CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION TO PROJECT PLANNING

1.1. PROJECT PLANNING

Before starting every project its planning is to be done. Planning

is very important task and should be taken with great care, as the efficiency of
the whole project largely depends upon its planning while planning a project
each and every details should be worked out in anticipation and should
carefully is considered with all the relating provisions in advance. Project
planning consists of the following steps.

1.2 PROJECT CAPACITY

The capacity of the project must be decided considering the amount
of money which can be invested and availability of material and machines.

1.3 DRAWINGS
Drawing been decided for the project to be manufacture. Its detailed
drawing specification for raw material and finished products should be
decided carefully along with the specification of the machines required
for their manufacture.

1.4 MATERIAL EQUIPMENT

The list of materials required for manufacture is prepared from
the drawings. The list of is known as “BILL OF MATERIALS”. This passes to
the store keeper and the required materials taken from the store under permission
of store keeper operation, the necessity of operation, the person to do the
job, machine to be used to do the job are considered.

1
1.5 MACHINE LOADING
While planning proper care should be taken to find the machining time
for each operation as correct as possible. So that the arrangement for full
utilization of machine can be made machine loading programmed is also known.

1.6 PURCHASE CONSIDERATION

It is different to manufacture the entire component needed for the
equipment in the workshop itself. The decision about a particular item whether to
purchase or to manufacture is taken by planning after making through study
of relative merits demerit.
1.7 EQUIPMENT CONSIDERATION
Result obtained from “PROCESS PLANNING” and
“MACHINE LOADING” helps in calculating the equipment requirement
specification of the equipment should be laid down by considering the drawing.
Drawing will also help in deciding and necessary requirement of tools,
accessories.

1.8 COST CALCULATION

The cost of the project can be calculated by adding following.
1. Material Cost
2. Machining Cost
3. Overhead Expenses.

1.9 COMPARISON
The various items in the finished project are compared to the standards
for the further correction.

1.10 REPORT
At the end of the project work report is prepared for future references.
The report consists of all the items done the project work.
2
 CHAPTER-2
COMPONENTS DESCRIPTION

This project consists of,

 Structure,
 Arm,
 Cylinder and piston assembly
 Wheels
 Hydraulic circuit

3
 CHAPTER-3
INTRODUCTION OF HYDRAULICS

3.1 BASIC PRINCIPLES

Most industrial processes require substances to be transformed from one

place to another. Also the final products should be shaped (or) compressed (or) held
by applying a great force. Such activities are performed by using prime movers.

The prime movers are operated by,

(I) electrical system
(ii) Hydraulic system
(iii) Pneumatic system.

In electrical system, the rotary motions are provided by simple motors.

The linear motions can be obtained by converting rotary motions with the aid of
screw jack (or) Rack and pinion.
In Hydraulic system, enclosed water (or) oil can be used to convey energy from
one location to another. In Greek, hydra means water.

In Pneumatic system, enclosed gas (normally compressed air) is used to

transfer energy from one location to another). In Greek, Pneumatic means wind.

3.2 HYDRAULIC PRINCIPLES

There are certain governing principles in a hydraulic system

1. All liquids are non-compressible and can be used to transmit power.

2. Any load to be lifted offers resistance to flow of liquid. This resistance to flow
is pressure.
3. If the capacity of the pump is more, then it pumps out more liquid. If it

4
pumps out more liquid, then it makes the hydraulic actuators (hydraulic
cylinder (or) hydraulic for the speed of the hydraulic actuator.

4. If the force developed in the hydraulic cylinder is more than the external load,
then the actuator lifts the external load. If the force developed in the hydraulic
cylinder is less than the external load, then the actuator will not lift the external
load. The flow rate is nothing to do with the load carrying capacity of the
hydraulic system.
5. In the operation of a hydraulic system, the liquid chooses the path of least
resistance. For example, there are two passages of flow from the pump. One path
is connected to the hydraulic actuator to lift the load. Another path is connected to
the reservoir. The liquid will choose the path of least resistance (reservoir path)
and flows back into the reservoir, without choosing the path that offers higher
resistance i.e. lifting the load. Ultimately, the load remains uplifted in this case.

3.3. GENERAL APPLICATION OF FLUID POWER

Agriculture : Farm equipment

Construction : Earth moving equipment, concrete mixing equipment
Ships : Controllable pitch propellers
Aviation : Hydraulic retractable landing
wheels Defense : Missile launches system
Transportation : Hydraulic elevators
Fabrication : Hydraulic presses for metal forming pneumatic hand tools,
Injection molding machine Fabrication
Material handling : Hydraulic jacks
Hydraulic ram, Conveyor system,
Pneumatically operated packing warping and bottling
equipments
5
Automation : Hydraulically operated machine tools, robots‟,
pneumatically operated indexing holding gripping and
feeding devices

3.4 PASCAL’S LAW&: CHARACTERISTICS OF HYDRAULICOF OIL

PUMP

Pascal’s law states that the pressure applied anywhere to a confined liquid
is transmitted equally to every portion of the surface of the containing vessel.
When a force is applied to the liquid by a piston, the liquid transmits this force
equally to all surfaces of the container.

3.5 HYDRAULICS PUMP CHARACTERISTICS

Hydraulic pumps are used to pump out the liquid from the reservoir to the
hydraulic actuator through a set of valves.
 A pump converts mechanical energy into hydraulic energy. The mechanical
energy is given to the pump by an electric motor. Due to mechanical action,
the pump creates a partial vacuum at its inlet.
 This makes the atmospheric pressure to force the liquid through the inlet
line and into the pump. The pump then pushes the liquid into the
hydraulic system.
The pumps are classified as

6
(I) Positive displacement pumps
(ii) Hydrodynamic (or) Non-positive displacement pumps
 Hydrodynamic (or) Non-positive displacement pumps are used for
transporting fluids from one location to another.
 These types of pumps are generally used for low pressure, high-volume flow
applications, since they are not capable of withstanding high pressures.
 The centrifugal pumps and axial flow pumps are the examples of non-
positive displacement pumps. These pumps provide smooth flow. But the
output flow rate is reduced when the resistance to flow is increased.
 Positive displacement pumps have the internal working elements which
make a very close fit together so that there is very little leakage (or)
slippage between them. This type of pumps ejects a fixed quantity of
liquid into the hydraulic system per revolution of the pump shaft.
These pumps have the following advantages.
1. High pressure capability
2. Small and compact size
3. High volumetric efficiency
4. Great flexibility of performance. i.e. These pumps can operate over a wide
range of pressure requirements and speed ranges.

7
 CHAPTER-4
DESCRIPTION OF HYDRAULICS COMPONENTS

Pumps convert mechanical input of motor into pressure energy of fluid.

Hydraulic actuators do just the opposite. They convert the pressure energy of
fluid into mechanical output to perform useful work. Fluid power is
transmitted through either linear (or) rotary motion. Linear motion is obtained
by using linear actuators called hydraulic cylinders Rotary motion is
obtained by using rotary actuators called hydraulic motors. Rotary actuators
are the hydraulic and pneumatic equivalent of an electric motor.

4.1 Parts of a hydraulic cylinder

 Cylinder barrel
 Cylinder Bottom or Cap
 Cylinder Head
 Piston
 Piston Rod
 Rod Gland
4.2 Other Types
 Tie Rod Cylinders
 Welded Body Cylinders
 Piston Rod constructions
 Metallic coatings
 Ceramic coatings
 Lengths
 Special hydraulic cylinders

8
  Telescopic cylinder
 Plunger cylinder
 Differential cylinder
 Re-phasing cylinder

4.3. OPERATION OF HYDRAULIC CYLINDER

Hydraulic cylinders get their power from pressurized hydraulic

fluid, which is typically oil. The hydraulic cylinder consists of a cylinder barrel,
in which a piston connected to a piston rod moves back and forth. The barrel is
closed on each end by the cylinder bottom (also called the cap end) and by the
cylinder head where the piston rod comes out of the cylinder. The piston has
sliding rings and seals. The piston divides the inside of the cylinder in two
chambers, the bottom chamber (cap end) and the piston rod side chamber (rod
end). The hydraulic pressure acts on the piston to do linear work and motion.

Flanges, trunnions, and/or clevises are mounted to the cylinder body.

The piston rod also has mounting attachments to connect the cylinder to the
object or machine component that it is pushing.

A hydraulic cylinder is the actuator or "motor" side of this system. The

"generator" side of the hydraulic system is the hydraulic pump which brings
in a fixed or regulated flow of oil to the bottom side of the hydraulic
cylinder, to move the piston rod upwards. The piston pushes the oil in the
other chamber back to the reservoir. If we assume that the oil pressure in
the piston rod chamber is approximately zero, the force on the piston rod
equals the pressure in the cylinder times the piston area (F=PA).

9
 The piston moves instead downwards if oil is pumped into the piston
rod side chamber and the oil from the piston area flows back to the
reservoir without pressure. The pressure in the piston rod area chamber is (Pull
Force) / (piston area - piston rod area).

Cut section of the hydraulic cylinder

4.4 PARTS OF HYDRAULIC CYLINDER AND ITS TYPES

A hydraulic cylinder consists of the following parts:

Cylinder barrel

The cylinder barrel is mostly a seamless thick walled forged pipe

that must be machined internally. The cylinder barrel is ground and/or honed
internally.
Cylinder Bottom or Cap

In most hydraulic cylinders, the barrel and the bottom portion are
welded together. This can damage the inside of the barrel if done poorly.
Therefore some cylinder designs have a screwed or flanged connection from the
cylinder end cap to the barrel. (See “Tie Rod Cylinders” below) In this type
the barrel can be disassembled and repaired in future.

Cylinder Head
The cylinder head is sometimes connected to the barrel with a sort of
a simple lock (for simple cylinders). In general however the connection is
screwed or flanged. Flange connections are the best, but also the most expensive.
10
A flange has to be welded to the pipe before machining. The advantage is that
the connection is bolted and always simple to remove. For larger cylinder sizes,
the disconnection of a screw with a diameter of 300 to 600 mm is a huge
problem as well as the alignment during mounting.

Piston

The piston is a short, cylinder-shaped metal component that separates the

two
Sides of the cylinder barrel internally. The piston is usually machined with
grooves to fit elastomeric or metal seals. These seals are often O-rings, U-cups
or cast iron rings. They prevent the pressurized hydraulic oil from passing by
the piston to the chamber on the opposite side. This difference in pressure
between the two sides of the piston causes the cylinder to extend and retract.
Piston seals vary in design and material according to the pressure and
temperature requirements that the cylinder will see in service. Generally
speaking, elastomeric seals made from nitrile rubber or other materials are best
in lower temperature environments while seals made of are better for higher
temperatures. The best seals for high temperature are cast iron piston rings.
Piston Rod
The piston rod is typically a hard chrome-plated piece of cold-rolled
steel which attaches to the piston and extends from the cylinder through the
rod-end head. In double rod-end cylinders, the actuator has a rod extending from
both sides of the piston and out both ends of the barrel. The piston rod connects
the hydraulic actuator to the machine component doing the work. This
connection can be in the form of a machine thread or a mounting attachment
such as a rod-clevis or rod-eye. These mounting attachments can be threaded
or welded to the piston rod or, in some cases; they are a machined part of the
rod-end.

11
Rod Gland
The cylinder head is fitted with seals to prevent the pressurized oil
from leaking past the interface between the rod and the head. This area is called
the rod gland. It often has another seal called a rod wiper which prevents
contaminants from entering the cylinder when the extended rod retracts back
into the cylinder. The rod gland also has a rod bearing. This bearing supports
the weight of the piston rod and guides it as it passes back and forth through
the rod gland. In some cases, especially in small hydraulic cylinders, the rod
gland and the rod bearing are made from a single integral machined part.

Other parts
 Cylinder bottom connection
 Seals
 Cushions

A hydraulic cylinder should be used for pushing and pulling only. No

bending moments or side loads should be transmitted to the piston rod or
the cylinder. For this reason, the ideal connection of a hydraulic cylinder is a
single clevis with a spherical ball bearing. This allows the hydraulic actuator to
move and allow for any misalignment between the actuator and the load it is
pushing.

12
 CHAPTER-5
SPECIAL HYDRAULIC CYLINDERS

5.1 TELESCOPIC CYLINDER

The length of a hydraulic cylinder is the total of the stroke, the thickness
of the piston, the thickness of bottom and head and the length of the
connections. Often this length does not fit in the machine. In that case the piston
rod is also used as a piston barrel and a second piston rod is used. These
kinds of cylinders are called telescopic cylinders. If we call a normal rod
cylinder single stage, telescopic cylinders are multi-stage units of two, three,
four, five and even six stages. In general telescopic cylinders are much more
expensive than normal cylinders. Most telescopic cylinders are single acting
(push). Double acting telescopic cylinders must be specially designed and
manufactured.

Plunger cylinder

A hydraulic cylinder without a piston or with a piston without seals

is called a plunger cylinder. A plunger cylinder can only be used as a pushing
cylinder; the maximum force is piston rod area multiplied by pressure. This
means that a piston cylinder in general has a relatively thick piston rod.
Differential cylinder

A differential cylinder acts like a normal cylinder when pulling. If

the cylinder however has to push, the oil from the piston rod side of the cylinder
is not returned to the reservoir, but goes to the bottom side of the cylinder. In
such a way, the cylinder goes much faster, but the maximum force the cylinder
can give is like a plunger cylinder. A differential cylinder can be
manufactured like a normal cylinder, and only a special control is added.

13
5.2 SELECTION OF HYDRULIC CYLINDER
While selecting a hydraulic cylinder the following design information are
required.
1. Types of cylinder
2. Cylinder stoke requirement
3. Thrust stroke requirement
4. Construction
5. Cylinder control and special seal requirements
6. Counter balance of loads

14
 CHAPTER-6
HYDRAULIC PUMP

6.1 PRINCIPLE

Hydraulic pumps are used in hydraulic drive systems and can be

hydrostatic or hydrodynamic . Hydrostatic pumps are positive
displacement pumps while hydrodynamic pumps can be fixed displacement
pumps, in which the displacement (flow through the pump per rotation of the
pump) cannot be adjusted or variable displacement pumps, which have a more
complicated construction that allows the displacement to be adjusted.

6.2 HYDRAULIC PUMP TYPE

1. Gear pumps
2. Gerotor pumps
3. Rotary vane pumps
4. Screw pump
5. Piston pump
6. Axial pump with swash plate

6.3 HYDRAULIC PUMP WORKING PRINCIPLES

1. Gear pumps

Gear pumps (with external teeth) (fixed displacement) are simple and
Economical pumps. The swept volume or displacement of gear pumps for
hydraulics will be between about 1 cm3 (0.001 litre) and 200 cm3 (0.2 litre).
15
 These pumps create pressure through the meshing of the gear teeth,
which forces fluid around the gears to pressurize the outlet side. Some gear
pumps can be quite noisy, compared to other types, but modern gear pumps
are highly reliable and much quieter than older models.
2. Gerotor pumps

Gerotor pumps (fixed displacement) are a variation of gear pumps, having

internal teeth of optimized design. The efficiency and noise level are very good
for such a medium pressure pump.

3. Screw pumps

Screw pumps (fixed displacement) are a double Archimedes spiral, but

closed. This means that two screws are used in one body. The pumps are used
for high flows and relatively low pressure (max 100 bars). They were used on
board ships where the constant pressure hydraulic system was going through
the whole ship, especially for the control of ball valves, but also for the steering
gear and help drive systems. The advantage of the screw pumps is the low
sound level of these pumps; the efficiency is not that high.
16
4. Vane Pumps

The leakage in a gear pump through the small gaps between the teeth
and also between teeth and pump housing is reduced in the vane pump. The vane
pump reduces this leakage by using spring loaded vanes.

The following are important types of vane pumps.

1. Unbalanced Vane pump
The rotor contains radial slots. The rotor is splined to the drive shaft
and rotates inside a cam ring. Vanes are fit and sliding in the slots of the rotor
and they are carried around by the rotor.
These vanes are kept in continuous contact with the cam surface by
centrifugal force (or) by springs. The rotor is offset within the pump housing i.e.
There is an eccentricity between the centre of rotor and centre of cam rings. After
considering the above questions a best method is developed and the best method is
applied to the operation.

If the eccentricity is zero, there is no flow. During one-half revolution of

the rotor, the volume increases between the rotor and cam ring. The resulting
volume expansion causes a reduction of pressure i.e., vacuums. This vacuum
causes the fluid to flow through the inlet port. When the rotor rotates, through
second half revolution, the cam ring surface pushes the vanes back into their slots
and the trapped volume is reduced. This positively ejects the trapped liquid
through the outlet port.
17
2. Balanced Vane Pump

A balanced vane pump has two lobes on the cam surface on opposite sides
of the shaft. The cam surface, instead of being circular, is roughly elliptical, so that
each vane makes two strokes on each revolution of the shaft.

This pump has two intake parts and two outlet ports diametrically
opposite to each other. Thus, the pressure ports are opposite to each other
and a complete hydraulic balance is achieved. Since the cam ring is an
elliptical one, it forms two separate pumping chambers on opposite sides of the
rotor. So the side load produced by one chamber is exactly balanced by an
equal side load from the other chamber. Thus, the bearing loads from
internal pressure are zero and it permits the higher operating pressures.
Balanced vane pumps have much improved service lives than
unbalanced vane pumps. Balanced vane pumps, due to its symmetrical
construction, are difficult to design as a variable displacement pumps.
These vane pumps costs a little more than the gear pumps of
comparable quality. Bearing loads are low (zero). Vane pumps are more
sensitive to dirt than gear pumps.

5. Piston pump
18
 A piston pump is similar to reciprocating engine. It can draw in liquid when
retracts in cylinder and discharge it when it extends.
There are two types of piston pumps
1. Axial piston pumps (a) Swash plate design (b) Bent axis design.
2. Radial piston pump.

6. Axial pump with swash plate

In this pump, multiple pistons are arranged in a rotating cylinder. The

pistons stroked by a fixed angled plate which is known as swash plate. Each
piston has contact with the swash plate by rotating shoe plate linked to it.
When the cylinder rotates, the pistons reciprocate because the piston shoes
folio the angled surface of the swash plate. Pump capacity can be changed by
altering the angle of the swash plate.
If we increase the angle, the capacity will be increased. If the swash plate is
vertical; then the capacity will be zero and even the flow can be reversed by
changing the angle of swash plate. So the angle of tilt of the swash plate
determines the piston stroke and therefore, determines the pump displacement and
flow.

19
6.4 PUMP SELECTION

Pumps are selected by considering the following factors:

1. Discharge (flow rate) requirements. (in liters/mm)
2. Operating speed (in rpm)
3. Pressure rating (in bar)
4. Performance
5. Reliability
6. Maintenance
7. Cost
8. Noise

20
 CHAPTER-7

HYDRAULICS HOSES TYPES &PHYSICAL

PROPERTY

A hose is a hollow tube designed to carry fluids from one location to

another. Hoses are also sometimes called pipes (the word pipe usually refers to
a rigid tube, whereas a hose is usually a flexible one), or more generally tubing.
The shape of a hose is usually cylindrical (having a circular cross section).
Hose design is based on a combination of application and performance.
Common factors are Size, Pressure Rating, Weight, Length, Straight hose or
Coil hose and Chemical Compatibility.
Hoses are made from one or a combination of many different materials.
Applications mostly use nylon, polyurethane, polyethylene, PVC, or synthetic
or natural rubbers, based on the environment and pressure rating needed. In
recent years, hoses can also be manufactured from special grades of polyethylene
(LDPE and especially LLDPE). Other hose materials include PTFE (Teflon),
stainless steel and other metals.
1 Reinforced rubber hose
2 Applications
7.1 REINFORCED RUBBER HOSE

To achieve a better pressure resistance hoses can be reinforced with

fibers or steel cord. Commonly used reinforcement methods are braiding,
spiraling, knitting and wrapping of fabric plies. The reinforcement increases
the pressure resistance but also the stiffness. To obtain flexibility corrugations
or bellows are used.
7.2 HYDARULIC HOSE APPLICATION

Hoses can be used in water or other liquid environments or to convey air

21
or other gases. Hoses are used to carry fluids through air or fluid environments,
and they are typically used with clamps, spigots, flanges, and nozzles to
control fluid flow.

Specific applications include the following:

o A garden hose is used to water plants in a garden or lawn, or
to convey water to a sprinkler for the same purpose.
o A Tough Hose is used to water crops in agriculture for drip irrigation
o A fire hose is used by firefighters to convey water to the site of a fire.

7.3 COMPONENTS AND ITS USAGES

Hydraulic fluids, also called hydraulic liquids, are the medium by

which power is transferred in hydraulic machinery. Common hydraulic fluids
are based on mineral oil or water. Examples of equipment that might use
hydraulic fluids include e x c a v a t o r s , b r a k e s , power steering systems,
transmissions, backhoes, garbage trucks, aircraft flight control systems and
industrial machinery.

Hydraulic systems like the ones mentioned above will work most efficiently if
the hydraulic fluid used has low compressibility.
1 Functions and properties
2 Compositions

Functions and properties

The primary function of a hydraulic fluid is to convey power. In
use, however, there are other important functions of hydraulic fluid such as
protection of the hydraulic machine components. The table below lists the major
functions of a hydraulic fluid and the properties of a fluid that affect its ability
to perform that function.
22
Function property
Medium for power transfer and control Low compressibility (high
bulk modulus)
 Fast air release
 Low foaming tendency
 Low volatility
 Medium for heat transfer Good thermal capacity and conductivity
 Sealing Medium Adequate viscosity and viscosity index

 Shear stability
 Lubricant Viscosity for film maintenance
 Low temperature fluidity
 Functioning life Material compatibility

Composition

Hydraulic fluids can contain a wide range of chemical compounds, including:

oils, butanol, esters (e.g. phthalates, like DEHP, and adipates, like bis (2-
ethylhexyl) adipate), polyalkylene glycols (PAG), phosphate esters
(e.g. tributyl phosphate), silicones, alkylated aromatic hydrocarbons, poly alpha
olefins (PAO) (e.g. poly iso butenes), corrosion inhibitors, etc.

23
 CHAPTER-8
STRUCTURE
Structural steel is steel construction material, a profile, formed with a
specific shape or cross section and certain standards of chemical composition and
strength. Structural steel shape, size, composition, strength, storage, etc, is
regulated in most industrialized countries.
Structural steel members, such as I-beams, have high second moments of
area, which allow them to be very stiff in respect to their cross-sectional area. A
steel I-beam, in this case used to support wood beams in a house. Structural steel
in construction: A primed steel beam is holding up the floor above, which
consists of a metal deck (Q-Deck), upon which a concrete slab has been poured.
Steel beam through-penetration with incomplete fireproofing.

Metal deck and OWSJ (Open Web Steel Joist), receiving first coat of
spray fireproofing plaster, made of polystyrene leavened gypsum.

8.1 COMMON STRUCTURAL SHAPES

In most developed countries, the shapes available are set out in

published standards, although a number of specialist and proprietary cross
sections are also available.
I-beam (I-shaped cross-section - in Britain these include Universal
Beams (UB) and Universal Columns (UC); in Europe it includes the IPE, HE,
HL, HD and other sections; in the US it includes Wide Flange (WF) and H
sections) Z-Shape (half a flange in opposite directions) HSS-Shape (Hollow
structural section also known as SHS (structural hollow section) and
including square, rectangular, circular (pipe) and elliptical cross sections)
Angle (L-shaped cross-section) Channel ( [-shaped cross-section) Tee (T-shaped
cross-section) Rail profile (asymmetrical I-beam)

24
 Railway rail
 Vignola rail Flanged T rail Grooved rail
Bar a piece of metal, rectangular cross sectioned (flat) and long, but not so wide
so as to be called a sheet. Rod, a round or square and long piece of metal or
wood, see also rebar and dowel. Plate, sheet metal thicker than 6 mm or 1/4 in.
Open web steel joist. While many sections are made by hot or cold rolling,
others are made by welding together flat or bent plates (for example, the
largest circular hollow sections are made from flat plate bent into a circle and
seam-welded).

8.2 STANDARD STRUCTURAL STEELS

Most steels used throughout Europe are specified to comply with
the European standard EN 10025. However, many national standards also
remain in force.

Typical grades are described as 'S275J2' or 'S355K2W'. In these examples,

'S' denotes structural rather than engineering steel; 275 or 355 denotes the yield
strength in Newton per square millimeter or the equivalent mega Pascal; J2 or K2
denotes the materials toughness by reference to Charpy impact test values; and the
'W' denotes weathering steel. Further letters can be used to designate
normalized steel ('N' or 'NL'); quenched and tempered steel ('Q' or 'QL');
and thermo mechanically rolled steel ('M' or 'ML').

The normal yield strength grades available are 195, 235, 275, 355, 420, and
460, although some grades are more commonly used than others e.g. in the
UK, almost all structural steel is grades S275 and S355. Higher grades are
available in quenched and tempered material (500, 550, 620, 690, 890 and
960 - although grades above 690 receive little if any use in construction at
present).

25
8.3 THERMAL PROPERTIES

The austenizing temperature, the temperature where a steel transforms to an

austenite crystal structure, for steel starts at 900°C for pure iron, then, as
more carbon is added, the temperature falls to a minimum 724°C for eutectic steel
(steel with only .83% by weight of carbon in it). As 2.1% carbon (by
mass) i s approached, the austenizing temperature climbs back up, to 1130°C.
Similarly, the melting point of steel changes based on the alloy.

The lowest temperature at which plain carbon steel can begin to melt, its
solidus, is 1130 °C. Steel never turns into a liquid below this temperature.
Pure Iron ('Steel' with 0% Carbon) starts to melt at 1492 °C (2720 °F), and is
completely liquid upon reaching 1539 °C (2802 °F). Steel with 2.1% Carbon by
weight begins melting at 1130 °C (2066 °F), and is completely molten upon
reaching 1315 °C (2400 °F). 'Steel' with more than 2.1% Carbon is no longer
steel, but is known as Cast iron. http://www.msm.cam.ac.uk/phase-
trans/images/FeC.gif]

8.4 FIREPROOFING OF STRUCTURAL STEEL

In order for a fireproofing product to qualify for a certification listing

of structural steel, through a fire test, the critical temperature is set by the
national standard, which governs the test. In Japan, this is below 400°C. In
China, Europe and North America, it is set at ca. 540°C. The time it takes for
the steel element that is being tested to reach the temperature set by the national
standard determines the duration of the fire-resistance rating.
Care must be taken to ensure that thermal expansion of structural
elements does not damage fire-resistance rated wall and floor assemblies.
Penetrates in a firewalls and ferrous cable trays in organic fire stops

26
should be installed in accordance with an appropriate certification listing
that complies with the local building code.

8.5 COMPARISON OF PNEUMATIC SYSTEM WITH HYDRUALIC

SYSTEM

 Liquids exhibit greater inertia than gases. Therefore, in hydraulic systems, the
weight of oil is a potential problem when accelerating and decelerating the
actuators and when suddenly opening and closing the valves. In accordance with
Newton’s law of motion, the force required to accelerate oil is many times greater
than that required to accelerate an equal volume of air.

 Liquids also exhibit greater viscosity than gases. This results in larger
frictional pressure and power losses.
 Since hydraulic systems use a fluid foreign to the atmosphere, they require
reservoirs and a no-leak system design. Pneumatic systems use air which is
exhausted directly back into the surrounding environment. Generally, pneumatic
systems are less expensive than hydraulic systems.
 Due to compressibility of air, it is impossible to obtain a precise control of
actuator velocities in pneumatic systems. In applications where the actuator travel
is to be smooth and steady against a variable load, the air exhaust from the
actuator is normally metered.
 While pneumatic pressures are quite low due to the compressor design,
hydraulic pressures are high. Thus, hydraulics can be used in high power systems
whereas pneumatics is confined to low power applications.

27
 CHAPTER-9
WORKING PRINCIPLE

9.1 WORKING DIAGRAM

28
9.2 WORKING PRINCIPLE
Here in our project fork lift machine is done by hydraulic system. It
consists of structure, arm, cylinder and piston assembly, with wheels and
hydraulic circuit. After fork lift loaded when pump is pumped the hydraulic
cylinder will moves forward and holds the object and will lift gradually. The
light duty fork lift move easily with the help of wheel.

29
 CHAPTER-10
ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES

10.1 ADVANTAGES
 The process uses low- cost energy source

 Large machines frames are not required on the process

 Intricate shapes on material of low form ability can be worked fairly easily.

 It does not require special type hoses.

 No extra skill is required for operating this system.
 Easier maintenance

 Operation is very smooth and in this system we can get more output by
applying less effort.
 Simple construction of additional accessories not needed.
 Comparatively cheaper in cost then the other systems.
 Quick response is achieved
 Continuous operation is possible without stopping.
 More efficient
 Power can be easily transmitted.
 Less loss in transmission.
 Very Easy Collecting Process.

10.2 DISADVANTAGES
 Machining work is very complicated.
 Very study base needed.
 CONCLUSION
This project work has provided us an excellent opportunity and experience,
to use our limited knowledge. We gained a lot of practical knowledge regarding,
planning, purchasing, assembling and machining while doing this project work.
We feel that the project work is a good solution to bridge the gates between
institution and industries. We are proud that we have completed the work with the
limited time successfully

The AUTOMATIC TROLLEY FOR MATERIAL HANDLING

SYSTEM IN INDUSTRY is working with satisfactory conditions. We are able
to understand the difficulties in maintaining the tolerances and also quality.

We have done to our ability and skill making maximum use of available
facilities. Thus the Automatic trolley for material handling system is fabricated
and the working model is presented.

BIBLOGRAPHY
GUPTA J.K and KHURUMI R.S (1981) “Text book of Machine Design”,
S.Chand & company.
Parr. ANDREW (2003) „Hydraulic & Pneumatics‟ Butterworth Heimann
Ltd
Dr.D.K.AGGARVAL & Dr.P.C SHARMA (2004) “machine
design”, S.K.Kataria and son
MAJUMDAR.S.R “Pneumatic systems”, Tata McGraw-hills company ltd.
SRINIVASAN.R (2004) “Hydraulic & pneumatic controls”, Vijay Nicole
Imprints private ltd.