Chapter 7

Corre-lation Analysis
INTRODUCTION
So far we have studied problems relating to one variable only. In business we come across a large
number of problems involving the use of two or more. than two variables'. If two quantities vary in such
a way that movements in one are accompanied by movements in the other, these quantities are said to be
correlated. For example, there exists some relationship between family income and expenditure on luxury·
items, price of a commodity and amount demanded, increase in rainfall up to a point and production of
rice, an increase in the number of television licences and number of cinema admissions, etc. The statistical
tool with the help of which these relationships between two or more than two variables is studied is
called correlation*.The measure ofcorrelation called the coefficient of correlation (denoted by the
symbol r) summarizes in one figure the direction and degree of correlation. Thus correlation analysis
refers to the techniques used in measuring the closeness of the relationship between the variables. A
very simple definition, of correlation is that given by A.M. Tuttle. He defines correlation as : "An analy-
sis of the covariation of two or more variables is usually called correlation." _
· The problem of analysing the relation between different series should be broken down into three
steps':
(I) Determining whether a relation exists and, if it does, measuring it;
(2) Testing whether it is significant; and
(3) Establishing the cause-and-effect relations, if any.
In this chapter only the first aspect will be discussed. For second aspect a reference may be made to
chapter on Tests on Hypothesis. The third aspect in the analysis, that of establishing the cause-effect
relation; 'is beyond the scope of this text. An extremely high and significant correlation between the
increase in smoking and increase in lung cancer would not prove that smoking causes lung cancer.
It should be noted that the detection and analysis of correlation ii.e., convariation) between two
statistical variables requires relationship of some sort which associates the observation in pairs, one of
each pair being a value of each of the two variables. In general, the pairing relationship may be of almost
any nature, such as observations at the same time or place or over a period of time or different places.
Significance of the Study of Correlation
The study of correlation is of immense use in practical life because of the following reasons :
1. Most of the variables show some kind of relationship between price and supply, income and
expenditure, etc. With the help of correlation analysis we can measure in one· figure the degree of
relationship existing between the variables.
*"When· the relationship is of a quantitative nature, the appropriate statistical tool for discovering and measuring the
relationshipand expressing it in a brief formula is known as correlation." -Croxton and Cowden: Applied General Statistics.
200 Business Statistics
2. Once we know that two variables are closely related, we can estimate the value of one variable
given the va\ue·of anotl)er. 1'h\s is done with the help of regression analysis which is discussed in the
next chapter.
3. Correlation analysis contributes to the economic behaviour, aids in locating the critically impor•
tant variables on which others depend, may reveal to the economist the connection by which distur•
bances spread and suggest to him the paths through which stabilising forces become effective.
In business, correlation analysis enables the executive to estimate costs, sales, price and other vari•
ables on the basis of some other series with which these costs, sales, or prices may be functionally related.
Some of the guesswork can be removed from decisions when the relationship between. a variable to be
e'S.\.\.m.a.\.e~ a.n.~\.\\.e ()n.e ()'{ ID.()'{e ()\.\\.e'{'l'a.'{\a\)\.e~ ()"<\. 'N\\.\..c\\.\.\. ~e~e~~~ a"te c'\f;:)~~'6.~~ 't~'6.~~~'6.~\.~\'t\.'1'6.'t\~\...
4. Progressive development in the methods of science and philosophy has been characterised bJ
increase in the knowledge of relationship or correlations. Nature has been found to be multiplicity of
inter-related forces.
However, it should be noted that coefficient of correlation is one of the most widely used and also
one of the mostwidely abused statistica} measures. It is abused in the sense that one sometimes over•
looks the fact that correlation measures nothing but the strength of linear relationships and that it does
not necessarily imply a relationship.
Correlation and Causation
Correlation analysis helps us in determining the degree of relationship between two or more vari•
ables-it does not tell us anything about cause-effect relationship. Even a high degree of correlation
does not necessarily mean that a relationship of cause and effect exists between the variables or, simply
stated, correlation does not necessarily imply causation or functional relationship though the existence
of causation always implies correlation. By itself it establishes only covariation. The explanation of
significant degree of correlation may be a!ly_ one, or a combination of the following factors :
1. The correlation may be due to pure chance, especially in a small sample. We may get a high
degree of correlation between two variables in the sample but in the universe, there may not be any
relationship between the variables at all. This is especially so in case of small samples. Such a correlation
may arise either because of pure random sampling variation or because of the bias of the investigator in
selecting the sample. The following example shall illustrate the point :
Advertisement expenditure Sales
(Rs. lakhs) (Rs. crores)
25 120
35 140
45 160
55 180
65 200
The above data show a perfect positive relationship between advertisement expenditure and sales, .
i.e., as the advertisement expenditure is increasing, the sales are also increasing and the ratio of change
between the two variables is the same. However, such a situation is rare in practice.
2. Both the correlated variables may be influenced by one or more other variables. It is just possible ·
that a high degree of correlation between the variables may be due to the same causes affecting each ·
variable or different causes affecting each with the same effect. For example, a high degree of correlation
between the yield _per acre of rice and tea may be due to the fact that both are related to the amount of
rainfall. But none of the two variables is the cause of the other.
Correlation Analysis 201
3. Both the variables may be mutually influencing each other so that neither can be designated as
the cause and the other the effect. There may be a high degree of correlation between the variables but
it may be difficult to pinpoint as to which is the cause and which is the effect. This is especially likely to
be so in· case of economic variables. For example, such variables as demand and supply, price and
production, etc., mutually interact. To take a specific case, it is a well-known principle of economics that
as the price of a commodity increases, its demand goes down and so price is the cause and demand the
effect. But it is also possible that increased demand of a commodity due to growth of population or other
reasons may force its price up. Now the cause is the increased demand, the effect the price. Thus at times
it may become difficult to explain from the two correlated variables which is the cause and which is the
effect because both may be reacting on each other.
The above points clearly bring out the fact that correlation does not manifest causation or functional
relationship. By itself, it establishes only covariation. Correlation observed between variables that could
not conceivably be causally related are called spurious or nonsense correlation. More appropriately, we
should remember that it is the interpretation of the degree of correlation that is spurious, not the degree
of correlation itself. The high degree of correlation indicates only the mathematical result. .We should
reach-aconclusion based-orrtogtcalreasoning and intelligent investigation on significantly related matters.
A last word of warning: Errors in correlation analysis include not only reading causation into spurious
correlation but also interpreting spuriously a perfectly valid association.
Types of Correlatiori
Correlation is described or classified in several different ways. Three of the most important are :
(i) Positive and negative ; ·
'
(ii) Simple, partial and multiple ; and
(iii) Linear and non-linear.
(i) Positive and Negative Correlation. Whether correlation is positive (direct) or negative (in•
verse) would depend upon the direction of change of the variable. If both the variables are varying in the
same direction, i.e., if onevariable is increasing the other on an average is also increasing or;.if one
variable is decreasing the other on an average is also decreasing, correlation is said to be positive. If, on
the other hand, the variables are varying in opposite directions, i.e., as one variable is increasing the
other is decreasing or vice versa, correlation is said to be negative. The following examples would
illustrate positive and negative correlation :
POSITIVE CORRELATION POSITIVE CORRELATION .
x y x y
IO 15 80 50
12 20 70 45
11 22 60 30
18 25 40 20
20. 37 30 10
NEGATIVE CORRELATION 1 NEGATIVE CORRELATION
x y x y
20 40 100 10
30 30 9Q 20
i 40 22 60 30
60 15 40 40
80 16 30 50
(ii) Simple, Partial and Multiple Correlation. The distinction between simple, partial and multi•
ple correlation is based upon the number of variables studied. When only two variables are studied it is
a problem of simple correlation. When three or more variables are studied it is a problem of either
multiple or partial correlation. In multiple correlation three or more variables are studied simultane•
ously. For example, when we study the relationship between the yield of rice per acre and both the
amount of rainfall and the amount of fertilisers used, it is a problem of multiple correlation. Similarly,
the relationship of plastic hardness, temperature and pressure is multivariate. In partial correlation we
recognise more than two variables. But consider only two variables to be influencing each other, the
effect of other influencing variable being kept constant. F~r example, in the rice problem taken above if
we limit our correlation analysis of yield and rainfall to periods when a certain average daily tempera•
ture existed, it becomes a problem of partial correlation. In this chapter, we shall study problems relating
to simple correlation only.
(iii) Linear and Non-linear (Curvilinear) Correlation. The distinction between linear and non•
linear correlation is based upon the constancy of the ratio ofchange between the variables. If the amount
of change in one variable tends to bear a constant ratio to the amount of change in the other variable,
then the correlation is said to be linear. For example, observe the following two variables X and Y:
x: 10 20 30 40 50
f: 70 140 2)0 280 350
It is clear that the ratio of change between the two variables is the same. If such variables are plotted
on a graph paper, all the plotted points would fall on a straight line.
Correlation would be called non-linear or curvilinear if the amount of change in one variable does
not bear a constant ratio to the amount of change in the other variable. For example, if we double the
amount of rainfall, the production of rice or wheat, etc., would not necessarily be doubled. It may be
pointed out that in most practical cases we find a non-linear relationship between the variables. How•
ever, since techniques of analysis for measuring non-linear correlation are far more complicated than
those for linear correlation, we generally make an assumption that the relationship between the variables
is of the linear type. ,..
The following two diagrams will illustrate the difference between linear and curvilinear correlation:
POSITIVE LINEAR CORRELATION CURVILINEAR CORRELATION
~--------~i
•
•
y
y
•
•
x x
METHODS OF STUDYING CORRELATION

The following are the important methods of ascertaining whether two variables are correlated or not:
I. Scatter Diagram Method ;
II. Karl Pearson's Coefficient of Correlation ;
III. Spearman 's Rank Correlation Coefficient ; and
IV. Method of Least Squares."
Of these, the first one is based on the knowledge of graphs whereas the others are the mathematical
methods. Each of these methods shall.be discusse~ in detail in the following pages.
I. SCATTER DIAGRAM METHOD
The simplest device for studying correlation in two variables is a special type of dot chart called
dotogram or scatter diagram. When this method is used, the given data are plotted on a graph paper in
the form of dots, i.e., for each pair of Xand Yvalues we put dots and thus obtain as many points as the
number of observations. By looking to the scatter of the various points, we can form an idea as to
whether the variables are related or not. The more the plotted points "scatter" over a chart, the
lesser is the degree of relationship in between the two variables. The more nearly the points come
to the line, the higher the degree of relationship. If all the points lie on a straight line falling from
the lower left-hand corner to the upper right-hand corner, correlation is said to be perfectly positive
(i.e., r = + 1) (diagram I). On the other hand, if all the points are lying on a straight line rising from
the upper left-hand corner to the lower right-hand corner of the diagram, correlation is said to be
PERFECT PCEfll\E <IRR8AIICN PERFECT N'GAll\£ cr:RRHATICN
y y
" x x
I II
perfectly negative (i.e., r = -1) (diagram II). If the plotted points fall in a narrow band, there
would be a high degree of correlation between the variables-correlation shall be positive if the
points show a rising tendency from the lower left-hand corner to the upper right-hand corner
(diagram III) and negative if the points show a declining tendency from upper left-hand corner to
the lower right-hand comer of the diagram (diagram IV). On the other hand, if the points are widely
HG-i IRREECF
~11\£ tt:RRRA1I{N
x x
x x
x
y x x y x x
x x x
x x
x
x x
III IV
*This methodis discussed in detail in Chapter on 'Regression Analysis'.
204 Business Statistics .
scattered over the diagrams it indicates very low degree of relationship between the variables-.
correlation shall be positive if the points are rising from the lower left-hand corner to the upper
right-hand corner (diagram V) and negative if the points are running from the upper left-hand side
to the lower right-hand side to the diagram (diagram VJ). If the plotted points lie on a straight line
parallel to the X-axis, or in a haphazard manner, it shows the absence of any relationship between
the variables (i.e., r = 0) as shown by diagram VII.
IOIV llGRIE CF lDNI:RREECF
K:SITI\£ <IRRHA1TCN N'GA.11\E a::RRH.!illCN
x x X· x
x x
x x x x
x x
x x
y x x y x x
x x
x x
x x x
x x
x x
x x x
x
x x x
x
x x
v VI
NO CORRELATION (r = 0)
x x
x x
x x
,.. x x x
x
y x x x
x
x x x x
x x x
x
VII
Illustration 1. Given the following pairs of values :
Capital employed (Rs. Crore) : 1 2 3 4 5 7 8 9 11 12
Profits (Rs. Lakhs) : 3 5 4 7 9 8 IO 11 12 14
(a) Make a scatter diagram.
(b) Do you think that there is any correlation between profits and capital employed? Is it positive? Is it high or low?
Solution. By looking at the scatter diagram we can say that the variables : profits and capital employed are correlated.
Further, correlation is positive because the trend to the points is upward rising from the lower left-hand comer to the upper right•
hand comer of the diagram. The diagram also indicates that the degree of relationship is high because the plotted points are in a narrow
band which shows that it is a case of high degree of positive correlation.
14 •
•
-en
..c:
~
12
•
<ti
_J
10 •
ui •
-
a:
~
8
•
• \
<;;
u:
·oa: 6
Q. •
4 •
•
2
0
. 2
.~--~--~--~--~--~--x
4 6 8 10 12
CAPITAL EMPLOYED (Rs. Crore)
Merits ·and Limitationsof the Method

Merits : 1. It is a simple and non-mathematical method of studying correlation between the vari•
ables. As such it can be easily understood and a rough idea can very quickly be formed as to whether or
not the variables are related. ·
2. It is not influenced by the size of extreme values whereas most of the mathematical methods of
finding correlation are influenced by extreme values.
3. Making a scatter diagram usually is the first step in investigating the relationship between the
variables.
Limitations. By applying this method we-can get an idea about the direction of correlation and also
whether it is high or low. But we cannot establish the exact degree of correlation between the variables
as is possible by applying the mathematical method.
II. KARL PEARSON'S COEFFICIENT OF CORRELATION
Of the several mathematical methods of measuring correlation, the Karl Pearson's method, popularly
known as Pearsonian coefficient of correlation, is most widely used in practice. The coefficient of cor•
relation is denoted by the symbol r. It is one of the very few symbols that is used universally for describ•
ing the degree and direction of relationship between two variables. If the two variables under study are
X and Y, the following formula suggested by Karl Pearson can be used for measuring the degree of
relationship.
:E(X - X) (Y -Y)
r = -;::=====-r====== ... (i)
~ :E(X - X)2 ~ :E(Y -Y)2
- -
where X and Y are the respective means of X and Yvariable.
The above formula can be written as :
L.xy
r* = --;:::=== ... (ii)
~:E.x2:Ey2
- -
. where x = (X - X ) and y = ( Y - Y ).
206 Business -Statlstics
. This formula is to be used only where the deviations are taken from actual means and not from
assumed means.
The coefficient of correlation can also be calculated from the original set of observations (i.e.,
without taking deviations from mean) by applying the following formula:
UY- ITLY
r** = --;:=====~;=N=====
~IT2 - (~)' 2 - ~LY (L:}'
NLXY-LXLY
= --;::======--.=======- ... (iii)
~ N LX2 - (LX)2 ~ N LY2 - (LY)2
The value of the coefficient of correlation as obtained by the above formula shall always lie between
+ 1. When r = + 1, it means there is perfect positive correlation between the variables. When r = -1, it
means there is perfect negative correlation between the variables. When r = 0, it means there is no
relationship between the two variables. However, in practice, such value of r as +I, -1, and 0 are rare.
We normally get values which lie between+ I and -I such as 0.8, -0.4, etc. The coefficient of correlation
describes not only the magnitude of correlation but also its direction. Thus, +0.8 would. mean that
correlation is positive because the sign of r is +ve and the magnitude of correlation is 0.8. ·
The following illustration wi11 clarify the procedure of computing the coefficient of correlation :
Illustration 2. Find correlation coefficient between the sales and expenses from the data given below :
Finn I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Sales (Rs. Lakhs) 50 . 50 55 60 65 65 65 60 60 50
Expenses (Rs. Lakhs) II 13 14 16 16 15 15 14 13 13
· *Thecoefficient of correlation can also be expressed in terms of covariance and variance as given below :
From (ii), we have .
"f.xy/N Cov[x,y] Cov[x,y]
r= . = =---
~'f.x2; N ~L.y2; N ~Var x, Vary O'x O'y
**This formula is derived from formula (i) as follows:

- -
r = L.<.._X - X) "L\Y - Y)
Opening the brackets, we get :
~ "f.(X- Xf ~ I.(Y- Y)2
:Ll'Y-NXY
r = --;======--;=:====
~ r.x2 - N x2 ~ r,y2 - N y2
'f.XY _ U. "f.Y
= N
R'
<
Ji:x' - (~)'
Nr.XY - ll"f.Y
= r=========::--;r==========
~ NU2 -(U)2 ~ N"f.Y2 -p:Y)2
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Solution. Let age and sick days be represented by variable X and Y respectively.
CALCULATIONOF CORRELATIONCOEFFICIENT
Age (X-43) Sick days (Y-14)
x dx d2
x
y dy d2
y dxdy
20 -23 529 11 -3 9 + 69
30 -13 169 12 -2 4 + 26
32 - 1I 121 10 -4 16 + 44
35 -8 64 13 -1 1 +8
40 -3 9 14 0 0 0
46 +3 9 16 +2 4 +6
52 +9 81 15 +1 1 +9
55 + 12 144 17 +3 9 + 36
58 + 15 225 18 +4 16 +60
62 + 19 361 19 +5 25 +95
LX= 430 Ld x =O Ld x 2= 1712 LY= 145 Edy =5 Ld y 2 = 85 Ld xdy = 353
N"I.dxdy -(Ld,.}("I.dy) IOx 353-(0)(-5)

r=
~N"I.d,.2 -(:Ed.)2 ~N:Ed/ -("I.dy)2 ~IO x 1712-(0)2 ~10 x 85-(-5)2
3530 3530
= = 0.939
~17120$25 130.85 x 28.72
Thus, there is a very high degree of positive correlation between age and sick days taken. Hence, we can conclude that
the age of an employee increases, he is liable to be sick more often than others.
Illustration 4. Find the coefficient of correlation by Karl Pearson's method between X and Y and interpret its value.
x 57 42 40 33 42 45 42 44 40 56 44 - 43
Y IO 60 30 41 29 27 27 . 19 18 19 31 29
(MBA, M.D. Univ; 2
Solution. CALCULATI6N OF KARL PEARSON'S CORRELATION COEFFICIENT
x \ (X-44) (Y- 30)

dx d2 y dy d2 dxd _
\ x
57 + 13 169 10 -20 400 -260
42 -2 4 60 + 30 900 -60
<,
40 -4 16 30 0 -, 0 0
33 - 11 121 41 + 11 121 - 121
42 -2 4 29 -1 1 +2
45 + I I 27 -3 9 -3
42 -2 4 27 -3 9 +6
44 0 19 - 11 121 0
~
40 -4· 16 18 -12 144 + 48
56 + 12 144 19 - 11 121 -132
44 0 0 31 +I 0
43 - 1 29 - I +1
LX= 528 Ld x =O L dx2 = 480 LY= 340 Ldy =-20 Ld y 2 = 1828 Ld xdy =-519
N'I:.dxdy - "i.dx'I:.dy 12(-519)-(0)(-20)

r= ~Nr.a;-('Edx)2 ~N'r.d;-(r.dy)2 = Jt2(480)-(0)2 J12(1828)-(-;20)2
-6228 -6228
= J5160 J21536 = 11137.66 = - 0559·
Therefore, it is a case of moderate degree of negative correlation.
Correlation of Bivariate Grouped Data
When we have to find coefficient of correlation from a bivariate grouped data table, the following
formula is applicable : ·
.-··· -
N'I:.fd,.dy -(~dx} l;fdy)
r=-;::::=========~r=====-========7
JNI.fq/-(I.fdx)2 NIJd/-(f/dy)2
This formula is the same as thai of'(iv). The only difference is that here the deviations are also
ultiplied by the frequencies.
The following illustration shall explain the application of this formula :
Illustration 5. Find the coefficient of correlation between the age and the sum assured from the following table :
Sum assured (in Rs.)
Age group ] 0,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000
20-30 4 6 3 7 1
30-40 2 8 15 7 I
40-50 ' 3 9 12 6 2
50-60 8 4 2 (MBA, Delhi Univ., 1999)
Solution. Let the sum assured be denoted by X and t_he age group by Y.
CALCULATION Of COEFFICIENT OF CORRELATION
..
1', x 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000
<,
I <, dx .
•:;-
<, -2 -I ,,{) '1 2 f Jdy fd/ fdxdy
r ..... dy
m.p. uz. LQ !:±
I 30 25 -2 ~
4 6 3
·LQ_·
7
~
I 21 -42 84 +10
i0-4() 35 -I 2
Li_ .~
8 15 7
l-z I
~ 33 -33 33 +3
I·
50 45 0
l_Q_ La. lJL ~ la, 32 0 0 0
! 3 9 12 6 2
'" 'fiil.-60
Ill
55 +I
8
~
4
L::.!
2
LL -
. -
- 14 +14 14 -20
20 131 'f..fdxdy=-7
!,·
f
fdx
17
-34 . -27
27 32
0 20
4
-.,,,8
. N= 100
r..fdx= -33
f..Jdy=-61 'f..fd/=
_.,,,,.
_.,,,,. _.,,,,. ,,
I _.,,,,. _.,,,,.
fd/ 68 27 0 20 16 'f..fd/ = 131 _.,,,,. _.,,,,. _.,,,,.
. fdxd_v 4 16 0 -21 -6 'f..fdxdy= -7 I~_.,,,,.
r= JNr.fd/-('I:.fd..}2 JNr.fd/ ·-:J'L/dy)2
100(-7)-(-3':~)(~ 1)
= ~100(131) - (-33)2 ~100(131) - (-61)2
z(I9-) - (I£I)OOlf /££-:-) - (I£I)O?lf =
(19-)(££-)-(L-)OOI
i"Pf'J..)~ i"Pf'J..Nt z(xpf'J..)- ixPf'J..Nt =.I
( "pf1)CP!:I) _, •pxpf'J.N
,,.- "T L- ="rPf'J. 9- It- 0 91. t> "'/rpf
,,.- ,,.- ,,.-
,,.- ,,.- 1£1 =/Pf'J. 91 oi 0 Lt 89 'lXpf
,,.- ,,.- H- =xPf'J. oz 0 a;- H- Xpf
j,,,.- 8·-
L- ="rPf'J. I £1 = ,/Pf'J.. 19- ="Pf'J.. 001 =N . t oz Z£ t: LI f

'
oz- Pl t> l + Pl - - z t> 8

l+ 55 09-0~
01 P-1 9Tl
z 9 ZI 6 £
0 0 0 Z£ 0 St 05--ot>
01 01 01 01 01 i:
£+ £.£ ££- ££
I l 51 8 z 1- 5£ OH(
l-1 L-"l . 0 1· 81 Pl
£ sz
01+ t>8 Zt>- IZ
l
il=j
l 9
9l]
t>
z- 0£-0l
t=] 01 Tll .....
'dtu
"P ,{
i<pxpf /pf ,(pf f z l· 0 (- z- Xp
<,
<,
-,
<,
oooo: 000 'Or OOO'Of oooot 000'0[ x
NOLLV1mn10J .:10 .LN31Jldd30J .:IO NOUV1fl.)1VJ '
·,.c ,(q dnorf a8e aq1 pun x ,(q poioucp oq pamssn ums aq1 1a1 ·uonn1os
(: t 8 09-0)
z 9 ll 6 £ O)-OP
l l st 8 z OP-0£
l l £ 9 t 0£-0l
000'0) ooo'o- 000'0£ coo'oz ooo'o l dnorf a8y
,..(sH u!) pa.1nssn ums
: a1qe1 8U!MOl!OJ aq1 WOJJ pamssa urns a41 pua a3e aq1 uaaMtaq UO!lBiaJJO;) JO 1uapmao;) aq1 PU!.:1 ·s UO!JBJJsnm
: l?(OWJOJ S!4l JO uoueoudda a4i U!l?(dXa l(l?qs UO!ll?JlSOl(! gU!MOl(OJ a41
·sa!Juanba11 a4i .{q pa!(d!l[ll8
OS(l? all? suouaixop a4t a1~q ieut S! a~uaJa!J!P AfUO aqi ·(Al}J<>. ~t'.ql St'. oures aqt S! ejnWJOJ S!4.L
. l'pf.I)- /Pf'lNt zCP!I)- /PflNf = .1
( "pJ:I)( 'Pf'l)- "PrPf'lN
. . : '1(ql?~!(ddl? S! 'BJOUiq
gU!MO[lOJ aqi 'aiqet l?ll?P padnors ait?!Jl?A!q l? WOJJ uonejauoo JO iua!~rnao~ pug: oi aABq aM uaqA\
WQea padnoJ~ a1e1JeAr8 :10 uo11e1aJJ03
·uo!l'B{'1JJO~ aA!ll?~fau JO aa~ap aiB1apow JO esao e S! l! 'a10Ja1aqJ,
.6ss·o-= 99"l£lll = ~~
8Zl9- 8ZZ9-
,<ot~)-(8Z8 l)Zif z(o)-(08P )ztf = ,<i( P'J.)- fP'l.Nt ,CXP'l.) - ~P'l.Nt '='.I
(oz-)(o)-(61)-)Zl 'm'rz- ,(PxP'l.N.

~700-2013 -2713
= .J13100- 1089 .Jl3H>O-l121 = J12(Jt 1 .J9379
-2713
= 1Q9.59 x 96.85 = - 0·256·
· Hence the age and sum assured are negatively correlated, i.e., as age goes up the sum assured comes down.
Illustration 6. Calculate the coefficient of correlation from the following bivariate frequency distribution :
Sales Revenue Advertising Expenditure (R~. '000) .
(~s. Jakhs) 5-10 10-15 15-20. 20-25.
·, •'.' ·~· .~ ... ;.· ;' ·~·' ".-C~ ." ,.
~' : ~ ... ,.i,
75-125 4 1
125-175 7 .·6 2 1
175-225 1 3 4 2
,f
225-275 1 1 . .
3 4
Solution .. Let sales revenue be denoted by Y and advertising expenditure by X.
CALCULATION OF COEFFICIENT .OF CORRELATION
I' .x 5-10 10-15 1.5-20 ·20-25
' <,
<,
m.p.
dx
7.5 12.5. p.s
+1 .
72.~' '
I
y <, -1 0 +2 f fd y fd/ fddx y

dy
·75-125
m.p.
100
' -2
4
L!_ 1
lQ._ - - 5 -10 20 8
125-175 150 l -1
7
L1- 8-
6
u. 2
~
1
16 -16 16 ·,
3
175-225 200 0 LiL LIL LIL LiL. 10 0

.,
0 0
1 3 4 2
8 lJL LL LL -
225-275 250 +1 9 9 9 IO I
1 1 3 4
f 13 .11 9 7 N =40 L./dy= - 17 r.1yi2, '= 45 L.fdxtfy= 21
,.. ,,,. ,,,. ~
-13 !.fdx= IO
,,,. ,,,.
fdx 0 +9 +14
.. -
fdx2 13 0 9 28 L.fd/= 50
,,,. ,,,. ,,,. -:
'
fdxt/y 14 0 1 6 "E.fdxt/y= 21 ~_,,. .
,,,. -
- -·
Nifd,dy -(Ifd,.)(l;tdy)
r ~ ~N"£fdx:2 - ("£.fdx:)2 ~ Nifd/ - (Ifdy )2 - 11
..
=
40x21-10(-l 7)
-
~40X50-(10)2 ~40x45-(-17)2
I
' r
1010840+ 170 - .-
= ~1900 x 1511 = 1694373 = 0.596. '
There is a moderate degree of positive correlation. between sales revenue and advertising.expenditure. ·
Assumptions of the Pearsonians Coefficient

The Karl Pearson's coefficient of correlation is based on the following assumptions :
I. There is linear relationship between the variables, i.e., when the two variables are plotted on a '
scatter diagram, a straight line will be formed by the points so plotted. - .•
-
Cc;>rr~la~ien An~ly_sis 211~
2.,The two variables under study are affected by a large number of independent causes so as to form .
a normal distribution. Variables. like height, weight, price, demand, supply, etc., are affected by such
forces that a normal distribution is formed.
3. There is a cause-and-effect relationship between the forcesaffecting the distribution of the items
in the two series. If such a relationship is not formed between the variables, i.e., if the variables are
independent there cannot be any correlation. For example, there is no relationship between income and
height because theforces that affected these variables are common. .
Properties of the Coefficient of Correlati0n
The following are the important properties of the coefficient of correlations, r:
I. The coefficient of correlation lies between -1 and+ 1. Symbolically, -1 ~ r ~ + I or Ir I s 1.
r, (X -e- X) (Y-Y)
Proof. r = -;::::=====--r======
~ _'i(X-X)2 ~ 'i(Y-Y)2
(x~x) . (Y-Y)
Let a = · ' b = -;:::::===
~r.(x-x)2 ~r.(Y-Y)
Then 'i (a+ b)2 = 'ia2 + 2'iab + 'ib2
= 1 + 2r + 1 = 2 (1 + r) ~ 0 . or l+r~O ... (i)
Similarly, 'i--- (a - b)2 = 'ia2 - 2'iab + L.b2
)
= 1 - 2r + 1 = 2 ~ - r) ~ 0 or I-r~O ... (ii)

From (i) and (ii), -1 ~ r ~ 1. ~·
2. The coefficient of correlation is independent of change of origin and scale.
Proof. By change of origin we mean subtracting some ·constant from the given value of X and
:rand
.
- -
.
by change of scale we mean dividing or multiplying every value of X and Y by some constant.
r, (XC X) (Y-Y)
We know that r = I · ... (i)
v r, (X - X)2 L (Y - Y)2
here X and Y refer to the acutal means of X and Y series.
Let us now change the origin and scale. Deduct a fixed quantity a from X and b from Y. Also
divide X and Y series by a fixed value i and c.
Let the new values be denoted by u and v.
X-a Y-b
u= v=
i c
X= a+ iu, Y= b +CV
x =a+ l ii , y = b + cv
x- x = i (u ., u) . Y- Y = c (v - v)
Substituting these values iii (i), we get
'i(u-u) (v-v)
~ L.(u-u)2 J-r.(v-v)2
--::Thus the formula for r remains- uncha_nged. Hence the value of r is independent of change of
igin and scale. ·
3. The coefficient of correlation is the geometric mean of two regression coefficients.*
Symbolically : r = ~bxy x byx

4. If X and Y are independent variables then coefficient of correlation is zero. However, the
converse is not true.
Interpretingthe Coefficientof Correlation
The coefficient of correlation measures the degree of relationship between two sets of figures.
As the reliability of estimates depends upon the closeness of the relationship ~it is imperative that
utmost care be taken while interpreting the value of coefficient of correlation otherwise fallacious
· conclusions be drawn.
Unfortunately, the interpretation of the coefficient of correlation depends very much on
experience. The full significance of r will only be grasped after working out a number of correlation
problems and seeing the kind of data that give rise to various values of r. The investigator must
know his data thoroughly in order to avoid errors of interpretation. He must be familiar, or become
familiar, with all the relationships and theory which bear upon the data and should reach a conclusion
based on logical reasoning and intelligent investigation on significantly related matters. However,
the following general guidelines are given which would help in interpreting the value of r.
l. When r = + 1, it means there is perfect positive correlation between the variables.
2. When r = -1, it means there is perfect negative correlation between the variables.
3. When r = 0, it means there is no correlation between the variables, i.e., the variables are
uncorrelated. ·
4. The closer r is to + 1 or -1, the closer the relationship between the variables and the closer
r is to 0, the less closer the relationship. Beyond this is not safe to go. The full interpretation of r
depends upon circumstances, one of which is the size of the sample. All that can really be said that
when estimating the value of one variable from the value of .another; the higher the value of r, the
better the estimate.
5. The closeness of the relatfonship is not proportional tor. If the value of r is 0.8, it does not
indicate a relationship twice as close as that of 0.4. It is in fact very much closer.
Coefficient of Correlation.and Probable Error
The probable error of the coefficient of correlation helps in interpreting its value. With the help
probable error it is possible to determine the liability of the value of the coefficient in so faras it depends
on the condition of random sampling. The probable error of the coefficient of correlation is obtained as
follows:
1- r2
P.E.r* = 0.6745
.JN
where r is the coefficient of correlation and N the number of pairs of items.
I. If the value of r is less than the probable error, there is no evidence of correlation, i.e.,
value of r is not at all significant.
*See chapter on Regression Analysis.

*If 0.6745 is omitted from the formula of probable error, we get the standard error from the coefficient of correlatioa,
The standard error of r, therefore, is '-"°'"
I~ ,2
S.E.r= JN
2. If the value of r is more than six times the probable error, the existence of correlation is
ically certain, i.e., the value of r is significant.
3. By adding and subtracting the value of probable error from the coefficient of correlation we
respectively the upper and lower limits within which coefficient of correlation in the population
be expected to lie. Symbolically,
p = r + P.E.r
re p (rho) denotes correlation in the population.
Carrying out the computation of the probable error, assuming a coefficient of correlation of
computed from a sample of 16 pairs of items, we have
1- (0.8)2
P.E.r = 0.6745 J16
= 0.06
The limits of the correlation in the population should be r + P.E. = 0.8 + 0.06 = 0.74 - 0.86.
Instances are quite common wherein a correlation coefficient of 0.5 or .even 0.4 is obviously
idered to be a fairly high degree of correlation by a research worker. Yet a correlation coefficient
.5 means that only 25 per cent of the variation is explained. A correlation coefficient of 0.4
m::ms that only 16 per cent of the variation is explained.
11Gnaitionsfor the Use of Probable Error
The measure of probable error can be properly used only when the following three conditions
.
. The data must approximate to a normal frequency curve (bell-shaped curve).
-- The statistical measure for which the P.E. is computed must have been calculated from a
e.
1. The sample must have been selected in an unbiased manner and the individual items must
pendent.
However, these conditions are generalJy norsatisfied and as such the reliability of the correlation
cient is determined largely on the basis of exterior tests of reasonableness which are often of
istical character.
tration 7. If r = 0.6 .and N = 64, find out the probable error of the coefficient of correlation and determine the
1- ,2
ati.on: P.E.r = 0.6745 JN ; r = 0.6 and N = 64
1 - (0.6)2 0.6745 x 0.64

P.E.r = 0.6745 ..[64 = S = 0.054
limits of r = 0.6 ± 0.054 or= 0.546 to 0.654.
and Limitationsof the Pearsonian Coefficient

ongst the mathematical methods used for measuring the degree of relationship, Karl
-. ....... -.s method is most popular. The correlation.coefficient summarizes in one figure not only
'',."""""''"'of correlation but also the degree, i.e., whether correlation is positive or negative.
/
ever, the utility of the coefficient depends in part on a wide knowledge of the meaning of
stick' together with its limitations. The chief limitations of the method are :
The correlation coefficient always assumes linear relationship regardless of the fact whether
,_,,.,,.....u.aption is true or not. · --
2fc4 .flt.1siness Statistics
2. Great care must be exercised in interpreting the 'Value of this coefficient as very often the
coefficient is misinterpreted.
J. The value of the coefficient is unduly affected by the extreme values.
4. As compared to other methods of finding correlation, this method is more time-consuming.
Coefficient of Determination*
One very convenient and. useful way of interpreting the value of coefficient of correlation between
two variables is to use the square of coefficient of correlation, which is called coefficient of determination.
The coefficient of determination thus equals r2. The coefficient, r2 expresses the proportion of the vari•
ance in Y determined in X, that is, the ratio of the explained variance to the total variance.
Therefore, the coefficient of determination expresses the proportion of the total variation that has
been "explained", or the relative reduction in variance when. measured about the regression equation
rather than about the mean of the dependent variable. If the value of r = 0.9, ·,.i will be 0.81 and this
would mean that '81 per cent of the variation in the dependent variable has been explained by the
independent variable. The maximum value of r2 is unity because it is possible to explain all of the
variation in Y, but it is not possible to explain more than all of it.
It is much easier to understand the meaning of r2 and rand, therefore, the coefficient of determination
is to be preferred in presenting the result of correlation analysis. Tuttle has beautifully pointed out that
"the coefficient of correlation has been grossly overrated and is used entirely too much. Its square
coefficient of determination is a much more useful measure of the linear covariation of two variables.
The reader should develop the habit of squaring every correlation coefficient he finds cited or stated
before coming to any conclusion about the extent of the linear relationship between the two correlaie.l
variables."
The relationship between r an~ r2 may be noted-as the value of r decreases from its maximtm
value of l, the value of r2 decreases much more rapidly. r will .of course always be larger than r2, unless
r2 = 0 or 1, when r = r2,
r r2 r r2
0.90 0.81 0.60 0.36
0.80 0.64 0.50 0.25
0.70 0.49 0.40 0.16
Thus the coefficient of correlation is 0.707 when just half the variance in .Y is due to X. ·
It should be clearly noted that the fact that a correlation between two variables has a value of r = 0.
and the correlation between two other variables has a value of r = 0.30 does not demonstrate that the
1. correlation is twice as strong as the second. The relationship between the two given values of r can better
·1 u~derstood by computing the. value of r2• When r = 0.6, r2 = 0.36 and when r = 0.30, r2 = 0.09.
.
· · The coefficient of determination is a highly· useful measure. However, it is often· misinterp
''.fhe term itself may be misleading in that it implies that the variable X stands in a determining of
relationship of the variable Y. The statistical evidence itself never establishes the existence of
causality. All that statistical evidence can do it to . define covariation, that term being used . in. a~ perf
'* 1 :_ r2 is known as the coefficient of non-determination.
neutral sense. Whether causality is present or not and which way it runs if it ·is present, must be deter•
mined on· the basis of evidence other than the quantitative observations.
Ill. RANK CORRELATION COEFFICIENT
°!his method of finding out covariability or the lack of it between two variables was developed by
the British psychologist Charles, Edward Spearman in 1904. This measure is especially useful when
quantitative measure of certain factors (such as in the evaluation of leadership ability or the judgement
of female beauty) cannot be fixed, but the individuals in the group can be arranged in order thereby
obtaining for each individual a number indicating his (her) rank* in the group. Jn any event, the rank
correlation coefficient is applied to a set of ordinal rank numbers, with 1 for the individual ranked first
in quantity or quality, and so on, N for the individual ranked last in a group of N individuals (or N pairs
of individuals). Spearman 's rank correlation coefficient is defined as :
. . . 6'LD2 6'LD2
R=l- · · orl- ·
N (N2 -1) . ("N3 .: N)
where R denotes rank coefficient of correlation and D refers to the difference of ranks between paired
items in two series.
- .
The value of this coefficient also lies between + 1 and -1. When R is + 1, there is complete agree-
ment in the order of the ranks and the ranks are in the same direction. When R is -1, there is complete
agreement in the order of the ranks and they are in opposite directions. This shall be clear from the
ollowing:
.,
R, R2 D R, R2 D
(R1-:R2) D2 (R1 - R) D2
1 1 0 0 I 3 -2 4
2 2 0 0 2 2 0 0
3 3. 0 0 3 l 2 4
"i:.D2
~.
=·o. "i:.D2 =8
2 . 2 . . 6x8
R= 1 - 6L.D = 1 - 6 x O ,,;, 1 - 0 = 1 R ,,; 1 -
6L.D
. =t---=l-2=-1
N3 - N 33 - 3 N3 - N 33-3
In rank correlation we may have two types of problems :
A. Where actual ranks are given.
B. Where ranks are not given ..
Where .Actual Ranks are Given.
/ - . .
Where actual ranks are given, the steps required for computing rank correlation are :
(i) Take the differences of the two ranks, i.e., (R1-R) and denote these differences by D.
(ii) Square these differences and obtain the. total "i.D2•
(izi) Apply the formula :
. 6"'£D2
R=l--• . 3
N -N
*The rank-transformation for a sample 'of n observation replaces the smallest observation by the integer 1 (called) the
1he next by rank 2 and so on until the largest observation is replaced by rank n. ·
21 & Business Statistics
Illustration 7. Two managers are asked to rank a group of employees in order of potential for eventually becoming
top managers. The rankings are as follows : ·.:·;
·
Employees Ranking by Ranking by
s Manager I Manager II
A 10 9
B 2 4
c I 2
D 4 3
E 3 I
F 6 5
G 5 6
H• 8. 8
I 7 7
J 9 IO.
Compute the coefficient of rank correlation and comment on the value.
Solution. CALCULATION OF RANK CORRELATION COEFFICIENT
Employees Rank by Rank by

Manager I Manager II -
RI R2
A 10 9
B -2 4
1C 1 2
D 4 3
E' . 3 I
F 6 '5
G 5 6
H 8 - 8
·.1 7 7
J 9 IO
N= IO
6"£D1 6 x 14 - . -
R= 1 - =1- = 1 - 0.085 = 0.915
. N 3 -N 990
Thus we find that there is a high degree of positive correlation in the ranks assigned by the two managers.
Illustration 8. Two housewives, Geeta and Rita, asked to express their preference for different-kinds of detergents.
gave the following replies :
Detergent Geeta j Rita
A 4 4
B 2 1
c 1 2
D ·3 3
E 7 8
F 8 7-
G 6 5
H 5. 6
,I 9 9
J 10 IO
To what extent the preferences of these two ladies go together?
Solution. In order to find out how far the preferences for different kinds of detergents go together, we will calcullle
rank correlation coefficient. ·· · · ~
CALCULATION OF RANK CORRELATION COEFFICIENT

Detergent Rank by Geeta Rank by Rita 2
(RI - R2)
RI R2 D2
A 4 4 0
B 2 I I
c I 2 1
D 3 3 0
E 7 8 I
F 8 7 I
G 6 5 I
H 5 6 I
I 9 9 0
J IO 10 0
N= IO "f.D2 =6
6"f.D2 6x6
R= I - = 1 - -- = I - 0.036 = 0.964.
N3 - N 990
Thus the preferences of these two ladies agree very closely as far as their opinion on detergents is concerned.
Where Ranks are not Given.

I
When we are given the actual data and not the ranks, it will be necessary to assign the ranks. Ranks
be assigned by taking either the highest value as I or the lowest value as 1. But whether we start with
lowest value or the highest value, we must follow the same method in case of all the variables.
Illustration 9. Calculate the rank correlation coefficient for the following data of marks of 2 tests given to candidates
a clerical Job.
Preliminary test : 92 89 87 86 83 77 71 63 53 50
Final test : 86 83 91 77 68 85 52 82 37 57
Preliminary test RI Fina/test Ri (RI - R2)2
. y D2
x ""
92 10 86 9 I
89 9 83 7 4
87 8 91 10 4
86 7 77 5 4
83 6 68 4 4
77 5 85 8 9
71 4 52 2 4
63 3 82 6 9
53 2 37 I 1
50 I 57 3 4
N= IO "f.D2 = 44
N6L,D
3 - 2N 6990
x 44
Thus, there is a high degree of R = I -
positive correlation= Ibetween
- -- preliminary
= l - 0.267 = 0.733.
and final test.
•ua1I Ranks or Tie in Ranks

llm some cases it may be found necessary to assign equal rank to two or more individuals or
•m-::s.In such a case, it is customary to give each individual or entry an average rank. Thus if two
._...,.u'tu, al~ are ranked equal at fifth pla~e, they are each given the rank 5~6, that is 5.5 while if
~I
three are ranked equal at fifth place, they a~e giventhe rank 5+~+7-6. In otherwords, where two
or more individuals are to be ranked equal, the rank assigned for purposes of calculating coeffi•
cient of correlation is the average of the ranks which these individuals would have got had they
differed slightly from each other.
Where equal ranks are assigned to some entries, an adjustment in the above formula for
calculating the rank coefficient of correlation is made.
The adjustment consists of adding ~ (m3-m) to the value of L.D2, where m stands for the number
1
ofitems.whose ranks are common. If there are more than one such group ofitems with common rank,
this value is added as many times as the number of such groups. The formula can thus be written as :
3 .·
6{L.D2. + 12
1
(m 1 - m) + 1
12 (m
3
- m )+ }
R=l- 1 2 2
N3-N
Illustration 10. An examination of eight applicants for a clerical post was taken by a firm. From the marks ob-
tained by the applicants in the Accountancy and Statistics papers, compute rank coefficient of correlation.
Applicant A B C D E F G H
Marks in Accountancy : 15 20 28 12 40 60 20 80 ·
Marks in Statistics 40 30 50 30 20 I0 30 60 (MBA, Delhi Univ., 2009)
-
2
Applicants Marks in Rank Marks in Rank. (R1-R2)
Accountancy assigned Statistics assigned
x R, y
R2
D2
A 15 2 40 6 16.00
B 20 3.5 30 4 0.25
c 28 5 50 7 4.00
D 12 1 30 4 9.00
E 40 .,.. 6 20 2 16.00
F 60 7 10 1 36.00
G 20 3.5 30 4 0.25
H . 80 8 60 8 0.00.
N=8 "i:.D2 = 81.5

2 I . J· I 3
6{:ED +-(m ...,~)+-(tni -tni)}
12 I . 12
R=I-
N3-N
The item 20 is repeated 2 times in series X and hence ,,,,=2. In series Y, the item 30 occurs 3 times and hence m2=1.
Substituting these values ill the above formula :
6 {81.5+ ft(23-: 2)+ ft(33 -3)}

R= I- .
83 .,.-8
= 1-
6(81.5+0.5+2) =l- 6 x 84 0 =
. 504 504
There is no correlation between the marks obtained in the two subjects.
Illustration 11. Ten competitors in a beauty contest are ranked by three judges in the following order :
1st Judge 1 6 5 · 10 3 2 4 9 7 8
2nd Judge 3 5 8 . 4 7 10 2 1 6 9
3rd Judge 6 4 9 8 1 2 ·3 . 10 5 7
Use the rank correlation coefficient to determine which pair of judges has the nearest approach to common tastes in
beauty. (MBA, M.D. Univ., 1996; MBA, Bharthidasan Univ., 2001)
Solution : In order to find out which pair of judges has the nearest approach to common tastes in beauty, we
eompare rank correlation between the judgement of
(i) l st judge and 2nd judge.
(ii) 2nd judge and 3rd judge. ·
(iii) I st judge and 3rd judge.
Rank by Rank by Rank by (RI - KJ2 (R2-RJ2 (RI - RJ2

lst Judge 2nd Judge 3rd Judge
D2 D2 D2
Rl R2 R3
l 3 6 4 9 25
6 5 4 l l 4
5 8 9 9 I 16
IO 4 8 36 16 4
3 7 I 16 36 4
2 10 2 64 64 0
4 2 3 4 I l
9 I 10 64 81 l
7 6 5 I I 4
8 9 7 I 4 l
N= 10 N= 10 N= IO l..D2 = 200 l..D2 = 214 l..D2 = 60
6"f.D2 6x:iOO 1200

R(l&II) = I - = I - =I,_ - =-0.212
N3-N I03 - IO ' 990
6"f.D2 6 x 214 1284
R(Il&III) = I - = I - =I - - =-0.297
N3-N I03 - Id 990
6"f.D2 6x60 360
R(l&IIJ) = 1 - = I - = 1 - - =0.636
N3-N I03 - IO 990
Since coefficient of correlation is maximum in the judgment of the first and third judges, we conclude that they
llil.ve the nearest approach to common tastes in beauty. , •
Merits arid Limitations ofthe Rank Method

Merits. 1. This method is simpler to understand and easier to apply compared to the. Karl
Pearson's method. The answers obtainedby this method and the Karl Pearson's method will be the
same provided no value is repeated, i.e., all.the items are different.
2. Where the data are of aqualitative nature like honesty, efficiency, intelligence, etc., this
method can be used with great advantage. For example, the workers of two factories can be ranked
order of efficiency and the degree of correlation established by applying the method.
3. This is the only method that can be· used where we are given the ranks and not the actual
data.
4. Even where actual data are given, rank method can be applied for ascertaining rough degree
of correlation.
Limitations. 1. This method cannot be used for finding out correlation in a grouped frequency
distribution.
2. Where the number of observations exceed 30, the calculations become quite tedious and
require a lot of time. Therefore, this method should not be applied where N is exceeding 30 unless
e are given the ranks and not the actual values of the variable.
' '
When to Use Rank Correlation Coefficient

The rank method has two principal uses :
(1) The initial data are in the form of ranks.

(2) lf N is fairly small (say, not greater than 25 or 30) rank method is sometimes applied to
interval data as an approximation to the more time-consuming r. This requires that the interval
data be transferred to rank orders for both variables. If N is much in excess of 30, the labour
required in ranking the scores becomes greater than what is justified 'by the anticipated saving of
time through the rank formula.
Illustration 12. The coefficient of rank correlation between debenture prices and share prices is found to be 0.143.
If the sum of squares of the differences in rank is given to be 48, find the value of N.
6"f.D2
Solution. R= I -
N3-N
where R = 0.143, r.D2 = 48
6 48
0.143 = 1 - x
N3-N
288 3
.
3
= 0.857 or 0.857 (N - N) = 288
N -N
(N 3 - N) = 288 = 336
. 0.857
3
or N - = N - 336 0 or N 3 - N - 343 + 7 = 0
2
(N - 7) (N + 7N) + 48 (N - 7) = 0
or (N - 7) (N 2 + 7N + 48) = 0
either N-7=0 i.e.,N=1 or N2+7N+48=0
Since b2 - 4pc is negative, value of N belongs to the set of complex numbers. Hence N = 7.
Illustration 13. The coefficient of rank correlation of the marks obtained by 10 students in statistics and accountancy
was found to be 0.8. It was later discovered that the difference in ranks in the two subjects obtained by one of the
students was wrongly taken as 7 instead of 9. Find the correct coefficient of rank correlation.
2
Solution. R= 1- 6L,D
N3-N
6W2 6"f.D2 6"f.D2
0.8 = I- or 0.8 = 1 - -- or -- = 0.2
2 1 o3 - 1 0 2 990 990
6L,D =198 or r.D =33
But this is not correct r.D2
Correct "f.D2 = 33 - (7)2 + (9)2 = 65
6 x 65 390
990
= R
1- = = 1 - 0.394 = 0.606
1-
990
Thus the correct value of the rank correlation coefficient is 0.606.
IV. METHOD OF LEAST SQUARES

For finding out correlation by the coefficient method of least squares we have to calculate the
values of two regression coefficients-that of x on y and yon x. The correlation coefficient is the square
root of the product of two regression coefficients. Symbolically,
r* = ~bxy x byx
Lag and Lead in Correlation
The study oflag and lead is of special significance while studying economic and business series. In
the correlation of time series the investigator may find that there is a time gap before a cause-and-effect
*For details of this method refer to next chapter on Regression Analysis.

relationship is established. For example, the supply of a commodity may increase today, but it may not
have an immediate effect on prices-it may take a few days or even months for prices to adjust to the
increased supply. The difference in the period before a cause-and-effect relationship is established is
called 'Lag'. While computing correlation this time gap must be considered; otherwise, fallacious con•
clusions may be drawn. The pairing of items is adjusted according to the time lag.
If the supply affects the prices, say, after 5 months, then the pairing would be done as follows :
Months Supply Price
Jan. 100 70
Feb. 105 69
March 108
so
April 112 72
May 118 75
June 120 70
July 125 74
Aug. 1124 , 75
Sept. 78
Oct. 116 ---80
Nov. 122 78
Dec. 127 75
Taking the new pairs of values, correlation can be calculated in the same manner as discussed
earlier.
Illustration.14. The following are the monthly figures of advertising expenditure and sales of a firm. It is generally
lfoo.nd that adyertising expenditure has its impact on sales generally after two months. Allowing for this time lag, calculate
coefficient of correlation between expenditure on advertisement and sales.
~~ A~~~ &~ ~~ Advertising Sales
expenditure (Rs.) expenditure (Rs.)
Jan. 50 1,200 July 140 2,400
Feb. 60 1,500 Aug. 160 2,600
March 70 1,600 Sept. 170 2,800
April 90 2,000. Oct. 190 2,900
May 120 2,200 Nov. 200 3,100
June 150 2,500 Dec. 250 3,900
Solution. Allow for a time lag of 2 months, i.e., link advertising expenditure of January with sales for March, and
soon.
CALCULATION OF CORRELATION COEFFICIENT
Month Advertising (X- X )!JO Sales (Y- Y )I
expenditure JOO
2 2
x x x y y y xy
Jan. 50 -7 49 1,600 -10 100 70
Feb. 60 -6 36 2,000 -6 36 36
March 10 -5 25 2,200 -4 16 20
April 90 -3 9 2,500 -1 1 3
May 120 0 0 2,400 -2 4 0
June 150 +3 9 2,600 0 0 0
July 140 +2 4 2,800 +2 4 4
Aug. 160 +4 16 2,900 +3 9 12
Sept. 170 +5 25 3,100 +5 25 25
Oct. 190 +7 49 3,900 +13 169 91
2 2
LX= 1,200 u=O LX = 222 l:Y= 26,000 l:y=O l:y = 364 LXY = 261
x =. 1,200 =
120, y =
26•000
= 2,600
10 10
261 261
r = ---;:::=U)I====
=. -~r=22=2=x=3=64= - -28-4-.2-7 = 0.9t 8
~r.x2 x I:y2
There is a very high degree of positive correlation between advertising expenditure and sales.
MISCELLANEOUS ILLUSTRATIONS .
Illustration 15. A Computer while calculating the correlation coefficient between the variables X and Y obtained
following results : · · ·
N= 30, I:X= 120, I:X2 = 600, I:Y= 90, I:Y2 = 250, I:XY= 335
It was, however, later discovered at the time of checking that it had copied down two pairs of observations as:
x y
8 IO
12 7
While the correct values were
x y
8 12
10 8
Obtain the correct value of the correlation coefficient between X and Y. • .
(MBA, Vikram, Univ.; MBA, Kumaun Univ., 2(}07)
Solation.
. Correct IX = 120 - 8 - 12 + 8 + IO = 120 - 2 = 118
Correct l:Y = 90 - 10 - 7 + 12 + 8 = 93
Correct rr = 600- (8)2 - (12)2 + (8)2 + (10)2 = 600- 64 - 144 + 64 + 100 = 556
Correct' If = 250-(10)2 - (7}2 + (12)2 + (8)2 = 250-100-49 + 144 + 64 = 309
Correct UY = 335 -(8 x 10)- (12 x 7) + (8 x 12) + (10 x 8)
= 335 - 80 - 84 + 96 + 80 = 347
~
m:xY-LX"rY
r = --;::=====-r======
J m2 - (LX)2 ~ Nr.Y2._ (I:Y)2
= -;==============--"F==========
(30 x 347) - (118 x 93)
~(30 x 556) - (118)2 ~30 x 309 - (93)2

= 10410 - 10974 - -564 = -'564 = -043
J16680 - 13924 J9270 - 8649 - J21s6J62 t 5250x 24.92 ·
Thus the correct value of correlation coefficient between X and Y is -0.43.
Illustration 16. Coefficient of correlation between two variates X and Y is 0.3. Their covariance is 9. The variance
of Xis 16. Find the standard deviation of Y series.
I: .
Solution. Covariance is given by ; , where x and y are the deviations of X and Y series from their resp.ectiw
means.
Variance of X series is 16, or ax = Jl6 = 4
Cov(X,Y}
Substituting the given value in the. formula r = a x a y , we get
1
0.3 = 9 x 4cry or L2cry = 9. Hence cry= 9/1.2 = 7.5.
Correlation Analxsis 223
Illustration 17. Family income and its percentage spent on food in the case of one hundred families gave the
following bivariate frequency distribution. Calculate the coefficient of correlation and interpret its value.
Food Expenditure· Monthly Family Income (Rs. '000 's)
(in%) 5 - 10 10 - 15 15 - 20 20- 25 25 - 30
10-15 3 7
15-20 4 9 4 3
20-25 7 6 12 5
25-30 3 10 19 8
(MBA, Delhi Univ., 2003)
Solution. Let family iricome be denoted by X and food expenditure (in %) by Y.
I' ,, <,
x
m.p.
5-10
7.5
10-15
12.5
15-20
17.5
20-25 25-30
22.5 27.5
-, dx
y
-, -2 -1 0 l 2 f fdy fd.2 fdxdy
dy y
.........
m.p. l:]_ l::.!._4
10-15 -1 10 -10 10 -17
12.5 3 7
15-20 17.5 0 LL l_Q_ l.JL 0

20 0 0 0
4 9 4 3
20-25 22.5 l
b!_:i b l.JL ls, 30 30 30 -15
7 > 6 12 5
25-30 27.5 2 ~ ~ lQ ~ 40 80 160 -16

3 l0 19 8
•
f 10 20 40 20 10 N= 100- "i.fdy= 100 "i.fd/ = 200 "i.fdxdy= -48
I
I
fdx -20 -20 0 20 20 "i.fdx= 0 _.,,,,. _.,,,',7.
_.,,,,. _.,,,,.
_.,,,,.
Jdx2 40 20 0 29 40 = 120
"i.fdx2 _.,,,,. _.,,,,.
_.,,,,.
.. fdxdy -26 -26 0 ~18 -14 "i.fdxdy = -48 ~ _.,,,,.
-
r = ~N"i.fd.2 -(r.fd,:}2 ~NI.fd/ -(I.fd .. )2
(100 x -48)-(0 x 100)

= -;::::==========--;::::============
~JOO x l~~ - (0)2 4100 x 200- (100)2
- 4800 -48
= .fl2000 FtOOOo = .[t20 .[)00 = - 0.438.
There seems to be a low degree of negative correlation between family income and its percentage spent on food expenditure.
Illustration 18. An office contains 12 clerks. The long serving clerks feel that they should have a seniority increment based
length of service built into their salary structure. An assessment of their efficiency by their departmental manager and the
llllS()rulel department produces a ranking of efficiency. This is shown below together with a ranking of their length of service. Do
data support the clerks, claim for seniority increment ?
Ranking according to length of service l 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12
Ranking according to efficiency . 2 3 5 l 9 10' 11 12 8 7 .6 4
-, '·
~
l
224 Business Statlstics
Solution. CALCULATION OF RANK CORRELATION

'
Ranking according to Rankingaccording to • . . ; o
length of service efficiency (RI - R)
2' .. ~·I•')"\
D D
Rl R2 i ..
1 2 -I 1
2 3 -1 1
3 5 -2 4·
4 I +3 9 ' '
6
5
IO
9 -4
-4
16
16
. .
7 11 -4 16 "'
··16 ~~
-4
-.,~
\ )
8 -12
9 ·8 ..
'; +l I
10 7 +3 9 ~
ll 6 +5 25
12 4 +8 64 ,
'
N= 12
Rank correlation coefficient is given by :
"i.D2 = 178
-~ )
6 x IJ8
- 01
6W2 1068
R=l- =1- = 1 - - = 1 - 0.622 = 0.37.8 ·--"ii
N3-N 123-12 1716
Since there is a low degree of positive correlation between length of service and efficiency, the clerks' claim docs
not justify for a seniority increment based on the length of service. ~ ·
Illustration 19. The ranks of the same 15 students in two subjects A and Bare given below, the two numbers withim
the brackets denoting the ranks of the same student in A and B resoectivelv :
.
( 1, 10), (2, 7), (3, 2), (4, 6), (5, 4), (6, 8)~ (7, 3), (8, I), (9, 11 ), (IO, 15),.
(11, 9), (12, 5), ( 13, 14), (14, 12), (15, .13)
Use Spearman 's formula to find the rank correlation coefficient. (MBA, Sukhadia Univ.. 2008)
. ·'
.
Rank of A .~ Rank ofB (Rt - R.J2
R D2
RI 2
I IO 81
2 7 25
3 2 I
4 6 4
5 4 I
6 8 4
7 3 16
8 1 49
9 11 4
10 15 25
11 9 4
'
12 5 49
13 . 14 1
14 12 . 4 ·-
15 13 4
. ......
"i.D2 =-272 .
6"i. D2 = I _ · 6 x 272 _ _
R=l- N3-N 153_15 -J~.486-0.514.
There is a moderate degree of positive correlation between the ranks in subject A and B.
Illustration 20. Calculate the coefficient of correlation from the following data :
Adv. Exp. (Rs. Lakhs) X: 10 12 15 23 20
Sales (Rs. Crores) Y: 14 17 23 25 21
Solution. CALCULATION OF COEFFIClENT OF CORRELATION
dv. Exp. (X-16) Sales (Y-20)
x x x2 y y y2 xy
10 -6 36 14 -6 36 +36
12 -4 16 17 -3 9 +12
15 -1 I 23 +3 9 -3
23 +7 49 25 +5 25 +35
20 +4 16 21 +l 1 +4
LX=80 l:x = 0 l:x2=118 I:Y= 100 I:y= 0 I:y = 80 I:xy = 84
U)! 84 84
r = --;:::== = = + 0.865.
Jr..x2r.y2
1
v'tt8x80 97.16
There is a high degree of positive correlation between sales and advt. expenditure.
Illustration 21. Calculate coefficient of correlation from the following data taking deviation from 48 in case of X series
and 20 in case of Y series : ·
x: 40 42 46 48 50 56
.y: 10 12 15 23 27 30
Solution. CALCULATION OF CORRELATION COEFFICIENT
x (X-48) y (Y-20)
dx d 2 dy d2 dxfiy
x y
40 -8 64 10 -10 100 +80
42 -6 36 12 -8 64 +48
46 -2 4 ,..
. 15 -5 25 +10
48'. 0 0 23 +3 9 0
50 +2 4 27 +7 49 +14
56 +8 64 30 +10 100 +80
I:dx =-6 "i.dx2=172 "i.dy=-3 "i.dy 2 -- 347 "i.dxfiy= 232
.,,
6 x 232-(~)(-3)
r = -;::====-;:::::===========-
J6( l 72) - (~)2 ~6(347)-(-3)2
1392-18 1374 1374
= 0.956
= .J1032 - 36 .J2082...: 9 = ../9% .J2013 = 3'1.56 x 45.53
Illustration 22. A panel of men and a panel of women were asked by a consumer testing organisation to rank 8 brands of
tea according to taste. A rank of L was given to the best tasting tea and a rank of 8 to 11e worst.
Brand A B C D E F G .I
Panel of Women (X) : 5 4 3 6 7 8 1 2
Panel of Men ( Y) 4 5 6 3 8 7 2
Determine how closely men's and women's tastes in tea are related.
·22& Business Statistics
Selutlon. CALCULATION OF RANK CORRELATION COEFFICIENT
-
R• R2 (,R1·- R2)2
I!
5 4 1 • .f
4 5 1
3 6 9
6 3 9
7 8 1
8 7 1
1 2 1
2 1 1
'
L.D2 = 24
6~ D2 6 x 24 144
R= l - = I - -- = I - = l - 0.286 = 0.714
N3 - N 83 -8 512-8
.
Ther.e. . is a high degree of positive correlation between the tastes of men and women in tea.
Illustration 23. A company gives on-the-job training to its salesmen· which is followed by a test. It is
considering whether it should terminate the services ofany salesman who does not do well in the test.
The following data give the test scores and sales made by nine salesmen during the last one year :
Test scores 14 19 24 21 26 22 15 20 19
Sales (Rs. '000): 31 36 48 37 50 45 33 41 39
Compute the coefficient of correlation between test scores and sales. Does it indicate that termination of
the services of salesman with low test stores is justified? (MBA, Madurai-Kamara} Univ., 2007)
Solution. CALCULATION OF CORRELATION COEFFICIENT
Test scores (X- 20) Sales (Y - 40)
2
x x x y y y·2. xy
14 -6 36 31 -9 81 +54
19 -1 1 36 -4 16 +4
24 +4 1'6 48 +8 64 +32
21 +l ~ 1 37 -3 9 -3
26 +6 36 50 +10 100 +60
22 +2 4 45 +5 25 +10
15 -5 25 33 -7 49 +35
20 0 0 41 +1 1 0
19 -1 1 39 -1, 1 +l
2
L..X=l80 !:x=O LX ::: 120 !:Y=360 !:y===O !:y2=346 1:xy===193
r= :Ex)! where x = (X- X )· y === (Y- y)

J 2 2 '
Lx ~y.
' .
_ IT _ 180 _ 20. y = ~y _ 360 = 40

X -N-9 - ' N-9
Since the actual means of X and Y are whole numbers, we should take deviation from actual means of Xand Y to simplify
the calculations.
Substituting the values ..
193 193
r= --;==== = = 0.947
.J12ox 346 203.76
There is a high degree of positive correlation between test scores and sales. It does not indicate that the· termination of di:
services of salesman with low test scores is justified.
Illustration 24. Find the correlationcoefficient between age and playing habits of the following students:
Age 15 16 17 18 19 20
No. of students 250 200 150 120 100 80
' Regular players 200 150 90 48 30 12
Solution. Let us find the percentage of regular players and then calculate coefficient of correlation between age and
j?Cl"Centage.
x (X-17)
d -..._ d2
No. of Regu./ar %of (Y-50)
d2
x x Students Players Regular dy y dx<Jy
y Players
15 -2 4 250 200 80 +30 900 -60
16 -1 1 200 150 75 +25 625 -25
17 0 0 150 90 60 +10 100 0
18 +l l 120 48 40 -10 100 -10
19 +2 4 100 30 30 -20 400 -40
20 +3 9 80 12 15 -35 1225 -105
:Edx=+3 u/ = 19 r.dy =O :Ed/= 3350 :Edx<Jy=-240
NUi,dy - (Ui.)(Uiy)
. r = ·~=N=Ui==
,=_:::.:2:(Ui===J~=:=-2~FN='=Ui=Y==
2 -=(Ui)=
~2 Y
I
/. 1 = 6(-240)-(3)(0) '= -1440 = -1440 = -0 991
~6x19_(3)2~6xJJS0-(0)2 .JI05x20l00 1452.76 ·
Thus there is a high degree of negative correlation between age and playing habits.
Illustration 25. Calculate Karl Pearson's coefficient of correlation from the following data and interpret its value :
Roll No. l 2 3' 4 5
Marks in Accountancy 48 35 17 23 47
Marks in Statistics 45 20 40 25 45
Solution. Let marks in accountancy be denoted by ,rand that in statistics by Y.
CALCULATION OF~OEFFICIENT OF CORRELATION
i
x · (X-34) x
2 y (Y-35) y xy
x y
48 +14 196 45 +10 100 +140
35 +l l 20 -15 225 -15
17 -17 289 40 I
+5 25 -85
23 -11 121 25 -10 100 + 110
47 +13 l69 45 +10 100 +130
2 2
U= 170 :Ex= 0 I:x = 776 :Ef= 175 :Ey= 0 :Ey = 550 :Exy = 280
r= U).i = 280 =. 280 = + 0.429

~r.x2r.y2 .Jn6 x 550 653.3
It is a moderate case of positive correlation between marks in accountancyand statistics.
Illustration 26. Calculate the coefficient of correlation and its probable error from the following :
S.No. Subject % marks in final % marks in
year exams. sessionals
1 . Hindi 75 62
2 English 81 68
3 Physics 70 65
228 Btls]ne.s~ ·~t~t1$Ji~s ·
4 Chemistry 76 60
5 Maths. 11 69
6 Statistics 81 72
7 Botany . 84 76
. 8 Zoology . 75 . 72:
(MBA, Jodhpur Univ., 2001)
Solution. Let % marks in final year exams. be denoted by X and o/c, marks in sessionals by Y...
CALCULATION OF COEFFICIENT OF CORRELATION
- - -- -·- -- -~
X (X-: 77) Y (Y - 68)

dx dx'). dy d/ dxdy
75 -2 4· 62 -6 36 +12
81 +4 16 6~ 0 0 0
70 -7 49 6~ -3 9 +21
76 . -1 I 60 -8 64 +8
77 0 0 69 +I 1 0
81 +4 16 72 +4 16 +16
84 t +7 49 76 +8 64 +56
75 -2 - 2-4 . - . 72 -· +4~ -. ..
... 1.6 -8
r..x= 619 r..~= 3 !.dx = 139 I:Y = 544 r..dy-o r..y.d '). = 206 'f..dxdy = 105
r= ·.·· .
i ., ·. i N"£d 2 _ "£d 2
~N'f4 •. · (Ml.) ~. .v ( .v)
' 8 x 105~ (3 x 0) 840 840

= ~Sxl39-(3)2J8x206=Jll03xlM8=1348:237 = 0.623
Probable error is given by :
. = 1- r2 = .6745 1- (.623)2 = .6745x.6 ll 9
PEr .6745 IN . J8 2.8284
0.146
, Illustrat.ion 27. Following figure§ give the rainfall in inches for the year and the production in OO's of
for the Rabi crop and Kharif crop. Calculate the Kart Pearson's coefficient of correlation between rainfall
total production :
Rainfall 20 22 24 26 28 30 32
Rabi Production 15 18 20 32 40 39 40
KharifProduction 15 17 20 18 20 21 15
Solution. Let rainfall be denoted by Kand production by Y.
'
x (X- 26) y (Y - 47)
dx d
x
2 dy d
y
2 dxdy.
.(
-~
20 -6 36 30 -17 289 +102 -1-t
22 -4 16 35 -12 144 +48·
24 -2 4 40 -7 49 +14
26 0 0 50 +3 9 0 '
28 +2 4 60 +I3 169 +26
30 +4 16 60 +13 169 +52
32 +6 36 55 +8 64 +48
..
:''
2
r..x= 182 I~:;;;: 0 r..d/ =I 12 · · . r..r = 330 . !.dy = 1 "i.dy = 893 . r..d~y = 290
-
NUJ.dy -(Ui,)(Uiy)
r-=
~ NUJ/ - (Ui.)2 )NU/ -(Uiy )2
.,
(7)(290)- (0)(1) 2030 2030

- = = = 0.917
J
(7) (112)- (0)2 (7)(893)- ( 1 )2 J J784J6250 2213.594
It is a case of very high degree of positive correlation between tainfalt and Agriculturalproduction.
Illus-tradon 28. Calculate the coefficient of correlation between weight and height for the following bivariate
fnquency distribution :
Weight Height (inches)
(pounds) .. 40-44 44-48 48-52 '. 52-56 56-60' Total
35-55
55-15 -
4 40
-
60
24
-88 '
.
-
I2
"
104
124
75-95• - - - 8 ·. 40. 48
..
95-115 - - - . 12 12
115-135 - - - 4 - 4
135~155 - - - 4 4 8
Total 4 40 84 104 Q8 300
Soluti'o.n. CALCULATION OF CORRELATTON COEFFICIENT
-- .. . - ..
-- ·-· --· . . .1.
.
........ ........ x 40-44
.,--
44-48 48-52 - .
52-5'6 56-60
f d '- dx -2 -I . 0 +l +2 f
y. ........ ......
.. ' . -- . " .
fdy /dy1 fdxdy
Ll..6.. w_ LI. 96
35-55 -2 - - 104 -208 4.~-1-- 6-
4 40 6.0 ~--. . .. . .
55-75 -1 - - Ls, bll. bu 124 -124 124

-112
:
.. 24 g8 12
15-95' 0 - - - LL... Ui.. 48 0 0
0
-·. ... 8
- 40
24 24
95-115 +I - i - - - 12 12 12
' 12
115-135 +2 - - - LL - 4 8 16
8
4
.135-155 . +3 -· - - Lil. lli. 8 24 72
36
" . .. - - 4 4
f 4 40 84 104 68 N = 300 "Lfdy= ..:..288 "Lfdy2= 640 "Lfdxdy= 52
.
-40 0
.,.,,, ,,
fdy; -8 104 136 "i.fdx= 192 .,.,,,
-
.- -
_.,. _.,. _.,.
104 272 "i.fd/= 432 _.,.
- _.,.
fdx2 16. 40
. -
0
-
-68 24 !.fdxdy= 52 IJ~ _.,. I
_.,.
fdxdy. 16
•.
80 0 N'f,fd,d_v ., (I:fd,){!.fdy)
... ·-·-- .. . --·
!'=
~N'f.fd/-("i./d,f ~N"i.fd/-("i.fdyf
(300) x (52) - (192)(-288)
=
J(300) (432) - (192)2 JC300X640-) (-288)2
15600 + 55296
=
Jt29600- 36864. .JI 92000-82944
70896 70896
= J92736 Jt09056
= 304.526x 330.236
70896
= 100565.44 = + o. 7o5.
Thus, it is a case of high degree of positive correlation between height and weight.
Illustration 29. The following table gives the distribution of production and also the relatively defective ilcm5
them, according to size-groups. Is. there any correlation between size and defect in quality.
Size-groups 15-16 16-17 17-18 18-19 19-20 20-21
No. of items 200 270 340 360 400 300
No. of defective items 150 162 170 180 180 120
Solution : Let us find the percentage of defective items and then find correlation between size and defect in
Size-groups m.p. (m-17.5) d 2 No. of No. of %of (Y-50)15
x
m dx items def items def dy d 2
y
15-16 15.5 -2 4 200 150 75 +5 25
16:.....17 16.5 -1 1 270 162 60 +2 4
17-18 17.5 0 0 340 170 50 0 0
18-19 18.5 +I 360 180 50 0 0
19-20 19.5 +2 4 400 180 45 -1 I
20-21 2 .5 +3 9 300 120 40 -2 4
'£dx-=3 '£dx2=19 r.dy =4 r.d 2= 34
y
Substituting the values :
~ 6(-20)-(3)(4)
r= --:====,.......,.===
~6(19)-(3)2)6(34)-( 4)2
-120-12 -132
= =-0.94
JIOS/i88 -. 10.25x 13.7_1
There is a very high degree of negative correlation between size and defect in quality.
Illustration 30. Calculate the rank correlation coefficient for the following data giving ranks awarded. by two ·
10 participants in a musical contest :
Rank by Judge I 3 5 4 8· 9 7 l 2 6 10
Rank by Judge II 4 6 »> 3 9 10 7 2 1 5 8
(MBA, Mad~rai -Kamaraj Univ.,
Solution : CALCULATION OF RANK CORRELATION CO FFICIENT
Participants Rank by Rank by (R1 -R,/
Judge I (R~ Judge II (R~ D2
A 3 4 1
B 5 6 1
c 4 3 I
D 8 9 1
E 9 10 1
F 7 7 0
G 1 2 1
H 2 1 I
I 6 5 I
J 10 8 4
I D2 = 12
R = I_ N 6 L: D2 I _ 10
6 3x-10
12 990
3-N
= I - 72 = I - 0 .073 = 0.927
Illustration 31. Find the rank correlation from the following data :
Candidate 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Marks awarded by Judge I 86 59 64 74 48 70 94
Marks awarded by Judge· Il 90 45 72 64 59 60 . 80
(MBA, Bharthidasan Univ., 2003)
Solution : Since ranks are not given, we first assign ranks and then calculate the rank correlation coetlicient.
Candidate Marks by RI Marks by R2 (R1-R./
Judge I Judge II D2
1 86 6 90 7 1
2 59 2 45 1 . 1
3 64 3 72 5 4
4 74 5 64 4 1
5 48 1 59 2 1
6 70 4 60 3 1
7 94 7 80 6 1
N=7 "f.D2 = 10
6 ' D2 6 x I0 60 .
R= 1 - L. = 1 - -- =1- - = 1 - 0.179 = 0.821
. N3 - N 73 - 7 336
Illustration 32. Calculate the correlation coefficient between price and sales from the following data :
Price (Rs.)·. 100 90 85 92 90 84 88 90
Sales ('00) 5 6· 7 6 . 7 8 8 7 (MBA, Madras Univ., 2003)
Solution : CALCULATION-OF CORRELATION COEFFICIENT
Price (Rs.) (X-90) ,,.. Sales (Y-7)
x dx dx 2 y dy dy 2 dxdy
100 +10 100 5 -2 4 -20
90 0 0 6 ....,1 1 0
85 -5 25 7 0 0 0
92 +2 4 6 -1 1 -2
9.0 0 0 7 0 0 0
I
84 -6 36 8 +l 1 -6
88 -2 4 8 +1 1 -2
90 0 0 7 0 0 0
IX= 719 L.dx=-1 "i.d/= 169 "i.Y = 54 "i.dy =-2 "i.d/= 8 L.dxdy =-30
r= JNr.d/ -('f.d,_}2 JNr.d/ -(U.")2

N = 8, "i.dxdy = - ~O, "i.dx = -1, L.dy= -2, "i.dx2 = 169, "i.d/ = 8
8 (-30)- (--1) (-2) - 240- 2
r= Jg (169)- (-1)2 Js (8)- (-2)2 = J1352- I J64- 4
-242 -242
= J135l x 60 = 284.71 = - 0·85
There is a high degree of negative correlation between price and sales.
232 Business Statistics -
Illustration 33. Newspapers in India are complaining that rising level of unemployment is affecting the level of crime m
the couatry, To study this claim, a research team studied a random sample of 12 states in the country. For each state, the
measured the level of unemployment rate and the crime rate in the state. Then they did a ranking X = level of unemploymee
}' = crime rate, the results are shown in the following table. Higher X ranks more unemployment, and higher Y ranks mean
higher crirae rate. Test the claim of Newspapers.
States I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 I0 11 12
Leve) of unemployment (X) : 5 8 3 2 6 I 10 12 7 4 9 II
Crane Rate ( Y) 8 6 9 12 7 10 2 I 5 11 4 3
(MBA, Delhi Univ.. 2009
Solution : For testing the claim of the newspapers, we calculatethe rank correlation coetlicient.
CALCULATION OF RANK CORRELATION COEFFICIENT
2
States Rx . Ry (Rx- Ry)
.,
o-
l 5 8 9
2 8 6 4
3 3 9 36
4 2 12 100
5 6 7 I
6 I 10 81
7 IO 2 64
8 I2 1 121
9 7 5 4
10 4 11 49
11 9 4 25
12 II 3 64
N= I2 "LD2 = 558
R = 1- f'f.D2
N3-N
"LD2 = 558, N =.12
.6 x 558 3348
R=1~ , =1- =1-1.951=-0.951
~ 11 -12 1728-12
There is a high degree of negative correlation between level of unemployment and crime rate.
Illustration 34. Compute Spearman's rank correlation for the following observations:
Candidate : I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Judge X 20 22 28 23 30 · 30 23 24
Judge Y 28 · 24 24 25 26 27 32 30
(MBA, GGSIP Univ., 200
Solution: CALCULATION OF SPEARMAN'S RANK CORRELATION

Candidate JudgeX RI Judge Y R2 (R1-R)2
D2
1 20 1 28 6 25.00
2 22 2 / 24 1.5 0.25
3 28 6 24 1.5 20.25
4 23 3.5 25 3 0.25
5 30 7.5 26 4 12.25
6 30 7.5 27 5 6.25
7 23 3.5 32 8 20.25
8 24 5 30 7 4.00
N=8 "LD2 = 88 .50

Corr~latiqn An_atysis 233
6[t.iJ2 + J_(m;3 .: m + _!_(m~

1) 3 - mi}+.' .. ]
R=l- 12 12-
N3 -N
R=l-
6r 88.5 + _!_(2
L 12
3 _ 2) + _!_(23 _ 2) + _!_(23 _ 2)J
12 12
N3 -N
6[88.5 + 0.5 + 0.5 + 0.5] 540
= 1- = 1- - =1- 1
.071 = -0.071
504 504
PROBLE.\IS
Answer the following questions, each question carries one mark:
(i) What are the properties of correlation coefficient ?
(ii) What are the limitations of correlation analysis? (MBA, Madurai-Kamara} Univ., 2005)
(iii) State the formula for coefficient of correlation in terms of regression coefficients.
(iv) What is meant by correlation?
(v) What are the limits of coefficient of correlation?
(vi) What is the use of scatter diagram ?
(vii) What is 'Rank correlation'? (MBA, Madurai-Kamara) Univ.. 2003)
(viii) Write down the formula for rank correlation coetlicient.
(ix) Interpret the following value of r: r = 0, r = -1, r = + I. r = 0.25.
(x) How can 'r' be determined through regression coefficients ?
Answer the following questions, Each question carries four marks:
(i) The coefficient of correlation between the variables x and y is 0.64, their covariance is 16. The variance ofx is 9. Find
the standard deviation of y.
(ii) Briefly explain the various types of correlation. (M.Com., MK. Univ., 2002)
(iii) What do you understand by correlation? Describe the uses of the study of correlation.
(M.A. Eco .. MK. Univ.. 2003)
(iv) Define correlation between two variables. How . ~is the value of 'r' in. terpreted?
'
(MBA. Madras Univ., 2003)
(v) Does correlation always signify a cause and effect relationship between variables?
(a) Explain the meaning and significance of the term correlation.
(b) What is correlation? Clearly explain with suitable illustration its role in taking some business problem.
(MBA, Delhi Univ., 2002)
Define the coefficient of correlation. What is it intended to measure ? How would you interpret the sign and magnitude of a
calculated r ? Consider in particular the values-ef r = 0, r = +I and r = -l.
What is a scatter diagram? How does it help in studying the correlation between two variables, in respect of both its
direction and degree? (MBA, Delhi Univ., 2007)
(a) What is Spearman 's rank correlation coetlicient? Bring out its usefulness. How does the coefficient differ from Karl
Pearson's coefficient of correlation ?
(b) Explain briefly the different methods of measuring correlation.
(a) Does correlation always signify a cause and effect relationship between the variables?
(b) Does a high positive correlation between the increase in cigarette smoking and the increase in lung cancer prove that
one causes the other ?
(a) Define correlation coefficient · r' and give its limits. What interpretation would you 'give if told that·the correlation
between the number of truck accidents per year and the age of the driver is(-) 0.60 if only drivers with at least one
accident are considered ?
(b) What is a scatter diagram ? How do you interpret a scatter diagram ?
(a) What is corrC'lation? Does it always signify cause and effect relationship?
(b) What is coefficient of Rank correlation? .
Bring out'its usefulness. How does this coefticient differ from .
coefficient of
correlation ?
(a) Prove that the correlation coefficient is unaffected by the change of origin and scale.
(b) How is Scatter Diagram helpful in the study of correlation?
a (a) Explain how covariance of X and Y is related to the coefficient of simple correlation between X and Y.
(b) What is meant by correlation? Distinguish between positive, negative and zero correlation.
(MBA, Delhi Univ., 2005; MBA, UP Tech. Univ; 2006)
(c) Explain critically any two methods of measuring correlation.
234 B(JsinessS~atistics
11. Find Karl Pearson's coefficient of correlation from the following index numbers and interpret it :
Wages 100 101 103 102 104 99 97 98 96 96
Cost of living : 98 99 99 • 97 95 02 95 94 90 91
[r = 0.85]
12. Find Karl Pearson's coefficient of correlation between capital employed and profit obtained from the following data:
Capital employed Profits obtained Capital employed Profits obtained
(Rs. crore) (Rs. crore) (Rs. crore) (Rs. crore)
10 2 60 15
20 4 70 14
30 8 80 20
40 5 90 22
50 10 100 50
[r = 0.85]
13. Using the following data :
(a) Calculate the coefficient of correlation.
(b) Estimate the percentage of the group with lung cancer in a country where I5 per cent of the group smoke heavily:
Country % of group smoking heavily % of group with lung cancer
A . 10 5
B 20 15
c 20 20
D 30 25
E 30 20
[r = 0.91]
14. From the following data, calculate coefficient of correlation between the percentage yield on securities and wholesale p ·
indices for certain years :
Year 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
% Yield on securities 5.0 5.1 5.2 4.9 4.8 5.3 5.4
Index No. of wholesale prices 140 138 126 132 140 135 132
What inference do you draw from the result ?
[r=-0.16]
15. Find the correlation by Karl Pearson's method between the two kinds of assessment of postgraduate student's perform
(marks out of 100) :
Roll No. of students 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Internal assessment 45 62 67 32 12 38 47 67 42 85
External assessment 39 48 65 32 20 35 45 77 30 62
16. [r = 0.88] #"- gave
Two housewives, Mrs. Neena and Mrs. Meena, asked to express their preferences for different kinds of detergents,
· following replies :
Detergent A B C D E F G H I
Neena 1 2 4 3 7 8 6 5 9
Meena
To 1
what extent the preferences of 4these two ladies-go
2 3
together? 5 7 6 8 9·
[R = + 0.89]
17. An office contains 10 clerks. The longer-serving clerks feel-that they should have a seniority increment based on Ieng.di
service built into their salary structure. An assessment of their efficiency by their departmental manager and the pe
department produces a ranking of efficiency. This is shown below together with a ranking of their length of service. Do
data support the clerk's claim for seniority increment ?
Ranking according to length of service 1 · 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
"\
Ranking according to efficiency 2 5 .) IO 6 4 8 9 7 1
[R = +0.164] .
18. The following table gives the frequency, according to age groups, of marks obtained by 68 students in a general kno
test. Measure the degree of relationship between age and general knowledge.
Age in Years
Test Marks 21 22 23 24
200- 250 4 4 2 1
250- 300 3 5 4 2
300-350 2 6 8 5
350-400 5 6 IO
[r = 0.415]
"· Find coefficient of correlation between output and cost per scooter from the following data
Output of scooter (in 'OOOs) 3.5 4.0 5.2 6.3 6.8 7.4 8.5 9.0
Cost per scooter (in '000 Rs.) 12.0 11.8 11.2 10.6 10.3 9.8 9.3 9.2
[r=0.0996]
Find the coefficient of correlation between price and sales from the following data :
Price (Rs.) 103 98 85 ()2 90 84 88 90 93 95
Sales (Units) 500 610 700 630 670 800 800 750 700 680
[r = 0.85]
: I. Calculate correlation coefficient from the following two-way table, with X representing the average salary of families
selected at random in a given area and Y representing the average expenditure on entertainment (movies, magazines, etc.) :
Expenditure on Average salary (in 00 s Rs.)
entertainment (in 00 s Rs.) 100 - 150 150 - 200 200 - 250 250 - 300 300 - 350
0-10 5 4 5 2 4
10-20 2 7 3 7 1
20-30 6 4 5
30-40 8 4 8
40-50 7 3 5 10
[r = 0.205] (MBA, Delhi Univ., 2003)
A psychologist wanted to compare two methods A and B of teaching. He selected a random sample of 22 students. He
grouped them into 11 pairs so that the students in a pair have approximatelyequal scores on an intelligence test. In each pair,
one student was taught by method A and the other by method B and examined after the course. The marks obtained by them
are tabulated below :
Pair 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
A 24 29 19 14 30 19 27 30 20 28 11
B 37 35 16 26 23 27 19 20 16 11 21
(i) Find the correlation coefficient between the two sets of scores.
(ii) Find the rank correlation coefficient. (MBA, HPU, 2004)
[(ii) -0.175]
,..
The mileage ( Y) that can be obtained from a certain gasoline depends on the amount (X) of certain chemical in the gasoline.
The value of ten observations, where X and Y are measured in appropriate units are shown in the table below:
Amount (X) Mileage ( Y) Amount (X) Mileage ( Y)
0.10 10.98 0.60 !'4.63
0.20 11.14 0.70 15.66..
0.30 13.17 0.80 13.71
0.40 13.34 0.90 15.43
0.50 14.39 l.00 18.36
Find the coefficient of correlation between X and Y and represent the data by a graph.
" Calculate the coefficient of correlation between age and sum assured from the data given below and comment on the
value:
Sum assured (in lakh Rs.)
Age 5 10 15 20 Total
20-30 2 3 4 6 15
30-40 2 3 5 10
40-50 2 2 3 7
50-60 5 8 3 2 18
Total 7 15 12 16 50
[r = 0.3442] (MBA, Delhi Univ; 2002)
236 Bu-siness Statistics.
25. Compute the coefficient of correlation between dividends and prices of securities as given below :
Security Prices Annual Dividends·
(in Rs.) (in hundred Rs.)
6- 8 8 - IO · IO - 12 12 ~ 14 14 - 16 16 ~ 18
130 - 140 1 . 3 4 2
120 - 130 1 3 3 3 l
110 - 120 1 2 3 2
100 - 110 2 3 2
90 - 100 2 2 1 1
. 80- 90 3 I 1
70-80 2 1
[r = +0.71]
26. The top executives of SonalElectrical rank managerial candidates on the basis ofwhat they know about each candidate. la
order to determine if there is any consistency in the ranking obtained in this manner, two vice-presidentswere asked to .:ant
the same ten candidates. Compute the coefficient of rank correlation from the following two sets of ranks :
Candidate A B C D E F G H I J
V-P I : 3 1 8 I 4 9 5 7 IO 6
V-P 2 : 2 5 9 1 6 10 3 4 8_ 7
(R = +0.746]
27. Seven methods of imparting business education were ranked by the MBA students of two universities as follows:
Method of teaching I II III IV v VI VII
Rank by Students of Univ. A 2 1 5 3 4 7 6
Rank by Students of Uni~. B 1 3 2 4 7 s 6
Calculate rank correlation coefficient and comment on its value.
[R = +0.5] '· , \ ' · (MBA, South Gujarat Univ; 2002; MBA, Delhi Univ, 2005)
28. (a) Coefficient of correlation between X and Y for 20 items is 0.3, mean of Xis 15 and that of Y=20, standard deviaticm
are 4 and 5 respectively. At the time of calculation one item 26 was Wrongly taken as 17 in case ofX series and ll
instead of 30 in case of Y series. Find the correct value of correlation coefficient.
[Correct value of correlation coefficient is 0.504.]
( b) . In order to. find the correlation coefficient between two vari~blesX and Y from 12 pairs;ofobsel'VatiODSj the foll<>wiiw
calculations were made :
. L\' = 30, !:Y = 5, ~ = 670, I.:1'1 = 285, L\'Y = 33_4.
On subsequent verification it was found that the pair (X= U, Y= 4)was Copied wrongly, the correct value being (X= 11..
Y= 14). Find the correct value of correlation coefficient.
[r = 0.78] I
29. A Statistician while calculating the correlation coefficient between two variates X and Y from 25 pairs of observatiom
obtained the following results :
n--25 '~"'v=125 ,~"'v2=650 ' :LY=IOO ' :LY2=460,L,XY=508. . - .
It was, however, later discovered at the time of checking that he had copied down two pairs as
x 6 8
y 14 6
· While the correct values were
x 8 16
y : 12 8
Obtain the corr;~t value of the correlation coefficient.
(M.Com., Madras U~i~., 200Jt
[r = 0.67]
30. The fo\\owing data relate to the prices and supplies of a commodity during a period of eight years :
Price (Rs./kg) 10 12 18 16 15 19 18 17
Supply (100 kg) : 30 35 · 45 44 42 48 47 46
Calculate the coefficient of correlation between the two series.
[r= 0.98) (MBA~ Punjab Univ.,
Corr-efation ,Analysis 237
JI. Calculate the coefficient of correlation between family income and its percentage spent on food for the following data:
Family Income Food Expenditure (in percentage)
· (in Rs.) 10 - 1S lS - 20 20 - 2S 2S - 30 30-35 'I
12000 - 13000 2 3 1 4
13000 - 14000 3 4 . 2 1 5
14000 - 15000 4 1 5 12 8
15000 - 16000 1 2 . 3 4
16000 - 17000 5 6 3 1
[r = 0.1048] . .
n. Calculate the coefficient of correlation and probable error of r between the values of X and Y given below :
x 18 98 . 96 69 59 79 68 . 61
y ' : 12S 137 156 112 107 136 123 108
[r = 0.955, P.E.r. = 0.021] (M.Com., Sukhadia Univ., 2000)
JJ. Find the coefficient of correlation for the. following bivariate frequency distribution :
Marks in Physics Marks in Mathematics
40 - 49 SO - 59 60 - 69 70 - 79 80 - 89 90 - 99 Total
90 - 99 2 4 4 10
80 - 89 l 4 6 s 16
70 .: 79 - s 10 8 1 24
60 - 69 l 4 9 5 2 21
so - S9 3 6 6 2 I7
40-49 3 5 4 12
Total · 7 15 25 23 20 10 100
[r=+0.76~J. (M. Com., M.D. Univ., 2003)
JC. The bivariate frequency distribution based on monthly salary and age of 100 employees working in some large-scale
commercial organisation is 8s under :
Monthly Salary (in 000 :r Rs.)
Age(Years) 8-10 10-12 12-14 14- 16
20 and less than 30 16 6
30 and less than 40 4 10 4 4
40 and less than 50 4 18 12
50 and less than 60 . 10 12
ComputeKarl Pearson's coefficient of correlation between age and monthly salary of employees and comment on its value.
(r= +0.763]
A survey regarding income and savings provided the following data :
Saving (Rs.)
Income (Rs.) 1000 2000 3000 4000
8000 . 8 4
12000 12 24 6
16000
20000 9 7
10 2s
24000 9 4.
Compute Karl Pearson's coefficient of correlationand interpret its value.
(MBA Delhi Univ., 2006)
[r= +0.522]
Calculate the coefficient of correlation from the following data and Interpret the
value.
Advertising expenditure
(Rs. lakhs) 10 12 13 23 . 27 30
Sales turnover
(Rs. crores) 40 42 46 48 50 S6
[r = +0.956) · (MBA, Delhi Univ., 2002)
_ You are given the following data of marks obtained by 11 students in statistics in two tests, one before and the other after
special coaching :
FrrstTest (Before coaching) 23 20 19 21 18 20 18 17 23 16 19
Second Test (After coaching) : 24 · 19 22 18 · 20 22 20 20 23 20 17
Do the marks indicate that the special coaching has benefited the students ? (M.Com., Delhi Univ; 2000)
[r=+o.477]
237 A Business Statistics
38. The scores of students in an examination in Mathematics and Statistics are given below :
Student No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Marks in Mathematics : 70 48 58 55 54 50 60 52
Marks in Statistics 62 47 53 60 55 68 51 48
Find : (i) Correlation coefficient, and
(ii) Rank correlation coefficient and compare the two values.
[(i) r = 0.246, (ii) r = 0.286)
39. The following data show the marks of I 0 students in Mathematics and Statistics in an examination :
Marks in Mathematics : 45 70 65 30 90 40 50 75 85 60
Marks in Statistics 35 90 70 40 95 40 60 80 80 50
Find Karl Pearson's coefficient of correlation and its probable error. ·(MBA, Vikram Univ., 2001
40. A researcher collected the following information for two variables x and y :
No. of Pairs= 20, r = 0.5, x = 15, y = 20, crx = 4, cry= 5
Lat~r it was found that one pair of value has been wrongly taken as 6 t jj~ whereas the correct values were :i~IJ~. Find the correct
value of r.
[r = 0.559) (MBA. MD Univ., 200:
41. Calculate the Karl Pearson's Coefficient of Correlation between age and playing habits from the data given below. Comment cm
the value :
Age 20 21 22 23 24 25
No. of students 500 400 300 240 200 160
Regular players 400 300 180 96 60 24
[r = -0.991) (MBA, Delhi Univ.. 20fX
42. The following bivariate frequency distribution relates to the age and salary of I 00 computer operators working in an organisatio&
Find the coefficient of correlation and interpret its value.
Salary (Rs)
Age (Yrs) 15000 - 16000 16000 - 17000 17000 - 18000 18000 - 19000
20-10 4 6 5 2
30-40 2 5 8 5
40- 50 8 12 20 2
50-60 8 12
[r = 0.057) (MBA. Delhi Univ.. 2
43. Compute the rank correlation coefficient frorri the following data :
SeriesX 115 109 112 87 98 98 120 100 98
Series Y 75 73 85 70 76 65 82 73 68
[R = 0.33)
44. From the following data calculate coefficient ofcorrelation between age and playing habit. How do you interpret the r
Age group No. of Employees No. of regularplayers
20-30 50 20
30-40 120 60
40- 50 80 24
50-60 40 4
60- 70 20
(MBA, Guru Jambheshwar Univ; -
45. Calculate the coefficient of correlation from the following data :
x : 65 66 67 67 68 69 70
y : 67 68 65 68 72 72 69
[r = +0.603] (MBA, Madurai-Kamara}Univ.. -
• Calculate the coefficient of correlation from the following data :
x : 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
y : 30 50 60 80 100 110 130
[r = 0.997]
.. Find the coefficient of correlation for the following
A 5 10 5 11 12 4 3 2 7
B 1 6 2 8 5 4 6 5 2
(MBA,Madurai-Kamara} Univ., 2003)
, Two designs A and B gave the following output in 9 trails of each. Which is a better design ? Why ?
A 16 16 53 15 31 17 14 30 20
B 18 27 23 21 22 26 39 17 28
Calculate Pearson's coefficient of correlation from the following taking 100 and 50 as the assumed average of X and Y
respectively :
x 104 111 104 114 118 117 105 108 106 100 104 105
y 57 55 47 45 45 50 64 63 66 62 69 61
(MBA, Bharathidasan Univ., 2001)
Find the correlation coefficient from the following data :
x 53 25 19 37 42 10 15
y 9 6 5 7 7 4 5
[r = 0.348]
The marking of 10 trainees in two skills, programming and analysis are as follows. What is the coefficient of rank
correlation?
Programming - 3 5 8 4 7 10 2 l 6 9
Analysis 6 4 9 8 I. 2 3 10 5 7
[r =-0.297] (MBA, Bharathidasan Univ., 2006)
The GE Capital is in the business of making bids on investments offered by various firms that desire additional financing.
The company has collected the following data on yearly investments and interest rates :
>ear I 999 2{f()o 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005' 2006 2007 2008
Yearly Investments
(Thousand of Rs.) 1080 948 920 1119 1695 2150 2170 2230 1880 1425
Average Interest Rate(%) 4.8 5.1 5.9 5.1 4.8 3.8 3.7 4.5 4.9 6.2
ls the relationship between these variables significant? If the average interest rate is 6% five years from now, can yearly
investment be forecast? (MBA, Delhi Univ., 2009)
~- A consulting firm is preparing a study on consumer behaviour. The company collected the following data in thousand
dollars to determine whether there is a relationship between consumer income and consumption levels :
Consumer No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 JO 11 12
lncome 24.3 12.5 31.2 28.0 35.1 10.5 23.2 10.0 8.5 15.9 14.7 15
Consumption 16.2 8.5 15 17 24.2 11.2 15 7.1 3.5 11.5 10.7 9.2
(a) Calculate correlation coefficient for the aboye data.
(b) Compute and interpect the regression model. Tell about the relationship between consumption and income? What
consumption would the model predict for someone who earns $27500? (MBA, Delhi Univ., 2009)
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Corre-lation Analysis

METHODS OF STUDYING CORRELATION

Merits ·and Limitationsof the Method

**This formula is derived from formula (i) as follows:

Ol=~ 0= ,{3: OPl =J'.i 09£ = zX'l 0 = X'J. 08S =X'.i

lN3I:)Bd30::> xouvraaaoo so NOUV'lfl::>'lV::>

Loi S!SAreuv UO!lBl9JJ08

LX= 430 Ld x =O Ld x 2= 1712 LY= 145 Edy =5 Ld y 2 = 85 Ld xdy = 353

N"I.dxdy -(Ld,.}("I.dy) IOx 353-(0)(-5)

x \ (X-44) (Y- 30)

N'I:.dxdy - "i.dx'I:.dy 12(-519)-(0)(-20)

r= JNr.fd/-('I:.fd..}2 JNr.fd/ ·-:J'L/dy)2

i"Pf'J..)~ i"Pf'J..Nt z(xpf'J..)- ixPf'J..Nt =.I

L- ="rPf'J. I £1 = ,/Pf'J.. 19- ="Pf'J.. 001 =N . t oz Z£ t: LI f

oz- Pl t> l + Pl - - z t> 8

(oz-)(o)-(61)-)Zl 'm'rz- ,(PxP'l.N.

y <, -1 0 +2 f fd y fd/ fddx y

175-225 200 0 LiL LIL LIL LiL. 10 0

Assumptions of the Pearsonians Coefficient

= 1 - 2r + 1 = 2 ~ - r) ~ 0 or I-r~O ... (ii)

3. The coefficient of correlation is the geometric mean of two regression coefficients.*

Symbolically : r = ~bxy x byx

*See chapter on Regression Analysis.

1 - (0.6)2 0.6745 x 0.64

and Limitationsof the Pearsonian Coefficient

Employees Rank by Rank by

CALCULATION OF RANK CORRELATION COEFFICIENT

Where Ranks are not Given.

•ua1I Ranks or Tie in Ranks

N=8 "i:.D2 = 81.5

6 {81.5+ ft(23-: 2)+ ft(33 -3)}

Rank by Rank by Rank by (RI - KJ2 (R2-RJ2 (RI - RJ2

N= 10 N= 10 N= IO l..D2 = 200 l..D2 = 214 l..D2 = 60

6"f.D2 6x:iOO 1200

Merits arid Limitations ofthe Rank Method

When to Use Rank Correlation Coefficient

(1) The initial data are in the form of ranks.

IV. METHOD OF LEAST SQUARES

*For details of this method refer to next chapter on Regression Analysis.

~(30 x 556) - (118)2 ~30 x 309 - (93)2

15-20 17.5 0 LL l_Q_ l.JL 0

25-30 27.5 2 ~ ~ lQ ~ 40 80 160 -16

r = ~N"i.fd.2 -(r.fd,:}2 ~NI.fd/ -(I.fd .. )2

(100 x -48)-(0 x 100)

224 Business Statlstics

Solution. CALCULATION OF RANK CORRELATION

r= :Ex)! where x = (X- X )· y === (Y- y)

_ IT _ 180 _ 20. y = ~y _ 360 = 40

r= U).i = 280 =. 280 = + 0.429

X (X-: 77) Y (Y - 68)

' 8 x 105~ (3 x 0) 840 840

(7)(290)- (0)(1) 2030 2030

55-75 -1 - - Ls, bll. bu 124 -124 124

Substituting the values :

r= JNr.d/ -('f.d,_}2 JNr.d/ -(U.")2

Solution: CALCULATION OF SPEARMAN'S RANK CORRELATION

N=8 "LD2 = 88 .50

6[t.iJ2 + J_(m;3 .: m + _!_(m~

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