Pressure Qualitative: Assessment
Pressure Qualitative: Assessment
Pressure Qualitative: Assessment
This article discusses a number of tools that are available to the Wellsite Geologist and
Pore Pressure Engineer to provide a qualitative assessment of pore pressure. I doubt that
my list is all-encompassing and you are encouraged to add to the list. Be aware of false
positives, any one of the primary pore pressure indicators used in isolation has the potential
to provide a false indication of pore pressure. It is therefore essential to utilise all the
qualitative and quantitative indicators of pore pressure to arrive at the best possible pore
pressure solution.
The use of qualitative pore pressure indicators are an important part of any pore pressure
evaluation plan. They provide essential barriers in the well control bow-tie and require
ownership by several disciplines at the wellsite.
Before we discuss the qualitative indicators of pore pressure, it is important to have a basic
understanding of Equivalent Static Density (ESD) and Equivalent Circulating Density (ECD).
ESD is the equivalent mud weight (pressure) that the formation experiences when drilling
has stopped and the pumps are off. It is a combination of the mud weight in the hole plus
the weight of the suspended cuttings load. ECD is the equivalent mud weight that the
formation experiences whilst drilling and is a combination of the ESD plus the additional
pressure exerted by the drilling process (mostly the rig pumps). Swab and surge pressures
generated by moving pipe provide additional pressures that the wellbore may experience.
Flow rate and pit volumes are the most obvious indicators that a well has become
underbalanced. Our job is to identify the onset of overpressure prior to the well going
underbalance.
Generally, the flow rate out of a well should be equal to the pump rate into a well, however,
there are things that cause this relationship be more complicated such as the effects of
thermal expansion as cool mud is pumped into a hot wellbore. Also, as the hole is
deepened and cuttings are removed, additional mud will be required to fill the void.
Nonetheless, the single most reliable indicator of increased pore pressure is an increase in
flow rate accompanied by an increase in pit volume.
Most kicks occur during a connection or whilst tripping when the pumps are off. When the
pumps are turned off, the well which was balanced by ECD is now only experiencing the
ESD. Additionally, the act of picking up the drill string may have swabbed the well, further
reducing the effective mud pressure at the bottom of the hole. Another way of inducing a
flow from an overpressured formation is to neglect to fill-up the hole with mud to replace the
volume of the pipe pulled from the hole. Also, if the well cannot take the equivalent volume
of mud to replace the volume of pipe, then this is an indication that the well might be
flowing.
One method for the early detection of flows is a process called “flowback fingerprinting”.
During connections and other pumps-off events, a small volume of mud flows back to the
pits. The characteristics of this flow back (volume and rate) are predictable and relatively
consistent from one connection to the next. Flowback fingerprinting utilises a computer
based program to compare the volume and flow signature of each pumps off event and any
departure from the normal trend can be identified before significant flow has occurred.
2. Cuttings Morphology
When drilling overpressured shales, it is common for the formation to undergo stress relief
causing chips of rocks to cave from the borehole wall. These overpressure “cavings” tend to
be larger than normal cuttings and they may become concave or propeller shaped .
Because of their larger size, these cuttings will be observed on the upper shaker screen and
they will be sieved-out by the sample catchers when they prepare the Geologist’s sample. It
is therefore imperative that the Wellsite Geologist frequently visits the shale shakers to
monitor the morphology of the cuttings on the top screen. It is advisable to brief the shaker
hands and sample catchers on how to recognise pressure cavings and instruct them to
report them immediately. This may also make the people who do two of the less glamorous
jobs on the rig feel and become part of the team. In order to maintain a record of the amount
of overpressure cavings you may wish to catch a full sieve of representative cuttings from
the top shaker at regular intervals (time or depth based). The sieve can then be examined
and an estimate made of the number of overpressure cavings along with observations on
their size and morphology. In this way a log of the amount of pressure cavings can be
maintained to determine if a trend is emerging.
3. Borehole Behaviour (Torque Drag and Overpull)
Sudden increases in torque, drag and overpull may be an indication that the borehole
integrity is deteriorating due to increased cavings and sloughing as a result of an increase in
overpressure. Drillers normally keep torque and drag sheets, so make a point of taking to
the driller on a regular basis.
4. Pump Pressure
An influx of gas into a well may reduce the density of the drilling fluid and therefore it will
require less pressure to circulate the drilling fluid. Further, the effect of the gas influx will
cause the mud in the annulus to be relatively lighter than the mud in the drillstring inducing a
u-tube effect, further reducing the pressure required to circulate the well.
The Dxc trend can be used to provide a quantitative estimate of the pore pressure using the
Eaton method. This calculation is normally performed as part of the standard mudlogging
service provided by mudlogging companies. Note that the drilling exponent was developed
for mill tooth and TCI bits. When drilling with PDC bits, the numbers generated may not be
as reliable, nonetheless, the Dxc trend remains a good indicator of possible changes in pore
pressure.
6. Shale Density
The density of sediments generally increases with burial depth due to the effects of
dewatering and overburden pressure. When compaction is retarded and pore fluids are
retained then the density of the sediments will remain abnormally low for their burial
depth. Most pore pressure prediction methods rely upon identifying strata with abnormally
low densities (high porosity).
7. Cuttings Volume
The volume of cuttings coming across the shakers is dependent upon the flow rate and the
ROP. Given that these variables remain constant, then any increase of cuttings across the
shakers might be due to an increase in the cuttings load due to overpressure cavings. It is
unlikely that ROP and flow rate will remain consistent for long periods of time, and therefore
the measurement and use of cuttings volume is difficult to quantify and
interpret. Nonetheless there are some processes that can be used to keep a record of
cuttings volume such as taking photographs of the shakers at regular time intervals or
measuring the time it takes to fill a bucket from the top shaker. Cuttings volume may
increase to the point where hole cleaning is compromised and increased torque drag and
overpull are observed.
When drilling in a balanced condition, the ECD remains sufficiently above the formation
pressure and total gas remains low and consistent. When drilling ceases and the pumps are
turned off, the wellbore will now see the ESD of the mud column and the well is in balance
with nil to very minor influx of gas in the hole. However, the act of lifting the pipe to make a
connection may cause swabbing and the pressure applied by the mud becomes less than
the formation pressure and a small amount of gas may enter the wellbore from the
formation. When drilling resumes the well becomes overbalanced once more and the gas
influx ceases. Thus, when drilling with ESD close to pore pressure, small and relatively
sharp gas peaks will be circulated out. These gas peaks are referred to as connection
gas. Connection gasses are normally evidenced at surface at the lag time corresponding to
the depth that the connection was made. On occasion’s, connection gas can may be
sourced from an overlying more permeable unit or an overlying higher pressure unit. In this
event, multiple connection gas peaks may be observed from a single connection.
9. Mud Temperature
Mud weight and chemistry may indicate that the well is taking formation fluids. Chemical
changes that may be observed include increases in calcium or chlorides sourced from
formation water. Physical changes that may occur include: a decrease in mud weight due to
the mud being water or gas cut; or an increase in viscosity and gel due to increased
flocculation of clays in the presence of salt water.
The conversion of kerogen to hydrocarbons results in an overall increase in pore fluids and
therefore an increase in pore pressure. The increased pore pressure may be partially
relieved by micro-fractures which allow gas to escape. C1 and C2 are more mobile than C3
and therefore it is feasible that C1 and C2 may preferentially migrate over the C3+
gasses. Where hydrocarbon generation is a contributing mechanism for overpressure then
an increase in C3 relative to C2 or C2 relative to C1 may indicate the onset of
overpressure. Pixlar plots and gas balance and wetness ratios are a useful way of
presenting this information. Most mudlogging companies should be able to generate these
plots automatically. Increases in CO2 have also been known to be a harbinger of increasing
pore pressure.
12. Qualitative LWD Response (resistivity, sonic, density and neutron logs)
Seismic whilst drilling and intermediate “lookahead” VSP’s can provide information on the
sonic transit time of formations ahead of the bit. This data can be manipulated to provide a
quantitative interpretation of the pore pressure ahead of the bit.
The ultimate in pore pressure evaluation are pressures derived from formation pressure
tests – both LWD and wireline. Naturally these are quantitative rather than qualitative and
therefore I only mention them here due to their ability to constrain the pore pressure model
(provided a permeable formation can be located).
TRADUCCION
PRESION CUALITATIVA
En este artículo se analiza una serie de herramientas que están disponibles para el
ingeniero geólogo Presión sitio del pozo y Poros para proporcionar una evaluación
cualitativa de la presión de poro. Dudo que mi lista es todo lo abarca y se le anima a añadir
a la lista. Tenga en cuenta de falsos positivos, uno cualquiera de los indicadores de presión
de poros primarios utilizados en el aislamiento tiene el potencial de proporcionar una falsa
indicación de la presión de poro. Por tanto, es esencial utilizar todos los indicadores
cualitativos y cuantitativos de la presión de poro para llegar a la mejor solución posible
presión de poro.
El uso de los indicadores de presión de poro cualitativos son una parte importante de
cualquier plan de evaluación de la presión de poros. Ellos proporcionan barreras esenciales
en el control y corbata de lazo y requieren la propiedad de varias disciplinas en la
localización del pozo.
Los volúmenes de caudal y minas a cielo son los indicadores más evidentes de que un
pozo se ha convertido bajo balance. Nuestro trabajo es identificar la aparición de
sobrepresión antes del desbalance así ir.
La mayoría de las patadas se producen durante una conexión o desconexión, mientras que
cuando las bombas están apagadas. Cuando las bombas se apagan, el pozo que fue
equilibrada por la ECD es ahora sólo experimentando la ESD. Además, el acto de recoger
la cadena de perforación puede haber limpiado el pozo, reduciendo aún más la presión
efectiva del lodo en la parte inferior del agujero. Otra manera de inducir un flujo de una
formación a sobrepresión es la negligencia para llenar el agujero de barro para reemplazar
el volumen del tubo sacado del agujero. Además, si el pozo no puede tomar el volumen
equivalente de lodo para reemplazar el volumen de la tubería, entonces esto es una
indicación de que el pozo podría estar fluyendo.
Un método para la detección temprana de los flujos es un proceso llamado “flujo de retorno
de huellas dactilares”. Durante las conexiones y otros eventos bombas-off, un pequeño
volumen de lodo fluye de vuelta a los hoyos. Las características de este flujo de retorno
(volumen y la velocidad) son predecibles y relativamente consistente de una conexión a la
siguiente. el flujo de retorno de huellas dactilares utiliza un programa basado en
computadora para comparar el volumen y la firma de flujo de cada evento y bombas estén
fuera de cualquier desviación de la tendencia normal pueden ser identificados antes de que
ocurra el flujo significativo.
El incremento repentino de torque, arrastre y overpull pueden ser una indicación de que la
integridad del pozo se está deteriorando debido al aumento de derrumbes y
desprendimiento como resultado de un aumento de la sobrepresión. Los perforadores
normalmente mantienen las hojas de torque y arrastre, por lo que hacen un punto de llevar
al perforador sobre una base regular.
4. La bomba de presión
La afluencia de gas en un pozo puede reducir la densidad del fluido de perforación y por lo
tanto se requerirá una menor presión para hacer circular el fluido de perforación. Además,
el efecto de la afluencia de gas hará que el lodo en el espacio anular a ser relativamente
más ligero que el barro en la sarta de perforación inducir un efecto de tubo en U,
reduciendo aún más la presión requerida para hacer circular el pozo.
5. ROP y Dxc
6. Densidad de esquisto
Mientras que la perforación en una condición de sobre balance, el gas de fondo se puede
espera que se mantenga relativamente baja y constante. Del mismo modo, las lecturas de
conexión y el gas viaje (y otras bombas fuera de eventos de gas) o bien debe ser nulo o
bajo, y de una magnitud constante. En este caso tanto el ESD y ECD son suficientemente
mayor que la presión de la formación y el gas por lo tanto, el único gas que entra en el pozo
de sondeo se perfora (gas que reside en los poros de la roca que ha sido roto por el bit).
9. Mud Temperatura
El agua actúa como un excelente aislante térmico. Considere una sección de espesor de
pizarra a sobrepresión. El aumento de la porosidad (y agua de los poros asociado) en el
esquisto sobrepresión proporciona para el aislamiento adicional y por lo tanto puede haber
una pequeña disminución en el gradiente de temperatura inmediatamente por encima de la
zona de sobrepresión ya que el calor queda atrapado dentro de la pizarra. Al penetrar en la
pizarra a sobrepresión un aumento en el gradiente de temperatura se producirá en forma
de calor ha sido atrapado por debajo de la parte superior de la pizarra a sobrepresión. Por
supuesto, puede ser difícil medir la temperatura de la formación, en particular debido a que
el proceso de perforación requiere lodo fresco para ser distribuido en la interfaz de bit /
rock. Sin embargo, cuando la perforación y velocidad de flujo son relativamente
consistentes, puede ser posible detectar los pequeños cambios en el gradiente de
temperatura de formación. Antes de la llegada de LWD, era común para controlar la
temperatura de lodo que sale del agujero. En los tiempos modernos, las temperaturas LWD
pulsadas en tiempo real desde la parte inferior del orificio son una medida mejor para trazar
ya que esto reduce los efectos de las complejidades tales como el enfriamiento del lodo en
el tubo ascendente.
El peso del lodo y la química pueden indicar que el pozo está tomando fluidos de la
formación. Los cambios químicos que se pueden observar incluyen aumentos en el calcio o
cloruros procedentes de agua de formación. Los cambios físicos que pueden ocurrir
incluyen: una disminución en el peso del lodo debido al barro ser agua o corte de gas; o un
aumento en la viscosidad y gel debido al incremento de la floculación de las arcillas en
presencia de agua salada.
SWD y VSP
El último en evaluación de la presión de poro son las presiones derivadas de las pruebas
de presión de formación - tanto LWD y por cable. Naturalmente estos son cuantitativa más
que cualitativa y, por tanto, sólo los mencionan aquí debido a su capacidad para limitar el
modelo de presión de poro (proporcionado una formación permeable puede ser
localizado).
VOCABULARIO
1. Assessment: Evaluacion
2. Ownership: Propiedad
3. Whilst: Mientras
4. Overpull: Sobrepulso
5. Overburden: Sobrecarga
6. Increased : Aumentado
7. Flocculation : Floculacion
8. Wetness: Humedad
9. Assumption: Asuncion
10. Increase: Aumento
11. Swabbing: Esponjamiento
12. Ceases: Cesa
13. Plotted: Trazado
14. Catchers: Recolectores
15. Feasible: Factibles
BIBLIOGRAFIA
https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/qualitative-pore-pressure-evaluation-12-things-every-
wellsite-gibson