3.4), and accordingly, a
smaller number of subordinating conjunctions (Ch. 5.3.1) together with a lower average
sentence length (Ch. 5.3.4). The last remark on the average sentence length is true with
the exception of the TT translated by the professionals where it was slightly higher than
in the original.
Last but not least, what has also changed during the process of repeated
translation is the layout of the texts. However, the final target texts are still acceptable
pieces of a technical text. Generally, the target texts contain fewer suprasegmental
features (Ch. 5.3.5) than the corresponding originals, e.g. missing italics or bold type,
missing offset at the beginning of every paragraph, or, on the contrary, an extra line
after each paragraph.
From the above list of the changes which have occurred in the repeatedly
translated texts, it seems that they do not differ radically from the processes taking place
during usual translation from a SL into a TL. Any of the changes is directly connected
69
with chain or relay translation. Therefore, the quality of a chain of repeatedly translated
texts can be enhanced by the perfection of its every single link. Nonetheless, the data
collected in the present work may provide translators who are translating texts intended
for relay translation with several pieces of advice on what to focus on during such
specific translation:
Try to find high-risk elements with respect to the text function.
Double-check that you have not omitted any of the high-risk elements
or changed their meaning.
When dealing with terminology, try to find a natural equivalent. If
there is none, make sure you have chosen the right directional one.
Double-check the text for language mistakes, especially in punctuation
which may create ambiguity.
Try to avoid simplification. Bear in mind that the following translator
can opt for the same strategy and simplify the text even more.
Do not change the layout of the text (if not demanded by the translation
initiator or the TT skopos).
Always bear in mind the target text skopos, the recipient and the fact
that someone else is going to translate your target text into a third
language.
Concerning the two groups of translators possessing a different level of
translator competence and engaged in the present experiment, it appears that the
students tried to adhere to the text type conventions, sometimes at the expense of the
author‟s style (e.g. less positive vocabulary, more references). The professionals, on the
other hand, were more sensitive about the text itself (e.g. similar sentence structures,
verb forms, mixture of conjunctions) and the author‟s style (e.g. preserved positive
vocabulary).
It should also be pointed out that the thesis methodology may serve as a model
for translation quality assessment (TQA) since it combines several existing models into
a consistent whole. The method is both qualitative and quantitative. It strives to include
all aspects relevant for TQA and explores the texts from surface (macrolevel) to core
(microlevel). For translation reviewers, the thesis presents a brief overview of TQA
models used in translation agencies or at universities around the globe.
70
repeatedly translated text) containing only minor translation errors (to some extent) can
be considered a success.
To give a concrete example of evaluating a translation by means of error
analysis, according to the aforementioned Sical III (Williams, 1989, pp. 25-27), there
are three acceptable quality levels and one unacceptable. In short, among other criteria,
a translation of superior quality (A rating) can contain maximum of six minor errors, a
fully acceptable translation (B rating) may contain up to twelve minor translation or
language errors (here the distinction of major/minor errors is applied on the language
errors, too), a revisable translation (C rating) can even present one major translation
error together with as many as 18 minor ones but no major language error, and, finally
an unacceptable translation (D rating) contains too many errors to be effectively revised
(meaning cost-effective revision). The scale is applicable on a standardised sample of a
text with 400 words. Due to the length of the analysed texts (“History” text – 316
words, “Welding” text – 247 words) which are shorter than the standardised sample, the
scale was adjusted accordingly:
Figure 16: Sical III Adjusted to the Analysed Texts
A B C
Major 0 0 1
History
Minor 5 9 14
Major 0 0 1
Welding
Minor 4 7 11
According to Sical III (more precisely according to its simplified version taking
into consideration only the error analysis which is, however, the core of it), only the
“Welding” PTT is a fully acceptable translation (B) since there were only four minor
translation errors and one minor language error. The same text translated by the students
can be considered an unacceptable translation (D) with thirteen minor errors. The case
of the “History” text with four major errors is clear – an unacceptable translation (D)
according to Sical III.
61
Hegerová, V., & Zahradníček, T. (1997). Lingea Lexicon 2002: Anglicko-český a česko-
anglický technický slovník. Lingea s.r.o.
House, J. (1997). Translation quality assessment: a model revisited. Tubingen: Gunter
Narr.
House, J. (1981). A model for translation quality assessment. Tubingen: Gunter Narr.
Hurtado Albir, A. (1995). “La didáctica de la traducción. Evolución y estado actual,” X
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September 14, 2011, from http://prirucka.ujc.cas.cz/
, D. (2000). K teorii i praxi překladu
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Koller, W. (1971). Katharina Reiß: Möglichkeiten und Grenzen der Übersetzungskritik.
München: Hueber.
Leech et al. (1982). English grammar for today: a new introduction. London:
Macmillan Press in conjunction with The English Association.
Newmark, P. (1988). A textbook of translation. Cambridge: Prentice-Hall International.
Nord, C. (1991). Text analysis in translation: theory, methodology, and didactic
application of a model for translation-oriented text analysis. Amsterdam/New
York, NY: Rodopi.
, A. (1981).
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Pym, A. (2011). Translation research terms – a tentative glossary for moments of
perplexity and dispute. In Anthony Pym (ed.) Translation Research Projects 3.
Tarragona: Intercultural Studies Group. 75-99. Retrieved from
http://isg.urv.es/publicity/isg/publications/trp_3_2011/pym.pdf
Pym, A. (2010). Exploring translation theories. New York: Routledge.
Pym, A. (2009). Natural and Directional Equivalence in Theories of Translation
Gambier. The metalanguage of translation. Ed. Yves Gambier & Luc van
Doorslaer. Amsterdam & Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
Pym, A. (2004). Text and Risk in Translation. Maria Sidiropoulou & Anastasia
Papaconstantinou, eds Choice and Difference in Translation. The Specifics of
Transfer. Athens: University of Athens. 27-42. Retrieved from
http://usuaris.tinet.cat/apym/on-line/translation/risk_analysis.pdf
72
16th sentence of the “History” text
ST V roce 1915 byly stanoveny tolerance rozměrů děr a povrchů ložisek a později
s malými změnami přijaty jako doporučení.
1TT bearings‟ hole and surface dimensions
2TT uložení ložiska a rozměr styčného povrchu
3TT bearing placement and for contact surface
3TT umístění ložiska a pro dotykovou plochu
díra = hole, leak, gap, etc.
povrch = surface, face, circumference
hole = otvor, díra, mezera
surface = povrch, plocha
64
Summary
The aim of the thesis is to reveal the processes having a negative effect on the quality of
repeatedly translated texts, if they prove to exist, and to provide translators participating
in chain translation with advice. The awareness of such processes may help the
translators being asked to translate an already translated text into a third language to
devote more attention to the supposedly high-risk elements typical of repeated
translation. Relay translation, for instance, is a kind of repeated translation used in the
European Union with the aim to present all official documents in all EU official
languages, including languages of limited diffusion.
The thesis explores different approaches to translation quality assessment which
is fundamental for determining whether the processes taking place during the repeated
translation have a negative effect on the target text quality or not. It arises from the
research that the most appropriate approach to TQA, for the purposes of the thesis, is
the one devised by Christiane Nord, and accompanied by some observations of Anthony
Pym. Her model, which is mainly aimed at students‟ translations and training but still
general enough to be applied to various text types, is a holistic one and, therefore, often
overlaps with other TQA models. The analysis of both external (extratextual) and
internal (intratextual) factors is accompanied by an error analysis and brief research into
different approaches to error in translation.
Two technical texts from the field of engineering were selected for the analysis
and translated by a group of students of English-language Translation and one of them
also by a group of professional translators. In the conclusion, the results of the research
are presented and put into the context of translation studies, in particular, the concepts
dealing with the changes arising from the process of translation. Last but not least, the
thesis offers advice to translators translating texts intended for relay translation, as well
as a brief overview of TQA models used in translation agencies or at universities around
the globe.
74
Resumé
Cílem práce je odhalit procesy, které mají negativní vliv na kvalitu opakovaně
překládaných textů, pokud se projeví, a zformulovat rady pro překladatele, kteří se na
opakovaném překladu podílí. Povědomí o těchto procesech může pomoci překladateli,
který překládá již dříve přeložený text do dalšího cílového jazyka, zaměřit se na
potenciálně riskantnější části překladu, typické pro opakovaně překládané texty.
Obdobný opakovaný překlad (relay nebo chain translation) se běžně užívá v rámci
Evropské unie. Jeho cílem je rozšířit oficiální dokumenty do všech oficiálních jazyků
EU, včetně těch méně rozšířených (languages of limited diffusion).
Práce zkoumá různé přístupy k hodnocení kvality překladu, které je nezbytné
proto, aby bylo možné určit, zda ten který proces probíhající při opakovaném překladu
má negativní vliv na kvalitu cílového textu či nikoliv. Z výzkumu vyplývá, že pro účely
této práce je nejvhodnějším postupem pro hodnocení kvality překladu postup navržený
Christiane Nordovou doplněný o některé poznatky Anthony Pyma. Její model, který se
zaměřuje především na překlady studentů a jejich přípravu, ale je stále dostatečně
obecný, aby byl aplikovatelný na různé typy textů, je holistický, a proto ostatní modely
zabývající se hodnocením překladu často přesahuje. Analýza extratextuálních a
intratextuálních faktorů je pak doplněna o analýzu chyb a o stručný náhled do
problematiky chyb v překladu a různých přístupů k nim.
Pro samotnou analýzu byly vybrány dva technické texty z oblasti strojírenství,
které byly přeloženy skupinou studentů překladatelství anglického jazyka a jeden z nich
také skupinou profesionálních překladatelů. V závěru práce jsou prezentovány výsledky
výzkumu v kontextu celého oboru translatologie, a to především v kontextu konceptů
zkoumajících změny textu při překladu. V neposlední řadě pak práce nabízí několik rad
překladatelům, kteří překládají texty určené k opakovanému překladu, a stručný přehled
modelů hodnocení kvality překladu užívaných v překladatelských agenturách či
univerzitách po celém světě.
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Appendices
Appendix I: History ST
Historie vzniku valivých ložisek je úzce spjata s historií vzniku strojů. Výhody
valivého tření byly známy již v dávnověku. Ve starém Egyptě se používalo dřevěných
válců při dopravě kamenných bloků pro stavbu pyramid. Na počátku doby bronzové,
tedy asi 1900 let před n.l., nacházíme kromě dřevěných kol též kola kovová. Také
válečná technika ve středověku používá pečlivě provedená uložení, aby se snížilo tření.
První, kdo se vážně zabýval pokusy se třením a zkoumal valivé tření, byl Leonardo da
Vinci.
Nejjednodušší bylo uložení pomocí válečků oddělených jednoduchou klecí, jak
pro přímočarý, tak i pro rotační pohyb. Na rozdíl od válečkových ložisek nalézáme
první kuličková ložiska teprve koncem 18. století. Je to zřejmě proto, že bylo snazší
vyrobit válečky než kuličky. Teprve použití kuličkových ložisek ve větším rozsahu,
např. u náprav vozů a u jízdních kol, dalo základ k hromadné výrobě kuliček a vývoji
technologie výroby ložisek.
Postupně bylo uděleno velké množství patentů v mnoha zemích na různá
kuličková, válečková, kuželíková, soudečková a jehlová ložiska. Vývoj pokračuje dále a
objevující se nové patenty vedou spíše ke zdokonalování dosavadních konstrukcí
ložisek.
Závažným mezníkem ve vývoji valivých ložisek jsou klasické práce prof.
Stribecka [1] zveřejněné v r. 1901, vycházející z teoretických prací H. Hertze „O styku
pružných těles“ z r. 1895 [2].
V době před r. 1900 se zabývala výrobou kuličkových nebo válečkových ložisek
řada firem. Již v r. 1903 byly podniknuty první kroky ke stanovení rozměrů pro lehkou,
střední a těžkou řadu, z nichž většina se pak stala základem rozměrového
mezinárodního plánu ISA, později ISO. V roce 1915 byly stanoveny tolerance rozměrů
děr a povrchů ložisek a později s malými změnami přijaty jako doporučení. V současné
době dosáhla mezinárodní a národní normalizace valivých ložisek vysokého stupně
nejen co se týče rozměrů, ale i přesnosti rozměrů a chodu běžných ložisek a ložisek
s vysokou přesností, i některých vnitřních rozměrů. Tento vysoký stupeň normalizace
umožňuje snadnou vyměnitelnost této nepostradatelné strojní součásti.
76
Appendix II: Welding ST
77
Appendix III: Instructions
Instrukce k překladu textu
17
Pym, A. (2004). Text and Risk in Translation. Maria Sidiropoulou & Anastasia Papaconstantinou, eds
Choice and Difference in Translation. The Specifics of Transfer. Athens: University of Athens. 27-42.
Retrieved from http://usuaris.tinet.cat/apym/on-line/translation/risk_analysis.pdf
78
Appendix IV: Students‟ Translation of the “History” Text
79
4TT Středověké válečné stroje využívaly ke snížení tření důmyslná ložiska.
80
jízdních kol, dalo základ k hromadné výrobě kuliček a vývoji technologie výroby
ložisek.
1TT The basis for large-scale ball production and development of bearing production
technology was not laid down until the beginning of a more widespread usage of
ball bearings, e.g. in wagon axles or bicycles.
2TT Základ velkovýroby kuliček a vývoje výrobní technologie ložisek byl položen, až
když se používání kuličkových ložisek více rozšířilo, například u nosných hřídelí
vagonů a jízdních kol.
3TT The base of mass production of balls and manufacture technology development
was set no earlier than the usage of ball bearings was widespread, used e.g. in
train car bearing shafts and bicycles.
4TT K začátku masové výroby kuliček a vývoji výrobní technologie došlo společně s
rozšířením používání kuličkových ložisek, například ve vlacích či jízdních
kolech.
81
pružných těles“ (On the Contact of Elastic Solids) z roku 1895.
3TT Original studies of Prof. Stribeck from 1901 were of major significance. They are
based upon theoretical work of H. Hertz named “On the Contact of Elastic
Solids” from 1895.
4TT Velmi důležitá byla původní studie Prof. Stribecka z roku 1901, vytvořená na
základě teoretické práce Heinricha Hertze z roku 1895 „Über die Berührung
Fester Elastischer Körper”.
82
bearings reaches a high degree in respect to not only dimensions, but also
dimensional and operational accuracy of standard and high-accuracy bearings,
and some external dimensions.
3TT Dnešní mezinárodní i národní normy týkající se valivých ložisek úzce specifikují
nejen vnější a vnitřní rozměry, ale také provozní a rozměrovou přesnost
standardních i velmi přesně konstruovaných ložisek.
3TT Todays international and national norms regarding the roller bearings specify in
detail not only outer and inner dimensions, but also the operational and
dimensional accuracy of standard and precisely manufactured bearings.
4TT Dnešní mezinárodní a národní normy zabývající se valivými ložisky se liší v
detailech nejen vnějších a vnitřních rozměrů, ale také operační a rozměrové
přesnosti standardů a přesně vypracovaných ložisek.
83
Appendix V: Students‟ Translation of the “Welding” Text
84
2STT Ekonomické výhody svařovaných konstrukcí jsou ovšem vyváženy faktem, že
slabostěnné svařované konstrukce mají malou prostorovou pevnost a slabý
tlumící efekt.
3STT The economic advantages of welded constructions are, however,
counterbalanced by welded thin-wall constructions proving low dimensional
solidity and low dumping effect.
4STT Finanční výhody svařovaných konstrukcí jsou ale vyváženy jejich špatnou
rozměrovou stálostí a nízkým tlumicím účinkem.
85
Summary
The aim of the thesis is to reveal the processes having a negative effect on the quality of
repeatedly translated texts, if they prove to exist, and to provide translators participating
in chain translation with advice. The awareness of such processes may help the
translators being asked to translate an already translated text into a third language to
devote more attention to the supposedly high-risk elements typical of repeated
translation. Relay translation, for instance, is a kind of repeated translation used in the
European Union with the aim to present all official documents in all EU official
languages, including languages of limited diffusion.
The thesis explores different approaches to translation quality assessment which
is fundamental for determining whether the processes taking place during the repeated
translation have a negative effect on the target text quality or not. It arises from the
research that the most appropriate approach to TQA, for the purposes of the thesis, is
the one devised by Christiane Nord, and accompanied by some observations of Anthony
Pym. Her model, which is mainly aimed at students‟ translations and training but still
general enough to be applied to various text types, is a holistic one and, therefore, often
overlaps with other TQA models. The analysis of both external (extratextual) and
internal (intratextual) factors is accompanied by an error analysis and brief research into
different approaches to error in translation.
Two technical texts from the field of engineering were selected for the analysis
and translated by a group of students of English-language Translation and one of them
also by a group of professional translators. In the conclusion, the results of the research
are presented and put into the context of translation studies, in particular, the concepts
dealing with the changes arising from the process of translation. Last but not least, the
thesis offers advice to translators translating texts intended for relay translation, as well
as a brief overview of TQA models used in translation agencies or at universities around
the globe.
74
Resumé
Cílem práce je odhalit procesy, které mají negativní vliv na kvalitu opakovaně
překládaných textů, pokud se projeví, a zformulovat rady pro překladatele, kteří se na
opakovaném překladu podílí. Povědomí o těchto procesech může pomoci překladateli,
který překládá již dříve přeložený text do dalšího cílového jazyka, zaměřit se na
potenciálně riskantnější části překladu, typické pro opakovaně překládané texty.
Obdobný opakovaný překlad (relay nebo chain translation) se běžně užívá v rámci
Evropské unie. Jeho cílem je rozšířit oficiální dokumenty do všech oficiálních jazyků
EU, včetně těch méně rozšířených (languages of limited diffusion).
Práce zkoumá různé přístupy k hodnocení kvality překladu, které je nezbytné
proto, aby bylo možné určit, zda ten který proces probíhající při opakovaném překladu
má negativní vliv na kvalitu cílového textu či nikoliv. Z výzkumu vyplývá, že pro účely
této práce je nejvhodnějším postupem pro hodnocení kvality překladu postup navržený
Christiane Nordovou doplněný o některé poznatky Anthony Pyma. Její model, který se
zaměřuje především na překlady studentů a jejich přípravu, ale je stále dostatečně
obecný, aby byl aplikovatelný na různé typy textů, je holistický, a proto ostatní modely
zabývající se hodnocením překladu často přesahuje. Analýza extratextuálních a
intratextuálních faktorů je pak doplněna o analýzu chyb a o stručný náhled do
problematiky chyb v překladu a různých přístupů k nim.
Pro samotnou analýzu byly vybrány dva technické texty z oblasti strojírenství,
které byly přeloženy skupinou studentů překladatelství anglického jazyka a jeden z nich
také skupinou profesionálních překladatelů. V závěru práce jsou prezentovány výsledky
výzkumu v kontextu celého oboru translatologie, a to především v kontextu konceptů
zkoumajících změny textu při překladu. V neposlední řadě pak práce nabízí několik rad
překladatelům, kteří překládají texty určené k opakovanému překladu, a stručný přehled
modelů hodnocení kvality překladu užívaných v překladatelských agenturách či
univerzitách po celém světě.
75
Appendices
Appendix I: History ST
Historie vzniku valivých ložisek je úzce spjata s historií vzniku strojů. Výhody
valivého tření byly známy již v dávnověku. Ve starém Egyptě se používalo dřevěných
válců při dopravě kamenných bloků pro stavbu pyramid. Na počátku doby bronzové,
tedy asi 1900 let před n.l., nacházíme kromě dřevěných kol též kola kovová. Také
válečná technika ve středověku používá pečlivě provedená uložení, aby se snížilo tření.
První, kdo se vážně zabýval pokusy se třením a zkoumal valivé tření, byl Leonardo da
Vinci.
Nejjednodušší bylo uložení pomocí válečků oddělených jednoduchou klecí, jak
pro přímočarý, tak i pro rotační pohyb. Na rozdíl od válečkových ložisek nalézáme
první kuličková ložiska teprve koncem 18. století. Je to zřejmě proto, že bylo snazší
vyrobit válečky než kuličky. Teprve použití kuličkových ložisek ve větším rozsahu,
např. u náprav vozů a u jízdních kol, dalo základ k hromadné výrobě kuliček a vývoji
technologie výroby ložisek.
Postupně bylo uděleno velké množství patentů v mnoha zemích na různá
kuličková, válečková, kuželíková, soudečková a jehlová ložiska. Vývoj pokračuje dále a
objevující se nové patenty vedou spíše ke zdokonalování dosavadních konstrukcí
ložisek.
Závažným mezníkem ve vývoji valivých ložisek jsou klasické práce prof.
Stribecka [1] zveřejněné v r. 1901, vycházející z teoretických prací H. Hertze „O styku
pružných těles“ z r. 1895 [2].
V době před r. 1900 se zabývala výrobou kuličkových nebo válečkových ložisek
řada firem. Již v r. 1903 byly podniknuty první kroky ke stanovení rozměrů pro lehkou,
střední a těžkou řadu, z nichž většina se pak stala základem rozměrového
mezinárodního plánu ISA, později ISO. V roce 1915 byly stanoveny tolerance rozměrů
děr a povrchů ložisek a později s malými změnami přijaty jako doporučení. V současné
době dosáhla mezinárodní a národní normalizace valivých ložisek vysokého stupně
nejen co se týče rozměrů, ale i přesnosti rozměrů a chodu běžných ložisek a ložisek
s vysokou přesností, i některých vnitřních rozměrů. Tento vysoký stupeň normalizace
umožňuje snadnou vyměnitelnost této nepostradatelné strojní součásti.
76
Appendix II: Welding ST
77
Appendix III: Instructions
Instrukce k překladu textu
17
Pym, A. (2004). Text and Risk in Translation. Maria Sidiropoulou & Anastasia Papaconstantinou, eds
Choice and Difference in Translation. The Specifics of Transfer. Athens: University of Athens. 27-42.
Retrieved from http://usuaris.tinet.cat/apym/on-line/translation/risk_analysis.pdf
78
zapracovanost svářečů.
1PTT The final solution is based not only on the product type and its load but also on
the number of produced items, stock material, plant machinery, delivery time
and experience of welders.
2PTT Finální řešení tedy nevychází pouze z typu produktu a jeho zatížení, ale také
z počtu vyráběných jednotek, materiálu, který je k dispozici na skladě, ze
strojového vybavení závodu, termínu dodání a ze zkušeností svářečů.
3PTT The final solution is therefore based not only on the product type and its load,
but also on the number of units produced, material available on the stock,
machinery equipment, delivery date, and the experience of welders.
4PTT Konečné řešení není proto založeno pouze na druhu výrobku a jeho namáhání,
ale i na počtu vyráběných jednotek, materiálu dostupném ve skladu, strojním
zařízení, termínu dodání a zkušenostech svářečů.
91