Potential Thermochemical Conversion of Bioenergy From Acacia Species in Brunei Darussalam: A Review

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Potential thermochemical conversion of

bioenergy from Acacia species in Brunei
Darussalam: A review
Article in Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews · November 2017

DOI: 10.1016/j.rser.2017.10.032
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 82 (2018) 3060–3076
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Potential thermochemical conversion of bioenergy from Acacia species in T

Brunei Darussalam: A review
⁎
Ashfaq Ahmeda,c, Muhammad S. Abu Bakara, , Abul K. Azada, Rahayu S. Sukrib,
Teuku Meurah Indra Mahliaa,d
a
Faculty of Integrated Technologies, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Jalan Tungku Link, BE1410, Brunei Darussalam
b
Environmental and Life Sciences Programme, Faculty of Science, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Jalan Tungku Link, BE1410, Brunei Darussalam
c
Department of Chemical Engineering, COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Lahore Campus, Raiwind Road, Lahore, Pakistan
d
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Tenaga Nasional, 43000 Kajang, Selangor, Malaysia
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: As the demand for energy increases and fossil fuel resources are depleted, the search for clean sources of energy
Bio energy has intensified worldwide. This is coupled with a strong global desire to reduce CO2 emissions to curb global
Biomass warming. Brunei Darussalam is committed to reduce its CO2 emissions but currently utilizes fossil fuels to
Thermochemical processes meet almost all of its energy requirements. This situation provides good incentives to search for renewable and
Acacia mangium
sustainable resources to produce energy in the country. Acacia species are exotic species that have invaded and
Acacia auriculiformis
Pyrolysis
spread to natural habitats in Brunei Darussalam. Acacia species are a sustainable source of high quality biomass
Gasification feedstock to produce bioenergy in the country. Hot tropical weather of the country is highly suitable for the
rapid growth of Acacias without requiring any major agricultural input. This study reviews the thermochemical
conversion of Acacia species especially; Acacia mangium and Acacia auriculiformis to produce biofuels and bio-
products. The prospective of using Acacia biomass as feedstock in pyrolysis, gasification, liquefaction and
combustion is also discussed. Acacia biomass is a sustainable and renewable energy resource for Brunei
Darussalam to be exploited for energy requirements and can be beneficial for the economy of the country by
providing new investment and employment opportunities.
1. Introduction socio-economic development of any country. Rapid human population

rise along with increasing urbanization and industrialization trends are
The threat of diminishing of fossil fuel resources and the impact of putting worldwide challenges in terms of energy resource development
their burning on environmental pollution is well-known problem and and management. Existing fossil energy resources based technologies
has motivated researchers to look for alternative sustainable and re- cannot meet the ever rising demand of energy [6]. Utilization of fossil
newable fuel resources. There has been a significant increase in the fuels has contributed substantially to increasing environmental pollu-
efforts to search for clean, socially acceptable methods of producing tion causing serious problems such as acid rain, ozone depletion, and
energy [1]. The demand of energy is continuously increasing due to global warming which results from the emission of harmful gases like
economic development and rapid increase of population of the world. SOX, NOX and CO2 [7,8]. Encouraging reports have been published
The world's demand for energy is predicted to be doubled within up- recently to show the expanding usage of low-carbon energy resources
coming few decades [2–4]. [9]. It is believed that the global economy growth and energy-related
On 12 December 2015, the United Nations Framework Convention emissions might have started to decouple. Thus, non-renewable fossil
on Climate Change (UNFCCC) adopted the Paris Agreement on climate resources are not the reliable option in long term future basis [10].
change in which 195 participating countries committed to keeping the Many renewable and sustainable energy resources of energy are
global temperature rise limit well below 2 °C above pre-industrial levels available to replace fossil resources such as biomass, sunlight, tidal and
[5]. geo thermal energy [11,12]. Biomass is an abundant and renewable
Energy is considered to be one of the most important commodities source of energy derived from organic materials originating from living
of life. Secure and sustainable supply of energy is mandatory for the organisms [13]. Worldwide biomass ranks fourth as energy resource
⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: saifullah.bakar@ubd.edu.bn (M.S. Abu Bakar).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.10.032
Received 22 October 2016; Received in revised form 4 July 2017; Accepted 26 October 2017
Available online 14 November 2017
1364-0321/ © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
A. Ahmed et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 82 (2018) 3060–3076
providing approximately 14% of the energy requirements [14]. Plant × 105 kWh/year electricity from its solid waste biomass resources [28].
biomass results from photosynthesis processes in plants, and is some- Acacia species along with their potential to produce biofuels and
times referred to as lignocellulosic biomass and its constituting com- bioenergy have been researched for various scientific applications and
ponents include carbohydrate polymers and aromatic polymers. Car- to produce many valuable products [29–42]. The current situation is
bohydrate polymers in plant biomass are called as cellulose and challenging and demanding for the utilization of biomass from Acacia
hemicellulose; while the aromatic polymers are called as lignin [15]. species which are sustainable and renewable energy resources to pro-
Energy in the biomass is basically the solar energy stored as chemical duce biofuels via thermochemical conversion route which will con-
energy, This chemical energy can be released by breaking the chemical tribute to future energy requirements and to reduce the green houses
bonds between adjacent oxygen, carbon, and hydrogen molecules using gases in the country. There is also an urgent need for Brunei Darussalam
biological or thermochemical processes [16]. Non-renewable resources to maintain its bio-resources inventory so that proper planning can be
are also believed to be derived from biomass through microbial anae- made in terms of utilization of its green resources to produce energy.
robic degradation and metamorphic geological conversions over mil- Research activities should be carried out to determine the individual
lions of years [17]. This review paper deals with plant biomass and will biofuel potential of different tree parts of Acacia species such as trunk,
refer to it as biomass. Despite the fact that biomass conversion to energy phyllodes, bark and branches because Acacia trees are bigger in size and
has various environmental and social benefits over the use of petroleum produce large quantities of biomass from their different parts. Utiliza-
fuels; many challenges are there in terms of commercialization of tion to Acacia species to produce biofuels will impart positive effects on
technologies which are much expensive than the traditional ones. Also, the economy of country by generating new investment and employment
for sustainable development, biomass conversion processes are needed opportunities in engineering, agriculture, transportation and services
to improve their efficiencies [18]. sectors.
Lignocellulosic biomass is the most abundantly available raw ma-
terial on earth to produce biofuels and chemical feedstock for industry. 2. Energy scenario in Brunei Darussalam
Various studies are reported in literature on the viability of bio-energy
production from forest-based biomass with financial feasibility and Brunei Darussalam is well known for its vast fossil hydrocarbon
sustainability [19–22]. Thus, biomass is a logical choice which can reserves. Situation is alarming as studies have revealed that oil and gas
contribute for energy requirements of the world to minimize de- reserves of Brunei Darussalam will be finishing within 17 and 30 years
pendency on fossil resources [23,24]. respectively if their exploration will be continued at the current rate
Acacia is a large genus of 1350 species of shrubs and trees that are [43]. As per World Bank country indicators data, Brunei Darussalam is
found in Australia, Africa, Madagascar, throughout the Asia-Pacific the largest emitter of carbon dioxide per capita in ASEAN region as
region and in the Americas. They are most diverse in Australia, with shown in Table 1 [44]. This is because of almost all the energy re-
close to 1000 species recorded, and is the largest genus of vascular quirements of Brunei Darussalam are being generated from fossil fuels.
plants in Australia [25]. Research reports show that major portion of greenhouse gases (GHG) in
This study is aimed to review the potential of thermochemical the world are coming from the burning of fossil fuels, producing CO2
conversion of Acacia biomass to produce value added materials such as and other gas emissions [45]. In Brunei Darussalam major contributors
biofuels and other bio-products in Brunei Darussalam. Studies reported to CO2 emissions are power generation and transportation sectors as
in literature on the pyrolysis, gasification, liquefaction and combustion shown in Fig. 2. Brunei Darussalam is also the highest consumer of
of different Acacia species are discussed and summarized. Brunei electricity per capita in Asia, with maximum of its consumption in
Darussalam is located between 4° N and 5.8° N latitude and 114.6° E domestic households which is may be due to high government subsidy
and 115.4°E longitudes on the north-west coast of Borneo island; map is on electricity tariffs [46,47]. The primary energy demand of the
shown in Fig. 1 [26]. Brunei Darussalam's tropical climate is aseasonal country is expected to rise at an average rate of 3.9% annually over the
with high temperatures and rainfall year round [27] and this climate forecast period to reach 6.8 MTOE in 2030 [48]. Consequently, CO2
appears to be highly suitable for the growth of different Acacia species. emission rates are also expected to rise with the energy demand of the
Biomass from Acacia species and waste biomass could be important country if green energy resources are not exploited to contribute in the
renewable resources to meet the future needs of the country. As as- energy mix of the country. Being a signatory of the Paris Agreement on
sessed by Malik et al., Brunei Darussalam has a potential to produce 13 global warming, Brunei Darussalam is committed to reduce its CO2
Fig. 1. Political map of Brunei Darussalam (photo credit: www.nationsonline.org) [26].
3061
Table 1
CO2 emission per capita in ASEAN countries in 2001, 2006 and 2011 [44].
Country CO2 Emissions Per Capita (metric ton per capita)
2001 2006 2011
Cambodia 0.2 0.2 0.3

Brunei Darussalam 17.1 11.6 24.4
Indonesia 1.4 1.5 2.3
Malaysia 5.7 6.5 7.9
Myanmar 0.2 0.3 0.2
Philippines 0.9 0.8 0.9
Singapore 12 7.2 4.3
Thailand 3.2 4.0 4.5
Vietnam 0.8 1.2 2.0
emissions and to shift a major portion of its energy production from

fossil fuels to renewable fuel resources. Brunei Darussalam's long-term
development plan, the Brunei Vision 2035, includes various plans in-
cluding to reduce its energy intensity by 45% by the end of 2035, with
2005 as the base year and to generate 10% of its energy requirements
from renewable energy resources available in the country [49,50].
Fig. 3. Acacia mangium in Brunei Darussalam.
Many countries across the world are also motivated to search for re-
newable energy resources to contribute into their energy requirements
[51–55]. Darussalam dates back to the early 1990s when Acacia mangium was
first planted in country to produce high quality wood for timber in-
3. Background of Acacia species dustry. Before being planted in Brunei, Acacia mangium was introduced
to Malaysian Borneo as a plantation tree in the early 1980s [60]. In the
3.1. General information about Acacia species mid-1990s two other fast growing species of Acacia family Acacia aur-
iculiformis and Acacia cincinnata were cultivated with along Acacia
Acacia species are shrubs and trees belonging to Acacia genus which mangium to rehabilitate vegetation along Tutong - Muara highway to
are native to Australia, Africa, Madagascar, throughout the Asia-Pacific prevent soil erosion [61]. The introduction of Acacia species in Brunei
region and in the Americas. Acacia species can adapt to a wide range of Darussalam went well because these species can grow rapidly at fast
tropical and temperate environments, and this adaptability has made rates by fixing nitrogen and thus can grow and establish even in nu-
them popular for planting on degraded lands in Asia and other parts of trient-poor soils. These introduced species contributed well in the re-
the world [57]. There are 1350 different species of Acacia which make duction of soil erosion problem and closed up the open canopy along
it one of the large plant taxa in the world that can grow in warm, the highway. However, since this initial introduction, Acacia species
tropical and even in deserts [25]. Most popular types of Acacia species have spread to other habitats in Brunei, particularly in degraded forests
based on their physical appearance and special characteristics are Flat- and lands, and they are commonly seen as roadside vegetation
topped Acacia, Swollen-thorn Acacia, Koa Acacia and Flowering Acacia throughout Brunei Darussalam. Acacia species are well known for their
[58]. Acacia species are important economically in various parts of Asia invasiveness and studies have reported the negative effects of Acacias
and Africa, and some common uses of Acacia species include as a source on native tree species, causing serious threats to the biodiversity of
of wood, feedstock to produce pulp and paper, gum arabic, tannin, Brunei Darussalam [32,62]. There are four species of Acacia currently
blossoms, food for domestic animals and source of high quality bio- found in Brunei Darussalam: Acacia mangium (Fig. 3), Acacia aur-
mass. iculiformis (Fig. 4), Acacia cincinnata (Fig. 5) and Acacia holosericea
(Fig. 6). Of these, Acacia mangium appears to be the most abundant,
Acacia auriculiformis and Acacia cincinnata are fairly abundant, but
3.2. Acacia species in Brunei Darussalam
Acacia holosericea is less commonly found in Brunei. When grown in
large numbers, these Acacia species are capable of producing large
Brunei Darussalam is one of the countries with high forest cover,
quantities of biomass as feedstock for thermochemical conversion
with tropical forests covering 75% of the country's total land area [59].
processes to produce biofuels and bio-products in the country.
The climate of the country is aseasonal with high temperatures and
rainfall throughout the year. Introduction of Acacia species in Brunei
Fig. 2. CO2 Emissions contribution from different

sectors in Brunei Darussalam [56].
3062
4. Potential of Acacia species for bioenergy production
Acacia species meet the criteria in general set for the species to be an
ideal energy crop by McKendry, 2002 which are (i) high yield of bio-
mass per hectare, (ii) less energy input to grow, (iii) minimum cost
requirement for cultivation (iv) should produce biomass with minimum
contaminants and minimum external nutrient requirements to grow
[17]. Acacia species have been potentially investigated to have good
thermochemical properties required to produce biofuels via thermo-
chemical processes. In Brunei Darussalam, Acacia species are abundant
in invaded habitats. As a potential management solution to the problem
of Acacia invasion, these Acacia can potentially provide biomass supply
for bioenergy production via thermochemical conversion processes. For
continuous energy production, sustainable supply of biomass feedstock
and decent thermochemical properties of biomass feed stock are very
important; for Acacia species these are discussed below.
4.1. Biomass accumulation from Acacia species
Calculations regarding the biomass production from the source

Fig. 4. Acacia auriculiformis in Brunei Darussalam. plays very important role in sustainable management of feedstock re-
sources and in designing the process by estimating the carbon re-
sources. Any mistake or overlook in terms biomass estimation can cause
serious setbacks to the energy production project [63]. Mass of trees
grown above ground divided by area, harvested in a specific time is
called above ground standing biomass of tree and the change in
standing biomass in an area per specific time is called productivity.
Biomass productivity of tree species in specific area helps in calculating
the biomass that can be extracted continuously for required application.
The standing biomass of the specie per area is estimated by the harvest
method or by using allometric equations. Using allometric equations
are an effective way of estimating the biomass of trees [64] as harvest
method requires the harvesting of trees and then weighing which is
very hectic and time taking exercise. In literature various studies are
reported in relevance to calculate the above ground biomass of Acacia
species showing satisfactory quantity of biomass production per hectare
to ensure the sustainability of the feedstock for biofuels production
processes. Acacia species are evergreen trees and can generate large
quantities of biomass per annum. Acacia mangium can grow up to 30 m
height with straight trunk. The colour of the bark varies from pale grey-
brown to brown. Mean stem diameter of mature Acacia mangium tree
can reach up to 60 cm. Mature Acacia mangium trees drop their leaves
and instead the leaf stalks are modified into leaf-like structures called
phyllodes which are found to be 25 cm in length and 10 cm in width
Fig. 5. Acacia cincinnata in Brunei Darussalam.
approximately depending on the growing soil conditions [57]. Acacia
auriculiformis can grow up to 28 m in height, having straight trunk up to
12 m long and average stem diameter up to 50 cm. Phyllodes of Acacia
auriculiformis are usually dark green coloured with length between 10
and 20 cm [65]. Acacia cincinnata grows up to 10 − 25 m tree height
having stem diameter up to 60 cm [25].
The above ground biomass contribution for Acacia mangium comes
from stems, branches, bark and phyllodes as 55–80%, 10–22%, 7–10%
and 2–9% respectively depending on the growing conditions [66];
while, another study shows contribution from stems, branches, roots
and phyllodes as 63–71%, 11–17%, 14–16% and 2–10% respectively
[67]. Biomass productivity varies with respect to age, soil conditions,
gaps between the tress and location of the species. Various researchers
have estimated the biomass accumulation rate for Acacia species at
different age groups and locations. The studies are summarized in
Table 2.
4.2. Thermochemical properties of Acacia biomass
Information about the biomass properties of any specie is very im-

portant for its better utilization. Thermochemical characterization of
Fig. 6. Acacia holosericea in Brunei Darussalam.
biomass prior to its use as feedstock for thermochemical conversion
3063
Table 2
Biomass accumulation from Acacia mangium and Acacia auriculiformis with respect to different age and location.
Specie Name Country Age (years) Stem (ton/ha) Branches (ton/ha) Bark (ton/ha) Leaf (ton/ha) Total Biomass Accumulation (ton/ha) Reference
Acacia mangium Indonesia 1 5.20 1.70 3.70 1.70 12.30 [68]

Acacia mangium Philippines 1 – – – – 14.38 [69]
Acacia mangium Sabah, Malaysia 4 57.60 14.10 – 5.40 90.40 [70]
Acacia mangium Indonesia 5 – – – – 169.60 [71]
Acacia mangium Indonesia 5 29.80 8.30 – 2.40 47.50 [67]
Acacia auriculiformis Philippines 10 – – – – 70.84 [72]
Acacia auriculiformis Bangladesh 18 – – – – 211.10 [73]
Acacia auriculiformis Philippines 20 – – – – 149.25 [72]
process is necessary. Proximate analysis, ultimate analysis, composi- Table 4

tional analysis, heating value analysis, FTIR analysis, thermogravi- Summary of compositional analysis of Acacia mangium reported in the various in-
vestigations.
metric (TGA) and derivative thermogravimetric (DTG) analyses are
done to know suitability of biomass for its thermochemical conversion Country Compositional Analysis (wt%) Reference
[74]. Physical properties of biomass such as biomass type, density,
particles size, physical appearance and specific gravity are also im- Cellulose Hemicellulose Lignin Extractives
portant [75,76]. Standard procedures such as American Society of
Cuba 42.11 28.3 29.80 - [89]
Testing Materials (ASTM) methods are followed to find out the calorific Cuba 48.44 23.93 27.11 - [89]
values and to perform the proximate analysis of biomass [77–80]. Ul- Indonesia 44.69 22.39 27.91 5.55 [95]
timate analyses are used to determine the elemental composition of Thailand 43.99 30.14 23.71 4.27 [36]
biomass, and are performed through CHNSO analyzer. Compositional Cuba 44.05 - 29.70 4.45 [91]
Indonesia 70.90 27.55 4.05 [99]
analyses of biomass show the percentage composition of cellulose,
Indonesia 72.14 29.91 6.76 [97]
hemicellulose, lignin and organic extractives. Compositional analyses Bottom Bottom
show whether a biomass is more suitable for bio-oil or solid biochar 23.30 2.20
production; they also give idea about the composition of the products. Indonesia - - Middle Middle [98]
Biomass rich in cellulose and hemicellulose contents tend to yield 24.30 3.70
Top Top
higher percentages of liquid oil while higher lignin percentage indicates 21.60 1.40
suitability to produce more biochar [75]. Acacia species show biomass
composition comparable to standard lignocellulosic biomass. Density of
air dried Acacia mangium biomass ranges between 0.5–0.6 g/cm3 with analysis, the weight percentages of volatile matter, moisture contents,
moisture content up to 12% [81–83]; while its specific gravity range is fixed carbon and ash contents for Acacia mangium are reported in the
between 0.4 and 0.45 [84]. Proximate analysis and ultimate analysis of range of 64.40–88.30%, 3.78–13.60%, 11.30–26.46% and 0.24 –3.77%
Acacia mangium along with the higher heating values and density re- respectively. Ultimate analysis of Acacia mangium reported the weight
ported in literature are summarized in Table 3 while the compositional percentages of Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Sulphur and Oxygen ele-
analysis are given in Table 4. Variation in the biomass properties with ments in the range of 44.01–56.90%, 3.94–6.71%, 0.2–1.11%, 0–0.02%
respect to location of trees can be seen in the table. In proximate and 39.65–48.26% respectively. Higher heating values of Acacia
Table 3
Summary of proximate analysis, ultimate analysis, heating value and density of Acacia mangium reported in the various investigations.
Country Proximate Analysis (wt%) Ultimate Analysis (wt%) HHV (MJ/Kg) Wood density (gm/cm3) Reference
MC VM FC Ash C O H N S
Thailand 10.86 79.60 16.63 3.77 47.60 47.85 3.94 0.59 0.02 – – [88]
Cuba 11.70 82.43 16.18 0.78 45.45 48.02 6.60 0.23 – 16.96 – [89]
Cuba 10.50 88.30 11.30 0.45 47.37 45.46 6.06 1.11 – 16.97 – [89]
India – 84.00 14.97 1.03 50.22 43.01 5.90 – – 19.20 – [90]
Cuba 3.78 82.43 17.57 0.97 45.45 48.26 6.30 0.23 – – – [91]
Columbia 5.79 73.25 26.46 0.29 53.02 39.65 6.71 0.33 0.02 18.694 – [92]
Papua New Guinea – – – 1.14 46.87 44.83 6.36 0.44 – 18.960 0.34 [93]
Indonesia 9.11 72.55 17.30 1.04 44.01 39.79 5.41 – – 17.84 0.64 [94]
Indonesia – 82.01 17.47 0.52 – – – – – – – [95]
Brazil – 83.94 14.94 1.12 48.93 43.44 6.06 0.43 0.02 19.50 – [96]
Indonesia - - - 0.55 48.90 44.50 5.90 0.20 – 19.70 – [97]
Indonesia Bottom Bottom Bottom Bottom Bottom Bottom Bottom Bottom
13.60 64.40 21.60 0.31 53.80 45.00 17.00 0.43
Middle Middle Middle Middle Middle Middle – – – Middle Middle [98]
10.80 66.00 23.00 0.25 56.90 41.80 17.50 0.35
Top Top Top Top Top Top Top Top
12.60 65.40 21.80 0.24 51.60 48.00 16.60 0.41
MC: Moisture Contents; VM: Volatile Matter; FC: Fixed Carbon; HHV: Higher Heating Value.
3064
Table 5
Summary of proximate analysis, ultimate analysis, heating value and density of Acacia auriculiformis reported in the various investigations.
Country Proximate Analysis (Wt. %) Ultimate Analysis (Wt. %) HHV (MJ/Kg) Density (gm/Cm3) Reference
MC VM FC Ash C O H N S
Cambodia - - - 0.87 48.45 44.27 6.12 0.26 - 20.00 - [100]

India - 81.30 18.40 0.30 47.70 46.32 5.84 0.14 - 20.06 0.651 [38]
Thailand 6.07 64.46 20.15 9.32 29.74 63.35 5.16 1.75 - 19.85 - [86]
Malaysia - - - - - - - - - - 0.64 [39]
Bottom Bottom Bottom Bottom Bottom Bottom Bottom Bottom
13.30 64.80 21.40 0.42 52.40 47.30 17.20 0.53
Indonesia Middle Middle Middle Middle Middle Middle Middle Middle [98]
11.20 65.70 22.70 0.36 53.10 42.80 17.40 0.44
Top Top Top Top Top Top - - - Top Top
13.00 65.60 21.20 0.25 48.80 43.70 16.80 0.38
MC: Moisture Contents; VM: Volatile Matter; FC: Fixed Carbon; HHV: Higher Heating Value
mangium as reported in different studies range between 16.60 and 19.70 and most importantly the quality and yields of biofuels products.
MJ/Kg. Compositional analysis of Acacia mangium are reported for the
weight percentages of cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin components and
organic extractives in the range of 42.11–48.44%, 22.39–30.14%, 5. Thermochemical options to produce energy from Acacia species
23.30–29.91% and 1.4–6.76% respectively.
Density of Acacia auriculiformis as reported in the literature ranges A wide range of biochemical and thermochemical processes can be
between 0.50–0.65 g/cm3 [38,39,85]. Proximate analysis and ultimate employed to produce bioenergy in terms of biofuels and other bio-
analysis of Acacia auriculiformis as reported in literature along with products utilizing Acacia biomass as feedstock. In this study only
higher heating values and density are summarized in Table 5; while the thermochemical conversion options are discussed as these seem more
compositional analysis is given in Table 6. In proximate analysis, the applicable for Brunei Darussalam. Thermochemical conversion of bio-
range of weight percentages of volatile matter, moisture contents and mass to produce bioenergy in terms of biofuels and bio-products is
fixed carbon and ash contents for Acacia auriculiformis are achieved by controlling the heating rate under inert, controlled oxida-
64.46–81.30%, 6.07–11.20%, 18.40–22.70% and 0.25–0.87% respec- tion or combustion conditions following number of pathways to give
tively. One study has reported the ash contents up to 9.32% which is out intermediate energy products or direct heat [101]. Processes de-
likely because the researcher used samples from the residues of pulp veloped under thermochemical conversion of biomass are pyrolysis,
and paper industry [86]. Ultimate analysis as reported in literature for gasification, liquefaction and direct combustion [97,102,103]. Differ-
Acacia auriculiformis the weight percentages of Carbon, Hydrogen, Ni- entiation among these processes is based on the oxidation environment
trogen, Sulphur and Oxygen elements ranged between 29.74–48.80%, of biomass ranging from inert to fully exothermic oxidation, heating
5.16–6.12%, 0.14–1.75% and 42.80–63.35% with negligible Sulphur rate and particle size of the biomass.
contents. The range of higher heating values of Acacia mangium re- Thermal decomposition of biomass under oxygen free condition is
ported in different studies is between 16.80 and 20.06 MJ/Kg. Com- called Pyrolysis. The products from pyrolysis include a heterogeneous
positional analyses of Acacia auriculiformis showed the range of weight mixture of liquid oil which is often called as pyrolysis oil, non-con-
percentage of cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin components and organic densable gases, and solid char often named as biochar [104]. Pyrolysis
extractives as 36.15–49.02%, 13.78–20.10%, 16.63–44.88% and in comparison to liquefaction has proved to be a more viable option to
2.30–5.56% respectively. Characterization of Acacia mangium and produce liquid oil from biomass as it has low installation and operating
Acacia auriculiformis biomass reported in literature showed their suit- cost; and its process conditions are easy to maintain [105].
ability as feedstocks for thermochemical processes to produce biofuels. Gasification of biomass is adopted to produce higher yield of gas-
From Brunei Darussalam perspective; comprehensive knowledge about eous product enriched with CO, H2, CH4 and CO2 gases. This can be
the thermochemical properties of all Acacia species available in Brunei achieved by optimizing process conditions under controlled oxidation
Darussalam would still be required prior to their utilization as these of biomass. This gas contains few impurities and after purification can
properties can vary considerably with changes in location and growing be used as fuel directly or can be converted to chemical feedstock via
conditions [87]. Any major change in the properties of biomass feed- biological fermentation and catalytic upgrading [106,107].
stock can affect the process designing, performance, associated costs Liquefaction of biomass to produce bio oil is still under development
phase. In this process, a superheated solvent under highly pressurized
conditions is used to cause more penetration of solvent into biomass
Table 6
Summary of compositional analysis of Acacia auriculiformis reported in the various in-
molecules resulting in greater decomposition of biomass to liquid oil.
vestigations. This process is more flexible to the moisture contents of biomass and
can deal with wide range of biomasses [108]. Combustion is the ther-
Country Compositional Analysis (wt%) Reference mochemical process in which biomass is burned in excess oxygen or
open air to produce heat and flue gases. A complete chart of biomass
Cellulose Hemicellulose Lignin Extractives
conversion to bioenergy along with intermediate products is shown in
Russia 49.02 20.10 25.16 5.56 [85] the Fig. 7. Research studies using Acacia species as feedstock of ther-
Brazil 36.15 13.78 44.88 4.84 [35] mochemical conversion processes including pyrolysis, gasification, li-
Thailand 67.53 16.63 - [86]
quefaction and combustion are summarized in Table 8. It is important
Bottom Bottom
24.60 3.30 to mention that Acacia mangium and Acacia auriculiformis are the spe-
Indonesia - - Middle Middle [98] cies commonly investigated for bioenergy production and till date no
24.30 3.60 significant work has been reported on the bioenergy potential of Acacia
Top Top cincinnata and Acacia holosericea by using thermochemical conversion
21.60 2.30
processes.
3065
Fig. 7. Overview of the thermochemical conversion of Acacia biomass to bioenergy [101,109].
Table 7 can be condensed to produce liquid oil usually called as bio oil.
Chemical compounds detected by GC-MS in the bio-oil obtained from the pyrolysis of Cellulose contents in biomass contribute for the production of CO, CO2
Acacia auriculiformis residues from paper mill industry [86].
and H2, while hemicellulose for CO2, H2O with some hydrocarbons; and
Retention Time (min) Compounds Peak area lignin contents contribute mainly for the production of CO, CO2, CH4
(%) and char [110]. Pyrolysis process can be classified as slow pyrolysis,
fast pyrolysis and flash pyrolysis on the basis of heating rate of biomass.
2.643 1-propen−2-ol 0.04
Yield percentage of the resulting products varies significantly by
2.912 1,3-Cyclopentanedione 10.57
2.998 1H-Pyrazole, 4,5-dihydro−1,5- 4.13 changing type of pyrolysis process selected; even with same biomass
dimethyl- feedstock [75]. On the basis of pyrolytic environment of biomass,
3.115 2,3 dimethl−2-cyclopenten−1-one 1.13 pyrolysis can be classified as hydrous-pyrolysis, hydro-pyrolysis, va-
3.435 2-Pentanone, 4-hydroxy−4-methyl- 28.72 cuum pyrolysis, oxidative pyrolysis and catalytic pyrolysis [111].
3.561 1,2-benzenediol 1.86
Research studies have reported the pyrolysis of various Acacia
5.561 2-Cyclopenten−1-one, 3-methyl- 1.57
5.638 Phenol 1.16 species using different heating rates and reaction conditions. Generally,
5.712 Phenol,2-methoxy 1.02 four stages of biomass decomposition are observed in the pyrolysis of
6.017 Phenol,3,4-dimethyl- 0.3 Acacia species. Every stage proceeds over a different temperature range,
6.112 Piperidine, 3-methyl- 0.83
while overlapping of the stages also exist. Each stage represents de-
6.439 2-Cyclopenten−1-one, 2-hydroxy−3- 0.35
methyl-
composition of specific component of biomass producing a mix of
7.714 4-Piperidinone, 2,2,6,6-tetramethyl- 10.82 pyrolysis products. Usually the first stage of Acacia pyrolysis is asso-
8.935 .beta.-(N-tert-Butylformamido) acrolein 3.54 ciated with the removal of moisture from the biomass, starting from
9.315 1,4:3,6-Dianhydro-.alpha.-d- 0.5 room temperature and lasts up to 130 °C approximately. In the second
glucopyranose
stage, hemicellulose contents start to break down at 200 °C and con-
12.998 d-Allose 1.84
17.915 Hexadecanoic acid 0.17 tinue up to approximately 270 °C. During this stage primarily non-
18.752 Cyclohexane, hexaethylidene- 0.07 condensable vapor and some bio-oil is produced. Third stage of biomass
20.912 Benzene, 1,1′-sulfonylbis[4-chloro- 1.44 decomposition ranges between 270 °C and 380 °C is associated with the
21.038 Benzene, 1,1′-sulfonylbis[4-chloro- 1.44
decomposition of cellulose contents producing some condensable
21.967 hexanadioic acid bis(2-ethylhexyl) ester 0.75
23.336 Benzene, 1-butyl−4- 0.06
vapor, bio-oil and char. In the fourth stage lignin is decomposed around
temperature range of 280–500 °C producing bio-oil and char.
Researchers have reported the four stage decomposition for other bio-
5.1. Pyrolysis masses of similar types [112,113]. While pyrolyzing Acacia species
particularly Acacia mangium and Acacia auriculiformis the temperature
Thermal decomposition of biomass under oxygen free conditions is range between 250 and 400 °C is very important as maximum decom-
called Pyrolysis. The products from pyrolysis include a heterogeneous position of hemicellulose and cellulose takes place during this range
mixture of gases, liquid oil which is often called as pyrolysis oil and giving out maximum condensable gases to produce bio-oil. Montesino
solid char often named as biochar. In pyrolysis process, chemical con- et al., 2015 studied the pyrolysis of Acacia mangium wood with out and
stituents of biomass including cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin are with bark to produce biochar, bio oil and gases [89]. Yields of pyrolysis
decomposed at high temperature resulting in mixture of gases and products reported in weight percentage for gases, liquid, water and char
charcoal. Some of these resulting gases from biomass decompositions in the case of wood without bark as 23.18%, 25.45%, 32.35% and
3066
Table 8
Summary of the recent research investigations reported on thermochemical conversion of Acacia species.
Acacia Specie Process and Reactor Temp range, Products Yields (%) Products Characterization (%) Findings and the Reference
A. Ahmed et al.
Specifications heating rate Comments on Study

and time
Acacia mangium Pyrolysis 400-500 °C (A1) (A2) Gas (A1) Gas (A2) Bio Oil (A1) Bio Oil (A2) • Maximum de- [89]
without Vertical furnace 10 (°C min-1) Gases = 23.18 Gases = 26.9 H2 = 2.81 H2 = 0.55 Aliphatic HC = 1 Aliphatic volatilization of
bark (A1) D=8 cm 2 hours Liquids = 25.45 Liquids = 24.31 O2 = 7.45 O2 = 3.26 Aromatic HC = HC=1 biomass occurred
Acacia mangium L = 30 cm Water = 32.35 Water = 32.07 N2 = 59.20 N2 = 56.03 33 Aromatic between 250 ± 20 up
with bark Char = 18.91 Char = 17.43 CH4 = 3.92 CH4 = 3.77 Oxy. Com.= 55 HC=4 to 380 ± 20 °C.
(A2) CO = 17.01 CO=27.25 Nit. Com. = 9 Oxy. • In pyrolytic
CO2 = 9.61 CO2 = 9.12 Others = 2 Comp.=84 degradation of Acacia
CV = 3858.7 KJ/m3 CV = 4859.4 KJ/m3 Nitro. mangium with bark
Comp=10 kinetic study showed
Others = 1 less activation energy
values may be
because of catalytic
activity of ash in the
bark.
• The values of
correlation coefficient
for both cases
indicated the
reliability of first
order reaction model.
Acacia mangium Pyrolysis 250 -600°C - Char at 600 °C Gas at 600 °C (Vol %) • Acacia mangium along [88]
Fixed bed 50 (°C min-1) Volatile Matter = 67 % lost from initial valueFixed CO = 46CO2 = 16(N2+O2) = 14CH4 with two other short
D=40 mm 3 hours Carbon = increased up to 65.23 % from the initial = 24HHV = 15.33 MJ/Nm3 rotation species were
3067
L = 140 mm value studied to know their
Cap. = 20 g biofuel potentials.
• Volume of CH4 in the
product gas increases
with temperature
hence increasing HHV
of product gas.
• In this study Acacia
mangium is
recommended to be
used as feedstock to
produce gaseous
product.
Acacia mangium Pyrolysis 270 - 500 °C Temp = 500 °C, HR = 10 °Cmin-1 & PS = Bio Oil Characterisation • Experimental study [115]
0.4 mm was conducted by two
Lab scale furnace 15 (°C min-1) Bio Oil = 32.9 Phenol and derivatives = 40.22 experimental models;
(10 gm) Biochar = 26.3 Furans and derivatives = 17.44 two level factorial
N2 = 100 mL min-1 Gases = 25.3 Ketones = 16.05 design (TLFD) and
Water = 15.4 Alcohols = 14.27 response surface
Nitrogen compounds = 4.56 methodology
Others = 7.47 (RSM–BB).
• TLFD was used to find
the effect of
temperature, heating
rate and particle size
on the bio oil
production while
RSM–BB was
employed to find the
(continued on next page)
Table 8 (continued)
A. Ahmed et al.
and time
Optimisation of the
process parameters.
• Statistical analysis
predicted optimum
yield of bio oil as
33.13% at
temperature of
499.57 °C, heating
rate of 12 °C min-1
and particle size of
0.46 mm while the
highest yield obtained
experimentally was
32.9%.
Acacia mangium Pyrolysis 25 – 800 °C - - • Values of activation [91]
Thermogravimetric 5–15 (°C energy, pre-
Study min-1) exponential factors
and contribution
factor were similar to
other same type
biomass when
calculated using
independent parallel
reaction model.
3068
• Less than 3%
deviation was
predicted between the
experimental and
model curve at
different heating rates
confirming the
suitability of model to
study pyrolysis.
Acacia mangium Pyrolysis 773 K COAC POAC CO Activated Carbon PO Activated Carbon • Acacia mangium wood [124]
steel-capped Constant 70.27 ± 0.93 73.30 ± 0.20 Carbon = 74.72 Carbon = 54.31 was used to prepare
graphite reactor Temp for Burn off Burn off Oxygen = 18.89 Oxygen = 17.92 activated carbons by
30 gm wood + 15 2 hours percentage percentage Chlorine = 2.15 Phosphorous = 5.58 pyrolyzing in the
gm of activating Calcium = 4.24 Potassium = 22.19 presence of calcium
agent oxide (COAC) and
potassium hydroxide
(KOH) as basic
activating agents.
• • A strong influence of
activating agents was
observed on the
surface functional
group and elemental
composition of
activated carbon.
Acacia Pyrolysis 380 – 580 °C Bio Oil Char Gas Bio Oil • Optimization of bio [86]
auriculi- Continues 10 (°C min-1) Bio oil = 53.38 - - C = 42.73 oil production,
formis screw feed reactor 2 hours Aromatic contents (bio oil) = 27.19 H = 8.28 aromatic contents and
of N = 0.86 acidity was done by
Table 8 (continued)
A. Ahmed et al.
and time
L=120 cm O = 48.13 using 2 level factorial

Feed rate = 120 to PH = 3.2 experimental designs.
240 rpm Acid No = 78 mg KOH/g • The optimum
HHV = 26.82 MJ/kg pyrolysis condition to
produce maximum
yield of bio oil were
reported as 515.18 °C
temperature, 120.01
rpm of feed rate and
20 cm3/min of
nitrogen flow using 5
wt. % of Dolomite
catalyst.
• The ash content in the
biomass is reported as
9.32 % which is on
higher side which
may be is because of
some contaminations
present in the biomass
as pulp and paper
industry residue is
used in the study.
Acacia mearnsii Pyrolysis 25 – 900 °C - - • In this study the [120]
3069
Studied by TGA 2–50 (°Cmin- effects of heating rate
1
and DSC analyses ) and pyrolysis
environment (N2 and
Air) is studied by
determining the
efficiency and kinetic
parameters of the
process.
• The results showed
that lower heating
rate with air
environment in
pyrolysis ensure the
complete
decomposition of the
process.
Acacia Gasification - - - • Characterization of [100]
auriculi- potential feedstocks is
formis done to find out their
and suitability for the
Acacia gasification process
mangium and to make
suggestion.
• Potential of biomass
gasification for the
electrification of rural
area in Cambodia is
studied using
Table 8 (continued)
A. Ahmed et al.
and time
geographic and
economic databases.
• Cost per unit of
electricity from
biomass gasification
would be less than
cost from diesel
generation if the plant
capacity factor
exceeds by 13 %
Acacia Gasification chip size = Producer Gas Producer Gas Composition (Vol %) • This study concluded [92]
mangium Downdraft fixed 4 –10 mm Gas mixture containing CO, CO2, CH4 A. mangium G Arborea Euca. Sp Pinus sp P patula that the species with
bed reactor Superficial and H2 CO = 13.0CO2 = CO = 11.0CO2 = CO = CO = CO = 14.0CO2 higher bulk density
I.D= 0.102 m velocity = 18.0CH4 = 1.8H2 = 1.5 17.0CH4 = 1.5H2 = 3.0 13CO2 = 14CO2 = = 16.0CH4 = and higher heating
OD=0.185 m 0.1 ms-1 16CH4 = 16CH4 = 1.5H2 = 3.0 value with low
bed length = 0.4 m atmospheric 1.5H2 = 1.5H2 = moisture contents
pressure 4.0 3.0 perform well during
the gasification
process.
• Acacia mangium was
found to be low
efficient in
comparison to the
other species used in
3070
study which was may
be because of the
lower bulk density of
the wood.
Acacia mangium Liquefaction 300 °C Yield (organic Yield (mass Bio Oil Residue • Eighteen different [97]
Autoclave (Cap. P = 10 MPa basis) balance of Carbon) species of biomass
300 ml) Time = 30 Oil = 31.7 Oil = 46.2 C = 71.7 C = 70.5 were studied for their
10 gm biomass+ min Gas = 16.1 Gas = 9.6 H = 6.5 H = 4.7 liquefaction at 300 °C
100ml water + Residue = 7.9 Residue = 11.4 N = 0.4 N = 0.5 and 10 MPa pressure
0.05 gm Na2CO3 Aqueous = 14.2 Aqueous = 29.8 O = 21.5 O = 23.8 using hot compressed
catalyst Loss = 30.2 Loss = 3.0 Ash = - Ash = 0.6 water as solvent with
L.C.V = 29.8 (MJ/Kg) L.C.V = 26.3 (MJ/Kg) sodium carbonate
catalyst.
• Bio oil was produced
by having calorific
values comparable
with high quality
coal.
• Liquefaction process
to produce bioenergy
from biomass in terms
of biofuels and other
bio-products showed
significant potential
in this study.
Fig. 8. TGA and DTG curves of Acacia mangium wood without

bark [89].
18.91% respectively; and for wood with bark as 26.9%, 24.31%, Acacia mangium biomass taking place between 300 – 400 °C by studying
32.07% and 17.43% respectively. Prior to pyrolysis TGA and DTG tests pyrolysis from room temperature up to 800 °C. The values of kinetic
of the samples were carried out to explain the decomposition stages of parameters of the reactions such as activation energy, pre-exponential
biomass and confirmed that 2 h′ time would be required for the pyr- factor and contribution factors calculated using independent parallel
olysis process [89]. TGA and DTG curves showed maximum decom- reaction model were similar to the other biomasses of similar type re-
position of biomass components in the temperature range of ported in literature [91]. Another study reported the effect of pyrolysis
250 ± 20 °C to 380 ± 20 °C confirming the four stages decomposition temperature (from 250 − 600 °C) on the char and non-condensable
patron. First stage showed the 10 – 15% weight loss of sample re- gases production for Acacia mangium in a fixed bed reactor. Decrease in
presenting the loss of moisture and extractable components. During the the volatile matter of biochar produced with the increase in fixed
second and third stage of weight loss between 250 and 380 °C most of carbon contents was reported with the increase in temperature. Me-
the hemicellulose and cellulose components were decomposed ac- thane production was increased with temperature rise and was reported
counting for approximately 60–70% of the total mass. Fourth stage of as 23.47% of the gas produced; while concentration of carbon dioxide
decomposition reached 800 °C, where about 90% of the initial mass of decreased with rise in temperature. Higher yield of methane in product
sample was lost [89]. During decomposition of biomass, mainly in gas caused an increase in the higher heating of the gas and its maximum
lignin a rearrangement of the carbon atoms present in original structure value was achieved at 600 °C as 15.33 MJ/Nm3 concluding its possible
takes place. Decomposition behavior of cellulose, hemicelluloses and use as fuel for kilns, steam boilers and internal combustion engines
lignin indicates the structural stability of biomass. Yang et al., 2006 [88]. Crespo et al., [115] conducted the experimental study by two
reported maximum weight loss in terms of hemicellulose decomposition experimental models; two level factorial design (TLFD) and response
observed at 268 °C as 80%; for cellulose at 400 °C as 94.5% and for surface methodology (RSM–BB). TLFD was used to find out the effect of
lignin even at 900 °C only 54.3% [114]. It can be concluded that higher temperature, heating rate and particle size on the bio oil production
yield of bio-oil is dependent on the hemicellulose, cellulose components while RSM–BB was employed to find the optimisation of the process
not on adopting higher pyrolysis temperature and that lignin majorly parameters. Statistical analysis predicted the optimum yield of bio oil as
contributes for the char production. TGA and DTG curves of Acacia 33.13% at temperature of 499.57 °C, heating rate of 12 °C min−1 and
mangium wood without and with bark are given in Fig. 8 and Fig. 9. particle size of 0.46 mm, while the highest yield obtained experimen-
Crespo et al., [91] reported the maximum thermal degradation of tally was 32.9% at temperature of 500 °C, heating rate of 10 °C min−1
Fig. 9. TGA and DTG curves of Acacia mangium wood with bark
[89].
3071
and particle size of 0.4 mm [115]. Catalytic pyrolysis of Acacia aur- gasifying agent [128]. Gasification process can be used for the biomass
iculiformis residues from pulp and paper mill is reported using dolomite having moisture contents lower than 35%. Using biomass with high
catalyst to find out the optimum bio oil production conditions us con- moisture percentage directly in gasifier results in the great loss of en-
tinuous screw feeder reactor between the temperature range of 380 – ergy. It is recommended to dry biomass between 10 – 20% moisture
580 °C and 20–80 Cm3/min of Nitrogen as carrier gas. The optimum contents before feeding in gasifier [129,130]. Abe et al., 2008 studied
pyrolysis condition were reported as 515.18 °C temperature, the potential of gasification of biomass from fast growing species in-
120.01 rpm of feed rate and 20 Cm3/min of Nitrogen flow rate and 5% cluding Acacia mangium and Acacia auriculiformis for the rural elec-
weight of dolomite catalyst. Results showed that the Acacia aur- trification in Cambodia [100]. These species can produce biomass at
iculiformis residues can be used for the production of biofuels and other higher rates to ensure sustainable feedstock for gasification in rural
valuable chemicals. Chemicals compounds detected in the bio oil by areas. Cost per unit of electricity generated from biomass gasification
GC-MS are given in Table 7 [86]. Bio oil is dark brown organic liquid could be less than cost from diesel generation if the plant capacity
which can flow freely. Limitations with bio oil exist that they cannot be factor exceeds by 13% [100]. Musinguzi et al., 2013 reported the
used directly as fuels. This is because of high oxygen contents; viscosity; suitability of Acacia hockii and three other biomass species grown in
corrosiveness; complex chemical composition and relatively instable Uganda for their gasification by studying thermochemical properties.
nature during storage. In order to use them as direct fuels they are High volatile and low ash contents ensure the suitability of the species
upgraded to enhance their fuel properties. Various methods are avail- for gasification process [131]. Lenis et al., 2013 studied the effects of
able to upgrade bio oils to fuel oil such as catalytic cracking of pyrolysis biomass moisture content, bulk density, heating value, and H/C molar
vapors, hydrodeoxygenation, extracting chemicals and esterification ratio on the gasification of Acacia mangium and four other forest species
[116–119]. The effect of heating rate and reaction conditions using N2 using down draft fixed be reactor in conjunction to use them for elec-
and Air was reported for Acacia mearnsii (black wattle) studying the tricity production in Columbia. Acacia mangium showed different be-
efficiency and kinetics parameters of the pyrolysis using TGA and dif- havior as compared to the other species in study with LHVg from 2.5 −
ferential scanning calorimetry (DSC) [120]. Pyrolysis process can be 3.0 MJ/Nm3, and cold gas efficiency of 25.8% and 30.9%. As concluded
adopted for the Acacia species to produce bio oil, bio char and gases. low efficiency due to the low fuel/air equivalence ratio caused by the
Yield and quality of the desired products can be enhanced by selecting lower bulk density of Acacia mangium wood [92]. Sharma et al., 2008
the appropriate type of pyrolysis process and by varying the process have conducted experimental study by developing downdraft gasifier
parameters. Fast pyrolysis process is adopted if the more yield of bio oil system to produce 75kWh electricity [132]. The gas produced from
is desired; while slow pyrolysis can be adopted to produce more biochar gasification of biomass usually contains some impurities and it is re-
and less bio oil [121,122]. Difference among different types of pyrolysis quired to remove those impurities by treatment of gas. These impurities
process is based on the heating rate of biomass and vapor residence can include very fine particles, some tar, nitrogen, sulphur and alkali
time. compounds. Management of higher molecular weight particles is a
From Brunei Darussalam perspective, utilization of upgraded bio oil major challenge in gasification as they condense to form tars; these tars
in power generation and transportation sectors can contribute to the such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons can cause fouling in the
energy requirements of the country. Bio char is also a very useful process lines and also environmental pollution [133]. Syngas or pro-
product and have the potential to be used in many sectors such as in ducer gas produced through the gasification of Acacia species can be
agriculture as fertilizers; animal farming sector as feed supplement; in potentially used as direct fuel in a furnace, steam boilers, engine or
building sector for insulation, air decontamination, decontamination of turbine. Producer gas can mix easily with chemical catalysts and can be
earth foundations and humidity regulation; for soil decontamination; in converted into useful chemicals and materials. The gas generated is an
biogas production; for the wastewater treatment; for drinking water easy and efficient way to utilize biomass rather than using it in its
treatment; in textile sector; for wellness purposes like filling in mat- original biomass form.
tresses and pillows and to provide shield against electromagnetic ra-
diations [123], while the non-combustible gases from the pyrolysis of 5.3. Liquefaction
Acacia species can be uses for preheating or drying of the biomass prior
feeding it to the reactor. Liquefaction of Acacia or any other biomass is another potential
thermochemical process to produce bioenergy from biomass in terms of
5.2. Gasification biofuels and other bio-products. Both direct and indirect liquefaction of
biomass can be carried out. Hydrothermal liquefaction and rapid pyr-
Gasification is a thermochemical process in which biomass or fossil olysis of the biomass feedstock is carried out in case of direct lique-
carbonaceous materials are burned in (> 700 °C) limited supply of faction to produce tars, oils and condensable vapors. While in the case
gasifying agents to produce gaseous products rich in carbon monoxide, of indirect liquefaction; catalysts are applied for the conversion of non-
hydrogen, carbon dioxide, and methane [125,126]. Gasifying agents condensable and vapors to the liquid bio oil [2]. Compounds having
can be air, pure oxygen and steam etc. or a mixture of these agents. In macromolecular structure are broken down to the lighter molecule
gasification process combustible gases are produced by converting the fragments and from these fragment reactive one re-polymerize to form
inherent chemical energy of the carbon in biomass in two stages. The bio oil. Important factors determining the quantity and quality of bio oil
properties of the biomass feedstock and its pre-treatment are the key from biomass in case of direct liquefaction are type of biomass being
parameters to design a gasification system. Important feedstock prop- used as feedstock, solvent for the liquefaction, catalyst used, ratios of
erties include the moisture, ash, alkalis and volatile contents of the solvent to biomass, temperature and pressure of the reactor. Catalysts
biomass while pre-treatment of biomass includes its drying, size re- are widely applied in direct liquefaction processes with purpose to
duction, fractionation and leaching [127]. Three different product gas minimize the char formation which results in the increase of liquid oil
qualities with respect to its calorific value can be achieved by varying product [134]. A supply of hydrogen gas during the liquefaction process
the gasifying agent for process, process operating conditions and is also found to be effective to increase the liquid oil yield and to
method of operation. High calorific value, medium calorific value and minimize the oxygen contents in the oil [135].
low calorific value gas product can be achieved. Usually, low calorific Water can be used as solvent and has few advantages over organic
value gas (CV = 4–6 MJ / Nm3) is obtained by using air and steam/air solvents from economic and environmental aspects but, major dis-
gasifying agent; medium calorific value (CV = 12–18 MJ/Nm3) gas is advantage associated with water is its higher critical point and its dis-
obtained by using oxygen and steam gasifying agent and high calorific ability to absorb water insoluble components. Typically the water in-
value (CV = 40 MJ/Nm3) gas by using hydrogen and hydrogenation soluble components have higher heating values as compared to the
3072
soluble components because of the presence of high oxygen contents in 6. Brunei Darussalam perspective
the water soluble components [136]. It is preferred to use organic
solvents for liquefaction of biomass such as ethanol, 2-propanol, 6.1. Environmental aspects
acetone, and tetralin so that the concentration of the less oxygenated
components can be increased in the bio oil. Brunei Darussalam is the largest emitter of CO2 per capita in the
Minova et al., [97] have reported the liquefaction of 18 different region of South East Asia [44]. Electricity generation and transport
types of biomass feedstocks including Acacia mangium and other species sectors are the major contributors of CO2 emissions in the country as
from Indonesia. Hot compressed water was used as solvent with shown in Fig. 2 [56]. Almost all the power generation in Brunei Dar-
Na2CO3 catalyst at 300 °C temperature and 10 MPa pressure. Results ussalam is based on the fossil fuels utilization. Brunei Darussalam is a
showed the bio oil yield from Acacia mangium liquefaction as 31.7% signatory of the Paris Agreement to keep the CO2 emission to the
which is one of the highest values obtained from all of the specie. minimum level. In Brunei Darussalam reduction in CO2 emission is
Overall yield of oil from all the species was in range of 21 – 36%. The possible to achieve in two ways; firstly by educating the people to
gross heating value of the bio oil from Acacia mangium was reported to minimize the use of energy; and secondly by generating energy from the
be 29.8 KJ/g [97]. The bio oil produced can be upgraded to use as renewable resources available in the country. To achieve this goal
direct fuel in the furnaces, steam boilers and internal combustion en- Government of Brunei Darussalam has launched many programs and
gines. initiatives including “Brunei Vision 2035” which aims to reduce energy
intensity by 45% with 2005 as base year and to generate 10% of energy
5.4. Combustion requirements from renewable resources [49,141].
Biomass is a source of renewable energy that is sustainable and
Combustion is ancient thermochemical process known to human environment friendly to use for energy production. Acacia species have
being for the production of energy from biomass and is still the leading been able to successfully establish in degraded habitats in Brunei
method to grab energy across the world particularly in the rural areas Darussalam. Acacia species particularly Acacia mangium and Acacia
not having modern commodities to meet energy needs [14]. The ob- auriculiformis are considered to exhibit high biomass production within
jective of combustion of biomass is to produce heat to utilize for dif- a few years of their growth as given in Table 2. Furthermore, these
ferent applications. The chemical composition of biomass has important invasive species can be utilized as an energy crop to provide a sus-
influence on its combustion properties. Excess amount of air ensures the tainable resource of biomass while also providing a management so-
complete combustion of biomass producing fully oxidized permanent lution by using it for the biofuels production and removing these in-
gases and water vapors. In the combustion of biomass highly resistant vasive Acacia species from Brunei's natural ecosystems. Acacia species
carbon and ash are left over as residue. The carbon and hydrogen goes have been potentially investigated to produce biofuels via thermo-
under exothermic reaction with oxygen producing CO2, H2O and heat. chemical conversion processes including pyrolysis, gasification, lique-
Combustion is highly affected by the moisture contents present in the faction and direct combustion as discussed in the above sections. It is
biomass feedstock and the rate of combustion is inversely proportional recommended to assess the feasibility and commercial viability of using
to the moisture contents. Tenorio et al., 2013 studied the burning ef- Acacia species as an alternative renewable energy resource to help
ficiency of ten short rotation species including Acacia mangium and achieve Brunei's aims in reducing CO2 emissions while also ensuring
concluded that burning efficiency is influenced by the calorific value of that the country's biodiversity is not adversely impacted by these in-
biomass; which becomes significantly less with increasing moisture vasive species.
contents [137]. Other constraints in directly combusting the biomass
for energy with regards to the process include the physical feeding 6.2. Potential economic aspects
problems; lower energy contents; direct substitution involves high costs
for burner replacement and large energy installations are needed to While the economy of Brunei Darussalam is heavily dependent on
meet the energy requirements. The constraints associated with the di- its oil and gas exports, the Government is committed to diversifying its
rect burning of biomass are overcome by prior conversion of biomass to economy by exploring new sectors which can contribute for the bet-
better fuels, via gasification or pyrolysis processes. Browne explained terment of its people. The utilization of renewable energy resources to
the combustion of biomass to proceed in four zones like pyrolysis; first produce bioenergy in terms of biofuels and other bio products can offer
zone prolongs to below 200 °C giving out non-combustible gases such as wide range of benefits to the society [142,143]. Bhattacharya et al.,
water vapor, formic acids and acetic acids. In the second zone exo- 2016 showed the positive impact of using renewable energy on the
thermic oxidation reactions take place between the temperature ranges economic growth of many countries across the world [51]. Acacia
from 200 °C to 280 °C. Third stage involves the exothermic reaction biomass is one of the potential candidates to produce renewable energy
without burning (pyrolysis) in temperature range of 280 −500 °C. The in Brunei Darussalam. Utilization of biomass resources can contribute
products of third zone are mostly fuel gases. Above 500 °C is the fourth positive economic impacts in a number ways. New employment op-
zone of combustion in which waste is formed mostly from carbon portunities can be created in various sectors including engineering,
leftover the secondary reactions may occur [138]. The parts of tree agriculture, transportation, research and development sectors. Energy
which are more flammable can burn more easily and vigorously to expenses of the country can be reduced as a study in Cambodia have
produce larger amount of energy with less pollutants. Saharjo et al., reported the cheap electricity generation from agricultural residues and
1999 studied the flammability in Acacia mangium plantation by con- woody biomass including Acacia mangium in comparison to diesel
sidering shrubs and trees. Study concluded that phyllodes have higher generation when plant capacity factor exceed by 13% [100]. Further-
flammability than stems and silica-free ash quantity can indicate the more; the utilization of Acacia species from invaded areas in Brunei
more flammable part of tree [139]. The leaf litter and pods of Acacia Darussalam will help to ensure that the bio-diversity of the country does
species can be combusted to produce energy at domestic level and for not continue to be negatively affected by Acacia species.
small scale energy production. These parts of Acacia species have higher
energy contents and burn more vigorously without generating heavy 7. Conclusion
smokes and solid particulate pollutants. Other possible way of im-
proving fuel wood combustion and properties of biomass is to make Brunei Darussalam is heavily dependent on its oil and gas resources
wood pellets from Acacia biomass. Acda, 2015 showed considerable in terms of its economy and energy requirements. With the threats of
improvement in physicochemical properties of wood pellets from short depletion of fossil resources and the impact of their burning on en-
rotation tress including Acacia mangium species [140]. vironment it is time for Brunei Darussalam to search for renewable and
3073
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Article in Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews · November 2017

Ashfaq Ahmed Muhammad Saifullah Abu Bakar

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Abul Azad Rahayu Sukri

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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

Potential thermochemical conversion of bioenergy from Acacia species in T

1. Introduction socio-economic development of any country. Rapid human population

Fig. 1. Political map of Brunei Darussalam (photo credit: www.nationsonline.org) [26].

Country CO2 Emissions Per Capita (metric ton per capita)

2001 2006 2011

Cambodia 0.2 0.2 0.3

emissions and to shift a major portion of its energy production from

Fig. 2. CO2 Emissions contribution from diﬀerent

4. Potential of Acacia species for bioenergy production

4.1. Biomass accumulation from Acacia species

Calculations regarding the biomass production from the source

4.2. Thermochemical properties of Acacia biomass

Information about the biomass properties of any specie is very im-

Acacia mangium Indonesia 1 5.20 1.70 3.70 1.70 12.30 [68]

process is necessary. Proximate analysis, ultimate analysis, composi- Table 4

Cambodia - - - 0.87 48.45 44.27 6.12 0.26 - 20.00 - [100]

Fig. 7. Overview of the thermochemical conversion of Acacia biomass to bioenergy [101,109].

Speciﬁcations heating rate Comments on Study

L=120 cm O = 48.13 using 2 level factorial

Fig. 8. TGA and DTG curves of Acacia mangium wood without

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