7 Chemical

Calculations

LOOKING AHEAD
Much of the information in chemistry is expressed quantitatively—
through the use of numbers, formulas, and equations. In this
chapter, you will once again deal with the mole concept, which
was introduced in Chapter 2. You will see how the mole is used to
predict the results of chemical reactions quantitatively.

When you have completed this chapter you should be able to:
■ Define mole, gram-formula mass, molar mass, and molar
volume.
■ Distinguish between empirical formulas and molecular
formulas.
■ Calculate percent composition by mass from a given formula
and determine a formula from a percent composition.
■ Convert from one quantitative unit to another: grams to moles,
moles to grams, moles to liters at STP, liters at STP to moles.
■ Solve problems involving mass and volume relationships.

235
Expressing Quantity
Chemists express quantity very much the same way you do in
your daily life. If you wanted to buy some apples, there are at
least three different ways you could express the desired quantity.
You could buy two dozen apples, you could buy 10 kilograms of
apples, or you could buy one bushel basket full of apples. In the
first case you are expressing the number of items, in the second
the weight of the items, and in the third the volume occupied
by the items. These three methods of expressing quantity
answer the questions “How many?” “How heavy?” and “How
big?”
Chemists measure the size of the sample, its volume, in liters
(L); the mass of the sample (how heavy) in grams (g); and the
number of items, usually molecules, in moles. Many chemical cal-
culations involve nothing more than converting one of these
units into another. We begin by discussing our expression of the
number of particles, the mole.

The Mole Concept

Eggs are commonly counted by the dozen, one dozen being
equal to 12 units. A dozen is a convenient and easily understood
quantity. It is also a practical quantity for counting something the
size of eggs. But it is not a very useful quantity for counting some-
thing much smaller, such as atoms or molecules. Such very small
particles are more conveniently and logically counted with the
help of a very large number. Thus tiny particles, like atoms, ions,
molecules, and electrons, are counted by the mole, one mole
being equal to 6.02 3 1023 units. A mole represents 6.02 3 1023
units of anything—atoms, bricks, or bathtubs. Recall that 6.02 3
1023 is Avogadro’s number.
The magnitude represented by the number 12 is well within
your understanding. But the magnitude of the number 6.02 3
1023 is probably beyond your imagination. Consider it this way: A
person 64 years old has lived approximately 2 3 109 seconds.
Avogadro’s number is 1014 (one hundred trillion) times larger
than that!
How did chemists arrive at the number 6.02 3 1023? Recall
that the atomic mass unit (amu) was already defined as 1/12 the

236 | Chapter 7: Chemical Calculations

mass of carbon-12. The amu is much too small a unit for express-
ing the mass of ordinary objects; scientists prefer to express these
masses in grams. There are 6.02 3 1023 amu in a gram. Since a
mole is 6.02 3 1023 particles, whatever the mass of one particle is
in amu, one mole of those particles will have that mass in grams.
A sodium atom has a mass of 23 amu. A mole of sodium atoms
has a mass of 23 grams. The mass of a water molecule is 18 amu,
so the mass of a mole of water is 18 grams.

Gram-Molecular Mass
The mass of one mole of molecules is equal to the molecular
mass expressed in grams. Since the mass of a molecule of water is
18 amu, the mass of one mole of water molecules is 18 grams. The
gram-molecular mass is the same as the mass of one mole of mol-
ecules. The gram-molecular mass of water is 18 grams.

Gram-Formula Mass
You will recall that ionic compounds, such as NaCl, do not
form molecules. The term gram-molecular mass for an ionic com-
pound is therefore meaningless. The term gram-formula mass is
used instead for the mass in grams of one mole of an ionic com-
pound. For example, one mole of NaCl contains 6.02 3 1023 Na1
ions and 6.02 3 1023 Cl2 ions in a giant lattice that has a mass of
about 58 grams.
When working with moles, you often imply the type of parti-
cle being described without actually stating it. Instead of writing
“1 mole of CO2 molecules,” you just write “1 mole of CO2.” Since
CO2 is the formula of a molecule, it is understood that you mean
1 mole of molecules. One mole of NaCl implies 1 mole of the for-
mula NaCl, or 1 mole of Na1 ions and 1 mole of Cl2 ions.
Whether we are actually working with molecules or with ions, we
find the mass exactly the same way. We add together the atomic
masses of the component elements and express the result in
grams. The mass of one mole is often called the molar mass, and
can be expressed in the unit
grams
mole
The molar mass is the same as the gram-formula mass.

Expressing Quantity | 237

 SAMPLE PROBLEM
PROBLEM
What is the mass of 1 mole of carbon dioxide?

SOLUTION
Carbon dioxide has the formula CO2. The atomic mass of
carbon is 12, while that of oxygen is 16. Adding the mass of
the 1 carbon to that of 2 oxygens gives us the total molar
mass of 44 grams. A mole of CO2 thus has a mass of 44
grams. To find the mass of 1 mole, we express the molecular
mass in grams.

Working with Moles and Grams

Since you now know how to find the mass of 1 mole of any
given substance, you should also be able to find the mass of any
number of moles of that substance. Recall that a mole is just a num-
ber of items, like a dozen. If you knew that 1 dozen apples weighed
2 kilograms, could you predict the weight of 4 dozen apples? Of
course 4 dozen apples would weigh four times 2 kilograms, or 8
kilograms. Let’s examine the relationship between moles and
grams. What is the mass of 4.0 moles of CO2? You already know
that the mass of 1 mole of CO2, the molar mass, is 44 grams. Thus
4.0 moles of CO2 must have a mass of 4 3 44, or 176 grams.
The general relationship between moles and grams is often
expressed as follows: moles 3 molar mass 5 grams. This relation-
grams
ship can also be written as moles 5 .
molar mass

SAMPLE PROBLEMS
PROBLEM
1. What is the mass of 0.40 mole of H2O?

SOLUTION
First, find the molar mass of water. The sum of the atomic
masses in the formula is 18, so the molar mass of water is 18

238 | Chapter 7: Chemical Calculations

 grams. The formula that relates the number of moles to the
mass is given on page 238—moles 3 molar mass 5 grams.
Substituting the values into the formula you get 0.40 mole
3 18 grams/mole 5 7.2 grams.

PROBLEM
2. How many moles are there in 3.6 grams of water?

SOLUTION
Once again, you need to use the molar mass of water, which
you know is 18 grams. The equation that most conveniently
solves for moles is also given above,
grams
moles 5
molar mass Substituting our values into that
equation we get

3.6 grams
moles 5 5 0.20 mole of water
18 grams/mole

PRACTICE
7.1 Find the mass of each of the following.
(a) 0.50 mole of NaOH
(b) 4.5 moles of CaCO3
(c) 0.25 mole of Ba(NO3)2
(d) 3.00 moles of sodium oxide
7.2 How many moles are contained in each of the following?
(a) 60. grams of NaOH
(b) 75 grams of CaCO3
(c) 26.1 grams of Ba(NO3)2
(d) 310 grams of sodium oxide
7.3 If the mass of 0.60 mole of a certain substance is 72 grams,
what is the molar mass of the substance?

Expressing Quantity | 239

Percent Composition
Suppose you wished to find the percentage of girls in a chemistry
class. This particular class contains 12 boys and 18 girls. You
would divide the number of girls, 18, by the total number of stu-
dents in the class, 30, and then multiply your answer by 100 to
get the percentage.
18 girls
3 100 5 60% girls
30 students
Suppose, on the other hand, you wished to find the percent-
age of girls in the class by mass. To do that you would need to
find the mass of all the students. Let us assume that the girls’
average mass is 50 kg, and the boys’ average mass is 70 kg. The
total mass of the girls is
50 kg/girl 3 18 girls 5 900 kg
The total mass of the boys is
70 kg/boy 3 12 boys 5 840 kg
The total mass of the students is thus
840 kg 1 900 kg 5 1740 kg
Now you can find the percent of girls by mass. Divide the total
mass of the girls, 900 kg, by the total mass of the students, 1740
kg, and multiply by 100.
900 kg girls
3 100 5 51.7% girls by mass
1740 kg students
To find the percent of girls by mass, you needed to know the
formula for the class in terms of girls and boys and the mass of each
of the items in the formula, in this case, the girls and the boys.
In chemistry, the percent composition of a compound is nor-
mally expressed by mass. Thus to find it, you need to know the
formula of the compound and the mass of each element in the
formula. To find the percent by mass of an element in a com-
pound, follow these steps:
1. Find the total mass of the element in one mole of the com-
pound. For example, in one mole of H2O the total mass of

240 | Chapter 7: Chemical Calculations

 hydrogen is two times the atomic mass of hydrogen, or 2 3
1.0 g 5 2.0 g.
2. Find the molar mass of the compound. For H2O, it is 18 g.
3. Divide the answer from step 1 by the answer from step 2. In
this case, to find the percent hydrogen, that would be
2.0 g/18 g.
4. Multiply by 100 to get the percent.

2.0 g
3 100 5 11% hydrogen
18 g
These steps may be summarized by the formula
total mass of element
3 100 5 percent of element
total mass of compound

SAMPLE PROBLEMS
PROBLEM
1. Calculate the percent composition by mass of carbon
dioxide (CO2).

SOLUTION
One mole of CO2 contains 1 mole of carbon, or
1 mole C 3 12 g/mole 5 12 g C. It contains 2 moles of oxy-
gen atoms, or 2 moles O 3 16 g/mole 5 32 g O. The molar
mass of CO2 is
12 g 1 32 g 5 44 g
The percent carbon is
12 g
3 100 5 27%
44 g
The percent oxygen is
32 g
3 100 5 73%
44 g

Percent Composition | 241

 PROBLEM
2. Calculate the percent by mass of uranium in pitch-
blende, which has the formula U3O8.

SOLUTION
First, find the total mass of uranium in a mole of pitch-
blende. One mole of U3O8 contains 3 moles of uranium,
3 moles U 3 238 g/mole 5 714 g of U
The molar mass of U3O8 is
3 moles U 3 238 g/mole  8 moles O
3 16 g/mole 5 842 g
The percent of uranium equals the mass of uranium divided
by the molar mass of the compound.
714 g
3 100 5 84.8%
842 g

PROBLEM
3. Calculate the percent by mass of water in hydrated
copper sulfate, CuSO4 ? 5 H2O (The “dot” in the formula
of a hydrate does not mean “times.” It should be read
as “bonded to” or “attached to.”)

SOLUTION
You can calculate the percent water in hydrates—crystallized
compounds containing water—by the same method used in
the preceding sample problems. First, find the total mass of
water indicated by the formula, then divide the mass of
water by the total molar mass of the hydrate. Five moles of
water have a mass of
5.0 moles 3 18 g/mole 5 90. g
The molar mass of CuSO4?5 H2O (including the five
waters) is
63.5 g 1 32 g 1 64 g 1 90. g 5 249.5 g/mole

242 | Chapter 7: Chemical Calculations

 The percent water is
90 g
3 100% 5 36% H2O
249.5 g

PRACTICE
7.4 Calculate the percent composition to the nearest whole
number of each of the following compounds.
(a) CO (b) ZnSiO3 (c) H3PO4 (d) Ca(NO3)2
7.5 To the nearest whole number what is the percent by mass
of water in Ba(OH)2 ? 8H2O?

Empirical Formulas
You have learned how to find the percent composition of a
compound from its molecular formula. Acetic acid, which is
used in vinegar, has the formula HC2H3O2. Its percent composi-
tion is 40% C, 6.7% H, and 53.3% O. Glucose, a simple sugar,
has the molecular formula C6H12O6. Its percent composition is
exactly the same as that of acetic acid, 40% C, 6.7% H, 53.3%
O. Both of these compounds have the same percent composi-
tion, because they contain the same elements in the same ratio.
A molecule of acetic acid contains 2 carbon atoms, 4 hydrogen
atoms, and 2 oxygen atoms. A ratio of 2 to 4 to 2 is mathemati-
cally exactly the same as the ratio of 6 to 12 to 6 found in the
glucose. In simplest terms, the ratio in both compounds is 1 to
2 to 1.
We call the formula containing the simplest whole number
ratio between the elements the empirical formula of the sub-
stance. The empirical formula of both glucose and acetic acid is
CH2O. Compounds with the same empirical formula will
always have the same percent composition. The compound

Empirical Formulas | 243

formaldehyde, which has the formula HCHO, would have the
same percent composition as both glucose and acetic acid.

SAMPLE PROBLEM
PROBLEM
Find the empirical formula of the following compounds:
(a) ethane, C2H6
(b) propane, C3H8
(c) butane, C4H10
(d) pentane, C5H12

SOLUTION
(b 1 d) The formulas for both propane and pentane are
already empirical formulas. Ratios of 3 to 8 and 5 to 12 can-
not be simplified. (a 1 c) The empirical formula of ethane is
CH3, since a ratio of 2 to 6 can be reduced to 1 to 3. The
empirical formula of butane is similarly found to be C2H5.

PRACTICE
7.6 Find the empirical formula of the following compounds.
(a) H2O2 (b) C7H12 (c) C6H6

Determining the Empirical Formulas

You have seen that many different compounds may have the
same percent composition. Therefore, it is not possible to deter-
mine the actual molecular formula from the percent composition
alone. However, it is possible to determine the empirical formula
of a substance from its percent composition.
Determining an empirical formula is the reverse of determin-
ing percentage composition. If you know the percent by mass of
the elements in a compound, you can determine the relative
number of atoms of each element in the compound. To find the
relative number of atoms (or moles of atoms) of each element in a

244 | Chapter 7: Chemical Calculations

compound, divide the percentage of each element by the atomic
mass of the element. The quotients are the relative numbers of
atoms (or moles of atoms) in a mole of the compound.
In this method, it is assumed that the mass of the sample of the
compound is 100 grams. This assumption is made because it sim-
plifies the arithmetic. Percentages can then be easily converted to
moles or to grams. The assumption is justified because all samples
of the same substance have the same percent composition.

SAMPLE PROBLEMS
PROBLEM
1. A gaseous compound of hydrogen and carbon (a
hydrocarbon) has the following composition by mass:
carbon, 92.3 percent; hydrogen, 7.7 percent. What is
the empirical formula of the gas?

SOLUTION
Find the number of moles of each element in the compound.
92.3 g
Relative number of moles of C atoms 5
12 g/mole
5 7.7 moles

7.7 g
Relative number of moles of H atoms 5
1 g/mole
5 7.7 moles
The proportion of component atoms is C7.7H7.7, or C1H1.
Thus the empirical formula of this compound is C1H1. This
means that any number of moles of carbon atoms and an
equal number of moles of hydrogen atoms will satisfy the
stated percent composition by mass.

PROBLEM
2. The composition by mass of a compound is 72.4
percent iron and 27.6 percent oxygen. What is the
empirical formula of the compound?

Empirical Formulas | 245

 SOLUTION
(a) Convert the percentages given to grams (assuming
a 100-gram sample), and convert the grams to
moles.

72.4 g
moles Fe 5 5 1.30 moles
55.8 g/mole
27.6 g
moles O 5 5 1.73 moles
16 g/mole
The formula is Fe1.30O1.73, but these are not whole
numbers of moles.
(b) If the mole ratio cannot be converted into whole
numbers at sight, divide each number by the small-
est number.

1.30 1.73
Fe 51 O 5 1.33
1.30 1.30
Now the same formula reads FeO1.33.
(c) If, after step b, the mole ratio is still not in whole
numbers of moles, multiply the numbers by 2, 3, 4,
5, . . . until a ratio in whole numbers results. In this
example, multiply by 3.

Fe133O1.3333 5 Fe3O3.99, or Fe3O4

PROBLEM
3. A compound contains 17.5 grams of iron and 7.5
grams of oxygen. What is the empirical formula?

SOLUTION
(a) In this case, you have been given grams directly,
not percentages. As always, the first step is to con-
vert to moles.

17.5 g
Fe 5 0.31 mole
55.8 g/mole

246 | Chapter 7: Chemical Calculations

 7.5 g
O 5 0.47 mole
16g/mole
(b) Dividing both numbers of moles by 0.31 gives you
the formula FeO1.5.
(c) Multiplying both numbers of moles by 2 gives you
the formula Fe2O3.

PRACTICE
7.7 Find the empirical formula of the following compounds
that contain:
(a) 75 percent C, 25 percent H
(b) 40 percent Ca, 12 percent C, 48 percent O
(c) 2.5 percent H, 57.5 percent sodium, 40 percent O
(d) 40.0 percent carbon, 6.7 percent hydrogen, and 53.3
percent oxygen
(e) 66.0 percent calcium and 34.0 percent phosphorus
(f) 8.3 percent aluminum, 32.7 percent chlorine, and 59.0
percent oxygen
7.8 Find the empirical formula for the following compounds
that contain:
(a) 1.8 grams Ca and 3.2 grams Cl
(b) 8.8 grams Cs and 2.35 grams Cl
(c) 233.7 grams Al and 416 grams S
(d) 10.26 grams Ni, 4.90 grams N, and 16.8 grams O

Molecular Formulas
You have been able to use the percent composition of a com-
pound to determine its empirical formula. As you learned,

Molecular Formulas | 247

several compounds may have the same empirical formula but
different molecular formulas. Glucose, C6H12O6, and acetic
acid, HC2H3O2, both have the same empirical formula, CH2O.
To determine the molecular formula, the percent composition
alone is not enough information. If, in addition, you know the
molar mass of the substance, you can find its molecular
formula.
Glucose, C6H12O6, has a gram molecular mass of 180 grams.
The empirical formula, CH2O, has a mass of 30 grams. Note that
the molecular mass of glucose is exactly six times the mass of the
empirical formula. The molecular mass of any molecule must be
an exact multiple of the mass of the empirical formula. Since the
mass of glucose is six times the mass of the empirical formula, the
molecular formula of glucose must be exactly six times the empir-
ical formula. If you multiply each of the subscripts in CH2O by
six, you get C6H12O6.
To find the molecular formula when the empirical formula
and molecular mass are known, follow these steps:
1. Find the mass of the empirical formula.
2. Divide the molecular mass by the mass of the empirical for-
mula.
3. Multiply each of the subscripts in the empirical formula by
the answer to step 2.

SAMPLE PROBLEMS
PROBLEM
1. Oxalic acid has the empirical formula HCO2 and a
molar mass of 90 grams. Find the molecular formula of
oxalic acid.

SOLUTION
The empirical formula, HCO2, has a mass of 45 grams.
90 g/45 g 5 2
The molecular formula is twice the empirical formula, or
H2C2O4.

248 | Chapter 7: Chemical Calculations

 PROBLEM
2. Butene is 14.3 percent hydrogen, and 85.7 percent car-
bon by mass. It has a molecular mass of 56 grams. Find
the molecular formula of butene.

SOLUTION
First, find the empirical formula. Convert the percentages to
grams, and convert grams to moles.
14.3 g H
5 14.2 moles H
1.01 g/mole
85.7 g C
5 7.14 moles C
12.0 g/mole
A mole ratio of 7.14 to 14.2 is almost 1 to 2. The empirical for-
mula is CH2. Now, use the empirical formula and the molecu-
lar mass to find the molecular formula. Following the three
steps given on page 248, you find that the mass of the empiri-
cal formula, CH2, is 14 g. Dividing the molecular mass, 56 g,
by 14 g, gives 4. The molecular formula is 4 times the empiri-
cal formula. The molecular formula of butene is C4H8.

PROBLEM
3. A compound has the empirical formula C3H8 and a molec-
ular mass of 44 g/mole. What is the molecular formula?

SOLUTION
The mass corresponding to the formula C3H8 is 44 g/mole.
This is the same as the molecular mass of the compound.
The empirical and molecular formulas are the same: C3H8.

PRACTICE
7.9 The empirical formula of benzene is CH and its molecular
mass is 78 grams. What is benzene’s molecular formula?
7.10 A hydrocarbon contains 85.7 percent carbon and 14.3 per-
cent hydrogen by mass. Its molecular mass is 70 g/mole.
Find its molecular formula.

Molecular Formulas | 249

 7.11 The butane gas used in lighters has a molar mass of
58 g/mole. Its empirical formula is C2H5. Find the molecu-
lar formula of butane.
7.12 The molecular mass of aspirin is 180 g/mole. Its percent
composition is 60.0 percent carbon, 4.48 percent hydro-
gen, and 35.5 percent oxygen. What is aspirin’s molecular
formula?

Mole Relationships in Chemical

Reactions
Consider the reaction between aluminum metal and hydrochloric
acid:
2Al 1 6 HCl h 2 AlCl3 1 3H2
Recall that the numbers used to balance the equation, in this case
2, 6, 2, and 3, are called coefficients. The coefficients in the bal-
anced equation tell in what proportion reactants react and in
what proportion the products are formed. In this case, 2 alu-
minum react with 6 hydrochloric acid to produce 2 aluminum
chloride and 3 hydrogen. Since it is convenient to express the
number of particles in moles, we can also say that 2 moles of Al
react with 6 moles of HCl to produce 2 moles of AlCl3 and 3
moles of H2. The coefficients give the mole ratio, which will
enable you to predict the results of reacting any number of moles
of reactant. You can also predict the number of moles of reactant
needed to produce any number of moles of product.
To convert from moles of one substance to moles of any other
substance in a balanced equation, multiply by the ratio of the
coefficients, which we call the mole ratio. For example, you can
predict the amount of HCl needed to react with 10 moles of Al.
Multiply the moles of Al by the ratio moles of HCl per mole of Al.
The coefficients tell us that there are 6 moles of HCl for every 2
moles of Al. Thus
6 moles HCl
10 moles Al 3 5 30 moles of HCl.
2 moles Al

250 | Chapter 7: Chemical Calculations

If you want to know how many moles of Al are needed to pro-
duce 6.0 moles of H2 in this reaction, multiply
2 moles Al
6.0 moles H2 3 5 4.0 moles of Al needed.
3 moles H2
To convert from moles of substance A to moles of substance B
in a balanced equation, multiply the moles of A by the mole ratio
of B to A in the balanced equation.
moles B
moles A 3 5 moles B
moles A

Moles to Moles—An Alternate Method

Some students prefer an alternate method of solving moles-to-
moles problems. They use the relationship
moles moles

coefficient coefficient
for the two substances involved. In the equation, 2 Al 1 6 HCl h
2 AlCl3 1 3 H2, let us use this method to find the amount of HCl
needed to react with 10. moles of Al. We write the given number
of moles directly above the substance in the balanced equation,
and we write an “x” above the unknown substance. Our set-up
would look like this:
10 moles x moles

2 Al 6 HCl h 2 AlCl3 1 3 H2
10 moles x moles
We then solve the equation:  . If we cross
2 6
multiply, we get 2 x 5 60, and x 5 30 moles of HCl, the same
answer found before.

SAMPLE PROBLEM
PROBLEM
In the reaction
2 NO 1 O2 h 2 NO2
how many moles of O2 are needed to produce 3.6 moles of NO2?

Mole Relationships in Chemical Reactions | 251

 SOLUTION
Multiply the 3.6 moles of NO2 by the mole ratio of O2 to
NO2 in the balanced equation.
1 mole O2
3.6 moles NO2 3 5 1.8 moles of O2
2 moles NO2
This problem also could be solved using the “moles over
coefficient” method.
x moles 3.6 moles
2 NO 1 O2 h 2 NO2
Although we do not write it, we understand that the coef-
ficient before the oxygen is 1. Our equation becomes
x moles 3.6 moles
 , and x 5 1.8 moles of O2.
1 2

PRACTICE
7.13 Base your answers on the balanced equation
N2 1 3 H2 h 2 NH3
(a) How many moles of hydrogen are needed to produce
6.0 moles of ammonia?
(b) How many moles of nitrogen are required to react
with 0.60 mole of hydrogen?
(c) How many moles of ammonia are formed from 0.50
mole of nitrogen and excess hydrogen?
7.14 Base your answers on this balanced equation:
2 Pb(CH3)4 1 15 O2 h 2 PbO 1 8 CO2 1 12 H2O

(a) How many moles of O2 are needed to burn 4.6 moles

of Pb(CH3)4?
(b) How many moles of CO2 are produced by burning 5
moles of Pb(CH3)4?
(c) How many moles of water will be produced by react-
ing 7.5 moles of O2?

252 | Chapter 7: Chemical Calculations

 7.15 Many people cook outdoors over burning propane gas.
The combustion of propane gas produces carbon dioxide
and water. If enough propane gas is burned to produce
12.0 moles of water, 9.0 moles of carbon dioxide will be
produced as well. In the balanced equation for the com-
bustion of propane, the coefficient in front of the CO2 is 3.
What is the coefficient in front of the H2O?

Molar Gas Volume

Up to now you have studied quantitative chemistry in terms
of moles and grams only. While mass is the most commonly used
indication of the quantity of matter, chemists often express the
quantity of a gas in liters, a unit of volume.
Recall that the volume occupied by any quantity of a gas
depends only upon the temperature and pressure. This can be cal-
culated using the expression V 5 nRT/P. In this equation, V is the
volume, P the pressure, T the Kelvin temperature, n the number
of moles, and R a constant. If the volume is expressed in liters and
the pressure is in atmospheres, the value of R is 0.0821. You can
calculate that at STP, where T is 273 K and P is 1 atm, the volume
of 1 mole of a gas is 22.4 liters. As long as you are working at STP,
the volume of 1 mole of any ideal gas will be 22.4 liters.
Therefore, 22.4 liters is called the molar volume of a gas under
standard conditions.

SAMPLE PROBLEM
PROBLEM
Assuming ideal gas behavior, what is the volume of 1.00
mole of propane gas at STP?

SOLUTION
You do not know the formula for propane gas? It doesn’t mat-
ter! The volume of 1.00 mole of any ideal gas at STP is 22.4 L.
(Propane is C3H8 as you will learn in Chapter 14.)

Mole Relationships in Chemical Reactions | 253

 Recall that in order to find the mass of a given number of
moles of a substance, you multiplied the number of moles by the
molar mass. Grams 5 molar mass 3 moles (see page 238).
Similarly, you can find the volume of a given number of moles of
ideal gas at STP by multiplying the number of moles by the molar
volume, 22.4 L/moles. Liters 5 22.4 L/moles 3 moles.
From the number of moles, we can easily calculate the mass
in grams, volume in liters (for ideal gases at STP), and total
number of particles in a sample of a substance. The procedures
for performing mole conversions are summarized in the next
section.

Working with Moles

The following rules are useful when you work with moles:
1. To convert moles to grams, multiply the moles given by the
mass of one mole.
EXAMPLE: How many grams are there in two moles of CO2?

44 grams
2 moles 3 5 88 grams
mole
2. To convert grams to moles, divide the grams given by the
mass of one mole.
EXAMPLE: How many moles are represented by 88 grams of
CO2?
88 grams
5 2 moles
44 grams/mole
3. To convert moles to an actual number of particles, multiply
the moles given by 6.02 3 1023 molecules/mole.
EXAMPLE: How many molecules are represented by 2 moles
of CO2?
s6.02 3 1023 moleculesd
2 moles 5 12.04 3 1023 molecules
mole
4. To convert a number of particles to moles, divide the number
given by 6.02 3 1023 molecules/mole.
EXAMPLE: How many moles are represented by 12.04 3 1023
CO2 molecules?

254 | Chapter 7: Chemical Calculations

 12.04 3 1023 molecules
5 2 moles
6.02 3 1023 molecules/mole

5. To convert moles of a gas to liters at STP, multiply the moles

given by 22.4 liters/mole.
EXAMPLE: How many liters are represented by 2 moles of
CO2 at STP?
s2 molesds22.4 liters/moled 5 44.8 liters

6. To convert liters of a gas at STP to moles, divide the liters

given by 22.4 liters/mole.
EXAMPLE: How many moles are represented by 44.8 liters of
CO2 at STP?
44.8 liters
5 2 moles
22.4 liters/mole

The six processes shown above may also be carried out using
the following three equations:

1. To convert between moles and grams, use the molar mass,

grams/mole.

grams
moles  or
grams/mole
grams
moles 3 5 grams
mole

2. To convert between moles and volume at STP,

liters
moles 5
22.4 liters/mole
or, moles 3 22.4 liters/mole 5 liters.

3. To convert between moles and number of molecules,

molecules
moles 5 or,
6.02 3 1023 molecules/mole
moles 3 6.02 3 1023 molecules/mole 5 molecules.

Mole Relationships in Chemical Reactions | 255

 Liters

22.4 ÷
× 22.4

÷ 6.02 × 1023 Molar mass ÷

Number Number
Grams
of molecules of moles
6.02 × 1023 × × Molar mass

Figure 7-1 This flow chart, or concept map, may prove helpful in
understanding mole conversions. Note that in each case, to go into
moles, you divide. To get out of moles, you multiply. Note also, that “all
roads lead to moles.” Once you know the number of moles, it is easy to
convert to any of the other three expressions of quantity. If you select the
proper conversion, the correct answer will also show the correct units.

A concept map is often used by scientists to show the relation-

ships among several variables. Figure 7–1 shows the relationships
among moles, molecules, grams, and liters.

SAMPLE PROBLEMS
PROBLEM
1. What is the volume of 4.0 moles of CO2 gas at STP?

SOLUTION
To convert moles of a gas at STP to liters, multiply the num-
ber of moles by 22.4 L/mole.
moles 3 22.4 L/mole 5 liters
4.0 moles 3 22.4 L/mole 5 89.6 L.

PROBLEM
2. How many moles are there in 11.2 L of neon gas at
STP?

256 | Chapter 7: Chemical Calculations

SOLUTION
To convert liters to moles, divide by 22.4 L/mole.
liters
5 moles
22.4 L/mole
11.2 L
5 0.500 mole
22.4 L/mole

PROBLEM
3. How many moles are there in 60 g of neon?

SOLUTION
To convert from grams to moles, divide by the molar mass.
The molar mass of Ne is 20 g/mole.
grams
 moles
molar mass

60 g
 3.0 moles
20 g/mole
(Note: when converting moles to grams or grams to moles, it
is not necessary to specify the temperature or pressure.)

PROBLEM
4. What is the mass of 0.20 mole of CaCO3?

SOLUTION
To convert moles to grams, multiply by the molar mass.
moles 3 molar mass 5 grams
The molar mass of CaCO3 is
40 g  12 g  s3 3 16 gd  100 g
0.20 moles 3 100 g/mole  20 g

PROBLEM
5. What is the volume at STP of 22 g of CO2 gas?

Mole Relationships in Chemical Reactions | 257

 SOLUTION
This problem is unlike the previous four, since you have not
been shown a method for converting grams to liters.
However, you do know how to convert grams to moles, and
you know how to convert moles to liters. Therefore, you can
solve the problem in two steps. You can use Figure 7.1 to find
the correct path to go from grams to liters. First convert 22 g
of CO2 to moles, by dividing the grams by the molar mass.
grams
 moles
molar mass

22 g
 0.50 mole
44 g/mole

Now you can convert the moles to liters by multiplying by

22.4 L/mole.
0.50 mole 3 22.4 L / mole 5 11.2 L
The volume of 22 g of CO2 at STP is 11.2 L.

PRACTICE
7.16 Change each quantity to moles.
(a) 36 g of water (b) 6.0 g of NaOH (c) 40 g of CaCO3
(d) 44.8 L of CO2 at STP (e) 11.2 L of He at STP (f) 56 L
of O2 at STP
7.17 Find the mass in grams of each of the following.
(a) 1.5 moles of H2O (b) 0.30 mole of N2 (c) 0.40 mole
of NO2 (d) 44.8 L of H2 at STP (e) 56 L of Ne at STP
(f) 5.6 L of O2 at STP
7.18 Find the volume in liters at STP for each of the following
ideal gases.
(a) 3.0 moles of Ar (b) 0.40 mole of CO2 (c) 1.5 mole of
Cl2 (d) 16 g of He (e) 16 g of O2 (f) 4.4 g of N2O

258 | Chapter 7: Chemical Calculations

 Density Problems
Recall that density is mass per unit volume.
mass
density 5
volume
Since the volume of one mole of a gas at STP is 22.4 liters, and the
mass of one mole is equal to the molar mass, you can write the
formula
molar mass
D5
22.4 liters/mole
The density of a gas at STP in grams per liter is equal to its molar
mass divided by 22.4 liters/mole. The molar mass of a gas is equal
to its density at STP (in grams per liter) times 22.4 liters/mole.
Molar mass 5 D 3 22.4 liters/mole

SAMPLE PROBLEM
PROBLEM
What is the density at STP of nitrogen gas, N2?

SOLUTION
The molar mass of nitrogen, N2, is 28 g. The density is equal
to the molar mass divided by 22.4 L/mole.
28 grams/mole
5 1.25 grams/L
22.4 L/mole

PRACTICE
7.19 Find the density at STP of the following gases:
(a) CO (b) O2 (c) Ar (d) NH3
7.20 What is the molecular mass of a gas that has a density at
STP of 1.98 grams/liter?
7.21 At STP, 4.00 liters of a certain gas has a mass of 11.4 grams.
What is the molecular mass of this gas?

Mole Relationships in Chemical Reactions | 259

Quantitative Relationships in
Chemical Reactions
You learned earlier in this chapter that you can convert between
moles and grams as well as between moles and liters of gas at STP.
If you combine these techniques with the technique of predicting
moles in a balanced equation, you can predict the quantitative
outcome of a chemical equation whether the quantities are
expressed in moles, grams, or liters.

Mass Relationships
Using the equation
2 Al 1 6 HCl h 2 AlCl3 1 3 H2
what is the maximum mass of H2 that can be formed from 108
grams of Al? The coefficients in the balanced equation give us a
mole ratio, not a gram ratio. Therefore, change the 108 grams of
Al to moles. Recall that this is achieved by dividing the grams of
the substance by its molar mass:
108 grams Al
5 4.0 moles Al.
27 grams Al/mole
Once you know the number of moles of Al, you can use the
mole ratio in the balanced equation to find the moles of H2.
3 moles H2
4.0 moles Al 3 5 6.0 moles H2.
2 moles Al
Now we can convert the 6.0 moles of H2 to grams by multiplying
by the molar mass of H2.
6.0 moles H2 3 2.0 grams/mole 5 12 grams H2.
Problems in which you find the mass of one substance in a
reaction from the mass of another substance are called “mass-
mass” problems. Note that the problem is solved in three steps.
These can be summarized as follows:
Step 1. Into moles: Change the given mass to moles by
dividing the mass in grams by the molar mass of the
substance.

260 | Chapter 7: Chemical Calculations

Step 2. Moles to moles: Convert from moles of the given
substance to moles of the desired substance by using
the mole ratio from the balanced equation.
Step 3. Out of moles: Convert the moles of substance found
in Step 2 to grams by multiplying the number of
moles by the molar mass of the substance.

SAMPLE PROBLEMS
PROBLEM
1. In the reaction,

2 Na 1 2 H2O h 2 NaOH 1 H2
how many grams of sodium are required to produce 6.0
grams of hydrogen gas?

SOLUTION
First, convert the 6.0 g of H2 to moles. The molar mass of H2
is 2.0 g/mole.
6.0 g H2
5 3.0 moles H2
2.0 g/mole
Next, use the mole ratio of sodium to hydrogen to find the
moles of sodium.
2 moles Na
3.0 moles H2 3 5 6.0 moles of Na
1 mole H2
Finally, convert the 6.0 moles of Na to grams by multiplying
by the molar mass of sodium.
6.0 moles Na 3 23 g/mole 5 138 g Na

PROBLEM
2. In the reaction,

2 C2H6 1 7 O2 h 4 CO2 1 6 H2O

how many grams of H2O are produced when 6.0 moles of
C2H6 are burned?

Quantitative Relationships in Chemical Reactions | 261

 SOLUTION
Since you were given the moles of C2H6 you can skip the first
step, which is changing the given mass to moles. Use the
mole ratio of H2O to C2H6 to find the moles of water.
6 moles H2O
6.0 moles C2H6 3 5 18 moles H2O
2 moles C2H6
Since the question called for the answer in grams, convert the
moles of H2O to grams. The molar mass of water is 18 g/mole.
18 moles H2O 3 18 g/mole 5 324 grams H2O

PRACTICE
7.22 C2H5OH 1 3 O2 h 2 CO2 1 3 H2O
In the combustion of ethanol, shown above, how many
grams of carbon dioxide are produced when 23 grams of
ethanol are burned completely?
7.23 In the reaction,
Na2O 1 H2O h 2 NaOH
how many moles of sodium oxide are needed to prepare
20 grams of NaOH?
7.24 In the reaction,
N2 1 3 H2 h 2 NH3.
how many grams of H2 are needed to produce 0.50 mole of
NH3?

Mass and Volume Relationships

Let us once again consider the reaction
2 Al(s) 1 6 HCl(aq) h 2 AlCl3(aq) 1 3 H2(g)
[This time we have indicated the state of the materials in the reac-
tion: (aq) indicates that the substance is in an aqueous solution,

262 | Chapter 7: Chemical Calculations

(s) indicates the substance is in the solid state, (g) indicates that
the substance is in the gaseous state, and (l) indicates that a sub-
stance is in the liquid state.] You have seen how to determine the
number of grams of hydrogen produced by a given mass of alu-
minum. Suppose that instead, you wish to know the volume of
hydrogen produced by a given amount of aluminum. How many
liters of hydrogen may be produced at STP from 27 grams of alu-
minum? To be able to use the mole ratios in the balanced equa-
tion, you once again convert the grams of aluminum to moles.
27 grams Al
5 1.0 mole Al
27 grams/mole
Now, use the mole ratio to find the moles of hydrogen produced.
3 moles H2
1.0 mole Al 3 5 1.5 moles H2.
2 moles Al
Next, we convert the 1.5 moles of H2 to liters. Recall that at STP
the molar volume of a gas is 22.4 liters. To convert moles to liters,
multiply the number of moles by 22.4 liters/mole
1.5 moles H2 3 22.4 liters/mole 5 33.6 liters H2
As in the mass-mass problem, there were three steps to the solu-
tion: into moles, moles to moles, and out of moles.

SAMPLE PROBLEMS
PROBLEM
1. In the reaction,

2 C(s) 1 O2(g) h 2 CO2(g)

how many grams of carbon are required to react completely
with 44.8 liters of oxygen at STP?

SOLUTION
First, convert the given quantity to moles. To convert liters
of a gas at STP to moles, divide by 22.4 L/mole.
44.8 L O2
5 2.0 moles O2
22.4 L/mole

Quantitative Relationships in Chemical Reactions | 263

 The second step is moles to moles. Use the mole ratio to find
the moles of carbon.
2 moles C
2.0 moles O2 3 5 4.0 moles C
1 mole O2
The third step is converting out of moles. Since the question
asks for the mass in grams, multiply the number of moles of
carbon by 12 grams/mole, the molar mass of carbon.
4.0 moles C 3 12 g/mole 5 48 grams C.

PROBLEM
2. In the reaction,

Zn(s) 1 2 HCl(aq) h ZnCl2(aq) 1 H2(g)

what is the maximum number of liters of hydrogen at STP
that can be produced from 4.0 moles of HCl?

SOLUTION
Since the quantity of HCl is given in moles, you can use the
mole ratio to find the moles of H2.
1 mole H2
4.0 moles HCl 3 5 2.0 moles H2
2 moles HCl
Now you can convert the 2.0 moles of H2 to liters at STP by
multiplying by the molar volume, 22.4 L/mole.
2.0 moles H2 3 22.4 L/mole 5 44.8 L

PRACTICE
7.25 Hydrogen peroxide, H2O2, decomposes to produce water
and oxygen gas. How many liters of oxygen gas are pro-
duced at STP by the decomposition of 6.8 grams of hydro-
gen peroxide?
7.26 2 Al(s) 1 3 H2SO4(aq) h Al2(SO4)3(aq) 1 3 H2(g)
In the reaction above, how many grams of aluminum

264 | Chapter 7: Chemical Calculations

 metal would be required to produce 13.44 liters of hydro-
gen gas at STP?
7.27 N2(g) 1 3 H2(g) h 2 NH3(g)
In the reaction above, how many liters of H2 at STP will
react with 11.2 liters of N2?

Volume Relationships
Consider Practice Problem 7.27. In the reaction, N2(g) 1 3
H2(g) h 2 NH3(g) you were asked to calculate the volume of
hydrogen needed to react with 11.2 liters of nitrogen. Problems in
which you are asked to find the volume of one gas in a reaction
from the volume of another gas in the reaction are called “vol-
ume-volume” problems.
The problem can be solved using the three-step method
shown on pages 260–261. First, the 11.2 liters can be changed to
moles.
11.2 L
5 0.500 mole
22.4 L/mole
Using mole ratios,
3 H2
0.500 mol N2 3 5 1.50 mole H2
1 N2
Then, we can find the liters of hydrogen from the moles: 1.50
mole 3 22.4 L/mole 5 33.6 L. However, there is an easier way!
Notice that in the first step you divided by 22.4, while in the last
step you multiplied by 22.4. These two steps actually cancel each
other—we get the same result if we omit both of them. Then,
3 H2
11.2 liters N2 3 5 33.6 liters H2.
1 N2
Since all ideal gases have the same molar volume under the
same conditions, the volume ratio must be the same as the mole
ratio. Therefore, volume-volume problems can be solved in just
moles B
one step: liters of gas A 3 5 liters of gas B.
moles A
As in mole-to-mole problems, you may also solve volume-
liters liters
volume problems using the relationship  .
coefficient coefficient

Quantitative Relationships in Chemical Reactions | 265

In the problem on page 265, we would obtain the relationship
11.2 liters x liters

1 N2 3 H2
Cross multiply to get the correct answer, x 5 33.6 liters.
Note that the one-step method of solving volume-volume
problems is based on the fact that equal moles of different gases
have the same volumes. However, equal moles of different gases
do not have the same masses! Therefore, problems involving mass
cannot be solved this way.

SAMPLE PROBLEMS
PROBLEM
1. Consider the reaction

C3H8(g) 1 5 O2(g) h 3 CO2(g) 1 4 H2O(g)

How many liters of oxygen are required to produce 45 liters
of carbon dioxide?

SOLUTION
Since this is a volume-volume problem, it can be solved directly,
in one step, using the mole ratio from the balanced equation.
5 moles O2
45 L CO2 3 5 75 L O2
3 moles CO2

liters liters
Or, using  we can write
coefficient coefficient
45 L CO2 x L O2
 ; x 5 75 L O2.
3 CO2 5 O2

PROBLEM
2. In the same reaction, how many liters of oxygen at STP
would react with 22 grams of C3H8?

SOLUTION
Since this problem expresses one of the quantities in grams,
you cannot use the method shown in Sample Problem 1.

266 | Chapter 7: Chemical Calculations

 This problem requires a three-step solution. First, change the
given mass of C3H8 to moles. The molar mass is 44 grams/mole.
22 g C3H8
5 0.50 mole C3H8
44 g/mole
Next, use the mole ratio to find the number of moles of O2.
5 moles O2
0.50 mole C3H8 3 5 2.5 moles O2
1 mole C3H8
Finally, convert the moles of O2 to liters at STP.
2.5 moles O2 3 22.4 L/mole 5 56 L O2

PRACTICE
7.28 In the reaction,
N2(g) 1 3 H2(g) h 2 NH3(g)
how many liters of hydrogen are needed to react com-
pletely with 30 liters of nitrogen?
7.29 In the reaction,
S8(s) 1 12 O2(g) h 8 SO3(g)
(a) How many liters of oxygen gas are needed to produce
24 liters of SO3?
(b) How many moles of S8 must be burned to produce
89.6 liters of SO3 at STP?
(c) Why CAN’T the method used in part (a) of this prob-
lem be used to find the volume of S8 required to pro-
duce 24 liters of SO3 at STP?

TAKING A CLOSER LOOK

Chemistry in the Real World

When chemical reactions are carried out in the laboratory, the
results are not always the same as those predicted by the balanced

Taking a Closer Look | 267

equation. Chemists are able to adjust their calculations to the
conditions in which they work. This section will familiarize you
with the “real world” of chemistry.

Limiting Factors
Thus far you have predicted quantities in chemical reactions
based upon the amount of just one of the reactants. For example,
in the reaction
2 Al 1 6 HCl h 2 AlCl3 1 3 H2
you can predict the amount of hydrogen produced from 54 grams
of aluminum. The number of moles of aluminum is
54 g Al
5 2.0 moles Al
27 g/mole
The 2.0 moles of aluminum would produce 3.0 moles, or 6.0
grams, of hydrogen. This solution is based on the assumption
that enough HCl is present to react with all the aluminum.
Suppose, however, that you reacted 54 grams of aluminum with
145 grams of hydrochloric acid. How many grams of hydrogen
would be produced?
When you are predicting the results of a reaction based on the
amounts of two or more reactants, you need to know which reac-
tant is going to be used up in the reaction. This is called the lim-
iting reactant. The amount of product is determined by the
amount of limiting reactant. The other reactants are said to be in
excess. Some amount of excess reactants will be left unreacted
when the reaction is complete.
To find the limiting reactant, you first change all quantities
to moles. We already know there are 2.0 moles of aluminum.
The 145 grams of HCl is 4.0 moles of HCl. Which is the limiting
reactant? You have seen that 2.0 moles of Al could produce 3.0
moles of H2. The 4.0 moles of HCl would produce 2.0 moles
of H2.
3 moles H2
4.0 moles HCl 3 5 2.0 moles H2
6 moles HCl
Since the HCl can produce less product, it must be the limiting
reactant. The 4.0 moles of HCl can react with 1.3 moles of Al.

268 | Chapter 7: Chemical Calculations

 2 moles Al
4.0 moles HCl 3 5 1.3 moles Al
6 moles HCl
There would be 0.7 mole of Al left unreacted (2.0 moles initially
21.3 moles reacted). The amount of hydrogen produced would
be 2.0 moles, or 4.0 grams. The amount of product is determined
by the limiting reactant. The limiting reactant is the reactant that
produces the smallest quantity of product.
Limiting reactant problems are often solved through the use
of a “reaction chart.” In a reaction chart, you list the initial num-
ber of moles, the change, and the final number of moles of each
substance, under the balanced equation. The problem above
would be laid out as follows:
2 Al 1 6 HCl h 2 AlCl3 1 3 H2
Initial moles 2.0 4.0 0 0
Change 21.3 24.0 11.3 12.0
Final 0.7 0 1.3 2.0
Note that the limiting reactant, the HCl, is used up, so that there
are no moles of HCl in the final mixture. Note also that all entries
in the “change” row must be in the same ratio as the coefficients.
Once we know that 4.0 moles of HCl are used up, we can calcu-
2 Al
late that there must be 4.0 mole HCl 3 5 1.3 mole Al used
6 HCl
up. The other changes in moles are found similarly.

SAMPLE PROBLEMS
PROBLEM
1. What is the maximum amount of water that could be
formed when 4.0 grams of hydrogen gas is burned in
24 grams of oxygen?

2 H2 1 O2 h 2 H2O

SOLUTION
First, find the limiting factor. Change each mass to moles.

Taking a Closer Look | 269

 4.0 g H2
 2.0 moles H2
2.0 g/mole
24 g O2
 0.75 mole O2
32 g/mole
Two moles of H2 could produce 2.0 moles of H2O. The 0.75
mole of O2 could produce 1.5 moles of H2O. Therefore, the
oxygen, which produces less product, is the limiting reac-
tant. You will produce 1.5 moles of H2O, or 1.5 moles 3 18
g/mole 5 27 g H2O.

PROBLEM
2. When 4.0 grams of hydrogen is reacted with 24 grams
of oxygen, as in Sample Problem 1, above, how much
hydrogen is left unreacted?

SOLUTION
It has already been determined that the limiting reactant is
the 24 g, or 0.75 mole of O2. The amount of hydrogen that
can react with 0.75 mole of O2 in this reaction is
2 moles H2
0.75 mole O2 3 5 1.5 moles H2.
1 mole O2
Since we began with 2.0 moles of H2 and only 1.5 moles
react, there is 0.5 mole, or 1 g, of H2 left unreacted. Note
that 24 g of oxygen reacted with 4.0 g of hydrogen to pro-
duce 27 g of water (see Sample Problem 1) and left 1.0 gram
of hydrogen unreacted. There was a total of 28 g of reactant
before the reaction, and after the reaction there are 27 g of
product and 1 g of unreacted reactant for a total of 28 g. The
total mass of a reactant remains the same during any chemi-
cal reaction.

The reaction chart for the system would look like this:
2 H2 1 O2 h 2 H2O

Initial moles 2.0 0.75 0

Change 21.5 20.75 11.5
Final 0.5 0 1.5

270 | Chapter 7: Chemical Calculations

PRACTICE
7.30 2 C2H6 1 7 O2 h 4 CO2 1 6 H2O
Above is the reaction for the complete combustion of
ethane gas.
(a) What is the maximum mass of water that can be pro-
duced when 9.0 grams of ethane and 16 grams of oxy-
gen react until one of the reactants is completely con-
sumed?
(b) How many moles of the excess reactant remain when
the reaction is complete?

The Percent Yield

When chemical reactions are performed in the laboratory, they
do not always produce the amounts of product predicted from the
chemical equation. There may be other reactions taking place at
the same time as the principal reaction. These are called side reac-
tions. For example, the combustion of gasoline in a car engine pro-
duces carbon dioxide and water. However, the quantity of carbon
dioxide produced is less than predicted from the balanced chemi-
cal equation because the reaction also produces some carbon
monoxide. A badly tuned engine may produce some carbon (seen
as black soot in the exhaust fumes) due to incomplete combustion
of the fuel. Some reactions produce less product than expected due
to equilibrium considerations. (Equilibrium will be discussed in
Chapter 10.) The percent yield is a comparison of the actual
amount of product, to the theoretical quantity, calculated from the
balanced equation. The percent yield is found using the formula:
actual yield
percent yield 5 3 100
theoretical yield

SAMPLE PROBLEM
PROBLEM
The reaction
MnO2 1 4 HCl h MnCl2 1 Cl2 1 2 H2O

Taking a Closer Look | 271

 is often used to prepare chlorine gas in the laboratory.
When 174 grams of MnO2 is reacted with excess HCl, 120
grams of chlorine gas is produced. What is the percent
yield?

SOLUTION
First, use the balanced equation to calculate the theoretical
yield.
174 g MnO2
 2.00 moles MnO2
86.9 g/mole
1 mole Cl2
2.00 moles MnO2 3  2.00 moles Cl2
1 mole MnO2
2.00 moles Cl2 3 70.9 g/mole  142 g Cl2
The theoretical amount of product is 142 g. The actual yield
was 120. g. Thus the percent yield is
120. g
3 100 5 84.5%
142 g

PRACTICE
7.31 Oxygen is produced by the decomposition of hydrogen
peroxide, through the reaction
2 H2O2 h 2 H2O 1 O2
Starting with 34 grams of H2O2, a student was able to col-
lect 12 grams of O2. What was the percent yield?

Using the Gas Laws

All of our calculations thus far in this chapter have been done
at STP. Our laboratory work, however, is done at room tempera-
ture, which is warmer than standard temperature. You will recall
that the volume of a gas depends on temperature and pressure. If

272 | Chapter 7: Chemical Calculations

you are collecting gases under conditions other than STP, you
must adjust any calculations involving gas volumes. By using the
gas laws (see Chapter 1), you can correct gas volumes in accor-
dance with your working conditions.

SAMPLE PROBLEMS
PROBLEM
1. Hydrogen is often collected in the laboratory using the
reaction

Zn(s) 1 2 HCl(aq) h ZnCl2(aq) 1 H2(g).

If at standard pressure, 0.65 gram zinc is reacted with excess
hydrochloric acid, how many liters of hydrogen gas would
be produced at a temperature of 20°C?

SOLUTION
First, find the volume of hydrogen that would be produced
at STP. Change the grams of zinc to moles.
0.65 g Zn
5 0.010 mole Zn
65 g/mole
Since the mole ratio of H2 to Zn is 1 to 1, 0.010 mole of H2
must be produced. At STP, 0.010 mole H2 3 22.4 L/mole 5
0.224 L of H2. Now, apply the gas laws. Since only the tem-
perature differs from standard, you can use Charles’ Law,
V1 V2

T1 T2
V1 is our volume at STP, 0.224 L. V2 is the new volume. T1 is
the temperature at STP, 273 K. T2 is our working temperature
of 20°C, which must be converted to 293 K.
V1 3 T2
V2 5
T1
0.224 L 3 293 K
0.240 L 5
273 K

Taking a Closer Look | 273

 PROBLEM
2. The reaction

2 KClO3 h 2 KCl 1 3 O2
is often used to prepare oxygen in the laboratory. If you are
working at a pressure of 98.6 kilopascals and a temperature
of 20°C, what is the maximum mass of KClO3 needed to fill
four 50-milliliter collection jars with oxygen?

SOLUTION
You need to collect 4 3 50 mL 5 200 mL of oxygen. To
determine the amount of KClO3 required, you must first
convert the quantity of oxygen to moles. Since the oxygen
is not at STP, its molar volume would not be 22.4 L. You
need to find the volume of oxygen at STP by using the com-
bined gas law,
P1V1 P2V2

T1 T2

In this case, V1 5 200 mL, T1 5 293 K, P1 5 98.6 kPa, P2 is

standard pressure, 101.3 kPa, and T2 is standard temperature,
273 K. Using the equation above,
T2P1V1
V2 5
T1P2
273 K 3 98.6 kPa 3 200 mL
181 mL O2 5
293 K 3 101.3 kPa

The volume at STP would be 181 mL, or 0.181 L. Now you

can convert the volume to moles.
0.181 L O2
5 0.00808 mole O2
22.4 L/mole

You can now use the balanced equation to find the required
moles of KClO3.
2 moles KClO3
0.00808 mole O2 3
3 moles O2
5 0.00539 mole KClO3

274 | Chapter 7: Chemical Calculations

 Finally, multiply 0.00539 mole KClO3 by the molar mass of
KClO3, 122.6 g/mole.
0.00539 mole KClO3 3 122.6 g/mole 5 0.661 g KClO3

PRACTICE
7.32 (a) How many liters of oxygen could be obtained at stan-
dard pressure, and a temperature of 25°C, from the
complete decomposition of 34 grams of H2O2?
(b) At 25°C, how many grams of oxygen would be pro-
duced from the complete decomposition of 34 grams
of H2O2?

Burning in Air
Most combustion reactions take place in air, rather than in
pure oxygen. Since the air is roughly 20 percent oxygen, or one-
fifth oxygen by volume, it takes about five times as many liters of
air for complete combustion as it would pure oxygen.

SAMPLE PROBLEM
PROBLEM
How many liters of air will completely burn 1.0 liter of H2 at
STP? The reaction is 2 H2 1 O2 h 2 H2O.

SOLUTION
This is a volume-volume problem, so the liters of oxygen
required can be found using the mole ratio from the bal-
anced equation.
1 mole O2
1.0 L H2 3 5 0.5 L O2
2 moles H2
Since air is roughly one-fifth oxygen, there is five times more
air required than oxygen.
5 L air
0.5 L O2 3 5 2.5 L air
1 L O2

Taking a Closer Look | 275

PRACTICE
7.33 How many liters of air are needed to burn 11.2 liters of
octane, C8H18, at STP?

Graham’s Law
Thomas Graham investigated the relationship between the
rate of diffusion of a gas and the mass of the gas. Graham’s law
states: At constant temperature and pressure, the rates of diffu-
sion of gases are inversely proportional to the square root of their
molecular masses (or their densities, since densities are propor-
tional to molelecular masses). Graham’s law can be expressed
mathematically as
R1 M2

R2 B M1
In this equation, R1 is the rate of diffusion of a gas with molec-
ular mass M1, and R2 is the rate of diffusion of a second gas with
molecular mass M2.

SAMPLE PROBLEM
PROBLEM
Hydrogen gas has a molecular mass of 2. Oxygen gas has a
molecular mass of 32. How do the rates of diffusion of these
two gases compare?

SOLUTION
Let M 1 represent the molecular mass of hydrogen gas and R1
the rate of diffusion of hydrogen. Let M 2 represent the
molecular mass of oxygen gas and R2 represent the rate of
diffusion of oxygen. Then,
R1 32
  216  4
R2 B 2
The rate of diffusion of hydrogen molecules is four times the
rate of diffusion of oxygen molecules.

276 | Chapter 7: Chemical Calculations

PRACTICE
7.34 Compare the rates of diffusion of neon and krypton.

CHAPTER REVIEW

The following questions will help you check your understanding

of the material presented in the chapter.
1. The number of moles in 2.16 grams of silver is (1) 2.00 3
1022 (2) 4.59 3 1022 (3) 2.00 3 102 (4) 2.33 3 102.
2. What is the percentage by mass of oxygen in CuO? (1) 16
percent (2) 20 percent (3) 25 percent (4) 50 percent
3. The percentage by mass of hydrogen in H3PO4 is equal to
1 3 100 3 3 100 98 3 100 98 3 100
(1) (2) (3) (4)
98 98 3 1
4. What is the approximate percentage composition by mass of
CaBr2 (formula mass 5 200)? (1) 20 percent calcium and 80
percent bromine (2) 25 percent calcium and 75 percent
bromine (3) 30 percent calcium and 70 percent bromine
(4) 35 percent calcium and 65 percent bromine
5. A compound contains 50 percent sulfur and 50 percent oxy-
gen by mass. The empirical formula of this compound is
(1) SO (2) SO2 (3) SO3 (4) SO4.
6. Which compound contains the greatest percentage of oxygen
by mass? (1) BaO (2) CaO (3) MgO (4)SrO
7. Given the reaction N2 1 3 H2 h 2 NH3, how many grams
of ammonia are produced when 1.0 mole of nitrogen reacts?
(1) 8.5 (2) 17 (3) 34 (4) 68
8. The empirical formula of a compound is CH2. The molecular
formula of this compound could be (1) CH4 (2) C2H2
(3) C2H4 (4) C3H3.

Chapter Review | 277

 9. According to the balanced equation
Cu 1 4 HNO3 h Cu(NO3)2 1 2 H2O 1 2 NO2(g)
how many moles of nitric acid are necessary to react with 3.0
moles of copper? (1) 0.75 (2) 4 (3) 3.0 (4) 12
10. The number of molecules present in 76 grams of fluorine (F2)
gas is equal to
76 3 6 3 1023
(1) 76 3 6 3 1023 (3)
38
76 76 3 6 3 1023
(2) (4)
6 3 1023 19
11. Given the balanced equation
3 PbCl2 1 Al2(SO4)3 h 3 PbSO4 1 2 AlCl3
how many moles of PbSO4 will be formed when 0.050 mole
of Al2(SO4)3 is consumed? (1) 0.05 (2) 0.15 (3) 0.30
(4) 0.50
12. Which of the following samples contains the greatest num-
ber of moles? (1) 40. grams of NaOH (2) 24 grams of H2O
(3) 200. g of PbS (4) 250. g of PbSO4
13. How many moles of CaCO3 are there in 20. grams of CaCO3?
(1) 0.20 (2) 5.0 (3) 20. (4) 2000
Base your answers to questions 14 and 15 on the following infor-
mation.
Oxygen and hydrogen gas are produced by the electrolysis of
water according to the following equation:
elect.
2 H2O(l) h 2 H2(g) 1 O2(g)
14. How many moles of oxygen are produced in the electrolysis
of 4.0 moles of water? (1) 2.0 (2) 4.0 (3) 6.0 (4) 8.0
15. How many liters of hydrogen gas at STP are produced in the
electrolysis of 90 grams of water? (1) 10.0 (2) 22.4 (3) 56.0
(4) 112
Base your answers to questions 16 through 18 on the following
information.
One mole of potassium permanganate (KMnO4) reacts com-
pletely with hydrochloric acid according to the reaction:

278 | Chapter 7: Chemical Calculations

 16 HCl 1 2 KMnO4 h 2 KCl 1 2 MnCl2 1 5 Cl2 1 8 H2O
16. How many moles of water are produced? (1) 1 (2) 2 (3) .5
(4) 4
17. How many grams of potassium chloride are produced?
(1) 1 (2) 37 (3) 74 (4) 148
18. How many liters of chlorine measured at STP are produced?
(1) 11.2 (2) 22.4 (3) 56.0 (4) 112
19. What is the volume of 0.500 mole of an ideal gas at STP?
(1) 0.500 L (2) 11.2 L (3) 22.4 L (4) 44.8 L
20. The volume occupied by 3.01 3 1023 molecules of NO2 gas
at STP is closest to (1) 0.500 L (2) 1.00 L (3) 11.2 L
(4) 22.4 L.
21. According to the reaction N2(g) 1 3 H2(g) h 2 NH3(g), how
many liters of hydrogen are required to produce exactly 3.0
liters of ammonia? (1) 1.5 (2) 2.0 (3) 4.5 (4) 6.0
22. What is the total volume, in liters, occupied by 56.0 grams
of nitrogen gas at STP? (1) 11.2 (2) 22.4 (3) 33.6 (4) 44.8
23. Given the reaction C3H8(g) 1 5 O2(g) h 4 H2O(g) 1 3
CO2(g), what is the total number of liters of CO2 produced
when 150 liters of O2 react completely with C3H8? (1) 3.0
(2) 90 (3) 150 (4) 250
24. Eleven grams of a gas occupy 5.6 liters at STP. What is the
molecular mass of this gas? (1) 11 (2) 22 (3) 44 (4) 88
25. What is the mass of 1.00 mole of a gas if 28.0 grams of this
gas occupy 22.4 L at STP? (1) 1.0 g (2) 1.25 g (3) 22.4 g
(4) 28.0 g
26. What is the mass in grams of 22.4 liters of O2 gas at STP?
(1) 8 (2) 16 (3) 32 (4) 64
27. Fourteen grams of a gas occupy 11.2 liters at STP. The gas may
be (1) carbon monoxide (2) hydrogen sulfide (3) hydrogen
chloride (4) sulfur dioxide.
28. A liter of chlorine at STP has a mass of approximately (1) 0.3 g
(2) 1 g (3) 1.5 g (4) 3 g.
29. Given the reaction H2(g) 1 I2(s) h 2 HI(g), what is the vol-
ume of hydrogen required to produce 22.4 liters of HI at STP?
(1) 1.00 L (2) 2.00 L (3) 11.2 L (4) 22.4 L

Chapter Review | 279

30. What is the volume occupied by 2.00 grams of helium at
STP? (1) 22.4 L (2) 11.2 L (3) 4.00 L (4) 2.00 L
31. What is the volume occupied by 9.03 3 1023 molecules of an
ideal gas at STP? (1) 14.9 L (2) 22.4 L (3) 33.6 L (4) 67.2 L
32. Which gas has a density of 1.34 grams/liter at STP? (1) NO2
(2) NO (3) N2 (4) H2
33. If 6.02 3 1023 molecules of N2 react according to the equation
N2 1 3 H2 h 2 NH3, the total number of molecules of NH3
produced is (1) 1.00 (2) 2.00 (3) 6.02 3 1023 (4) 12.0 3 1023.
34. The number of atoms in 2 grams of calcium is equal to
2 3 6.02 3 1023 6.02 3 1023
(1) (3)
40 2 3 40
40 3 6.02 3 1023
(2) (4) 2 3 40 3 6.02 3 1023
2
35. What are the products of the electrolysis of one mole of water at
STP? (1) 11.2 L of O2 and 22.4 L of H2 (2) 22.4 L of O2 and 22.4
L of H2 (3) 16 g of O2 and 8 g of H2 (4) 32 g of O2 and 2 g of H2
36. If the density of gas X at STP is 1.00 grams/liter, the mass of one
mole of this gas is (1) 1.00 g (2) 2.00 g (3) 11.2 g (4) 22.4 g.
37. The number of atoms of hydrogen in 1.00 mole of NH3 is
equal to (1) 6.02 3 1023 (2) 2(6.02 3 1023) (3) 3(6.02 3 1023)
(4) 4(6.02 3 1023).
38. A 60-gram sample of LiCl ? H2O is heated in an open crucible
until all of the water has been driven off. What is the total
mass of LiCl remaining in the crucible? (1) 18 g (2) 24 g
(3) 42 g (4) 60 g

CHEMISTRY CHALLENGE

The following questions will provide practice in answering SAT II-

type questions.
For each question in this section, one or more of the responses
given are correct. Decide which of the responses is (are) correct.

280 | Chapter 7: Chemical Calculations

Then choose
(a) if only I is correct;
(b) if only II is correct;
(c) if only I and II are correct;
(d) if only II and III are correct;
(e) if I, II, and III are correct.
Summary: Choice (a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
Correct statement(s): I II I & II II & III All

1. The volume of one mole at STP is 22.4 liters for

I. water
II. neon
III. nitrogen.
2. In the reaction N2 1 3 H2 h 2 NH3 the quantity of hydro-
gen needed to produce 34 grams of NH3 at STP is
I. 3.0 moles
II. 67.2 L
III. 3.0 g.
3. The possible molar mass of a substance with the empirical
formula CH2 is
I. 28 g
II. 56 g
III. 140 g.
4. Two moles of nitrogen gas at STP has
I. a density of 0.625 g/L
II. a volume of 44.8 L
III. a mass of 28 g.
5. The percent composition of C6H12O6 by mass is
I. 40 percent carbon
II. 50 percent hydrogen
III. 25 percent oxygen.
6. Which is (are) equivalent to 0.500 mole of Ar gas at 273 K
and a pressure of 2.00 atm?
I. 5.6 L
II. 3.01 3 1023 atoms
III. 20 g
7. In the reaction
2 CO 1 O2 h 2 CO2

Chemistry Challenge | 281

 the maximum quantity of CO2 obtainable when 4 moles of
CO are reacted with 1.5 moles of O2 at STP is
I. 2 moles
II. 132 g
III. 89.6 L.
8. The volume of 0.010 mole of He at STP is
I. 0.04 g
II. 0.224 L
III. 224 mL.
9. The quantity of gas needed to completely burn 12 grams of
carbon to produce CO2 at STP is
I. 32 g O2.
II. 22.4 L O2.
III. 112 L air.
10. Which molecule(s) is (are) 50% sulfur by mass?
I. SO
II. SO2
III. S2O4

282 | Chapter 7: Chemical Calculations