TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

Explanatory Session: «Level of Service (LOS)»

CONTENTS

Capacity and Level of Service

Freeway and Highway LOS

LOS Exercises
Capacity and LOS
 CAPACITY AND LEVELS OF SERVICE
 The previous class and earlier today we focused on:
 Flow
 Concentration
 Average Speed
 However, measuring these values for each highway or roadway
segment would take too much resources not always available.
 Even more, taking such values for a non-existent roadways is
physically impossible.
 Therefore, it is the job of the Transportation Engineer to
anticipate the values of the operational characteristics of the
roadways so that they can be properly designed geometrically
 CAPACITY AND LEVELS OF SERVICE
 Such observations are based on:
 Observe the existing conditions of similar roadways or
conditions (e.g. your previous homework)
 Analysis and design methodologies developed by traffic and
transportation engineers.

 The following slides will show the basic method to calculate the
capacity of a roadway segment that is not influenced by at-grade
intersection, entry or exit ramps or any other disturbance.

 However, before doing so, it is important to define the concept of

highway Levels of Service.
 “IDEAL” CONDITIONS IN THE HIGHWAY

• Width Lateral and Space Lateral

At ideal conditions, a roadway segment requires 3.6m (12 wide feet)
lane width.
Lateral obstructions are at least (1.8m) 6 feet from the pavement
edge.

• Trucks/Busses and elevations

In ideal conditions, the roads are flats and vehicular flow is only
composed by small cars because large vehicles such as busses and
trucks tend to give an adverse effect on the traffic flow.
 “IDEAL” CONDITIONS IN THE HIGHWAY

• Uniformity of demand:

• For a road in ideal conditions, it is assumed that the flow is

uniform throughout period of analysis.

• If there were peaks of demand, this will cause problems

that would take time to flow.
• The typical period is 1 hour analysis.

• Demand is quantify by using the terms of Volume (V) and

Flow rate (q)
 “IDEAL” CONDITIONS IN THE HIGHWAY

• Uniformity of demand

• Volume, V: number of vehicles passing a point on a road or

highway line during one hour, expressed in vehicles per hour.
• Flow rate, q: number of vehicles passing a point on a road or
highway lane over a period of time less than one hour , expressed
as a rate equivalent in vehicles per hour. Example:
If 100 vehicles were counted for 5 minutes,
the flow rate is equal to 100 veh / 5 min per 12
(5 min period) = 1200 veh/h
 “IDEAL” CONDITIONS IN THE HIGHWAY

• Peak hour is defined as period of 60 minutes (1 hour) during

daytime in which the road experiences the greatest amount of
volume.
• Peak hour Factor is the ratio between the volume during rush
hour and the maximum flow calculated on the base of an interval
of 15 minutes.

PHF is a measure of uniformity of demand or peak of

the demand.
 EXAMPLE 1:
UNIFORM DEMAND

• Assume that 50 vehicles were counted during all

periods with an interval of 5 minutes during rush
hour. Calculate the PHF.
 EXAMPLE 2:
DEMAND WITH EXTREME PEAK

• Assuming that during 5 minutes, 150 vehicles were

measured and during the rest of the hour some vehicles
were not measured. Calculate the PHF.
 CAPACITY
PEAK HOUR FACTOR (PHF)

• First example shows if the traffic is uniform, then PHF

is 1.
• On the contrary, in an unreal case where all the traffic
happens only in 5 minutes of the rush hour, then the
PHF is 0.083
• For actual conditions, the PHF will be within those
limits.
• The closer to 1 – a more uniform traffic,
• The closer to 0 - non-uniform traffic (extreme peak)
 CAPACITY AND LEVELS OF HIGHWAYS SERVICE

The graphic shows the relationship between the speed and the flow rate per highway lane for
several designs, defined by design speed and the number of available lanes under ideal conditions.
CAPACITY AND LEVELS OF HIGHWAYS
SERVICE

The figure shows that the

capacity of the highway
lane is around of:
2000 vehicles (passenger
cars - pc) per hour (pc/h)
per lane for speed design
from 60 to 70 miles.
1900 vehicles for speed
design of 50 miles.
 LEVELS OF SERVICE
• The q-k, v-q, q-k graphs vary with
respect to the Safety Regime

• Thus, depending on the regime,

the traffic varies between free flow
and conditions of severe
congestion

• To understand these conditions,

the Highway Capacity Manual de
1965 (Manual de Capacidad
Carretero de EEUU) included the
term Levels of Service.
 LEVEL OF SERVICE “A”
• It represents Free Flow conditions.

• Users are not affected by the presence of other

vehicles in the vehicular flow.

• The user can choose its speed.

• The conformability and

convenience of the drivers,
passengers and pedestrians
is excellent.
 LEVEL OF SERVICE “B”
• The flow is stable but the presence of other vehicles is
starting to be noted.

• The speed can still be chosen without influence of

adjacent vehicles, but there is a decrease in the
freedom of maneuverability compared to level “A”.

• Due to this present, the

conformability and convenience
of the drivers, passengers and
pedestrians is slightly reduced.
 LEVEL OF SERVICE “C”
• The flow is still stable but at
this point the presence of
other vehicles affect the user
behavior.

• Driving through the vehicle

flow requires total attention
to the adjacent vehicles.

• The conformability and

convenience levels are
considerably reduced
 LEVEL OF SERVICE “D”
• The flow is still stable but it has a
high density.

• The speeds and freedom of

maneuverability are severely
restricted.

• The conformability and convenience

of the driver is very poor. Slight
increments in traffic flow will
generally produced operational
problems at this level of service.
 LEVEL OF SERVICE “E”
• In these conditions, the road is either
close or at its capacity and the speeds are
slow but still uniform
• It is very difficult to have maneurability in
the vehicular flow and normally they are
obtained when a vehicle or a pedestrian
provide space for maneuvers
• The conformability and convenience
levels are extremely poor and the
operation at this level is unstable, and
minor changes in the flow yield severe
traffic jams.
 LEVEL OF SERVICE “F”
• At this level, the flow is severely congested.
The traffic exceeds capacity. Queues are
generated.

• The operations are mostly Stop-and-Go and

are highly unstable and the vehicles can
move at reasonable speeds for some meters,
but then they stop. This is repeated
continuously.

• It is important to note that even when the

condition is F, one the vehicle passes the
traffic jam, the driver can experience better
levels of service down the road.
FREEWAY AND HIGHWAY LOS
 Outline

1. Definitions
2. Level of Service (LOS)
3. Freeway Segment LOS Determination
a. Free-flow speed
b. Flow Rate
4. Multilane Highway LOS
5. Design Traffic Volume
Freeway Defined
• A divided highway with full control of access and two or
more lanes for the exclusive use of traffic in each direction.
• Assumptions
• No interaction with adjacent facilities (streets, other freeways)
• Free-flow conditions exist on either side of the facility being
analyzed
• Outside the influence or ramps and weaving areas
Basic Freeway Segment

From Highway Capacity Manual, 2000

 Definitions

• Freeway Capacity

• The maximum sustained 15-min flow rate, expressed

in passenger cars per hour per lane, that can be
accommodated by a uniform freeway segment under
prevailing traffic and roadway conditions in one
direction of flow.
 Definitions – Flow Characteristics

• Undersaturated
• Traffic flow that is unaffected by upstream or
downstream conditions.
• Queue discharge
• Traffic flow that has just passed through a
bottleneck and is accelerating back to the FFS of the
freeway.
• Oversaturated
• Traffic flow that is influenced
by the effects of a
downstream bottleneck.

From Highway Capacity Manual, 2000

 Speed vs. Flow
Speed (mph)

Sf
Free Flow Speed
Uncongested Flow
Sm

Flow (veh/hr)
Optimal flow,
Congested Flow capacity, vm
Uncongested Flow

From Highway Capacity Manual, 2000

 Definitions – Free-Flow Speed

• Free-Flow Speed (FFS)

• The mean speed of passenger cars that can be
accommodated under low to moderate flow rates on a
uniform freeway segment under prevailing roadway and
traffic conditions.

• Factors affecting free-flow speed

• Lane width
• Lateral clearance
• Number of lanes
• Interchange density
• Geometric design
 Definitions
• Passenger car equivalents
• Trucks and RVs behave differently
• Baseline is a freeway with all passenger cars
• Traffic is expressed in passenger cars per lane per hour (pc/ln/hr or
pcplph)

• Driver population
• Non-commuters fail more at driving
• They may affect capacity

• Capacity
• Corresponds to LOS E and v/c = 1.0
Definitions – Level of Service (LOS)

• Chief measure of “quality of service”

• Describes operational conditions within a traffic stream.
• Does not include safety
• Different measures for different facilities
• Six measures (A through F)
• Freeway LOS
• Based on traffic density
Levels of Service
• LOS A

From Highway Capacity Manual, 2000

• Free-flow operation

• LOS B
• Reasonably free flow
• Ability to maneuver is only slightly
restricted
• Effects of minor incidents still
easily absorbed
 Levels of Service
• LOS C

From Highway Capacity Manual, 2000

• Speeds at or near FFS
• Freedom to maneuver is noticeably
restricted
• Queues may form behind any
significant blockage.

• LOS D
• Speeds decline slightly with
increasing flows
• Density increases more quickly
• Freedom to maneuver is more
noticeably limited
• Minor incidents create queuing
 Levels of Service

• LOS E

From Highway Capacity Manual, 2000

• Operation near or at capacity
• No usable gaps in the traffic stream
• Operations extremely volatile
• Any disruption causes queuing

• LOS F
• Breakdown in flow
• Queues form behind
breakdown points
• Demand > capacity
Freeway LOS
 LOS Calculation

• Does not consider

• Special lanes reserved for a particular type of vehicle (HOV,

truck, climbing, etc.)
• Extended bridge and tunnel segments
• Segments near to a toll plaza
• Facilities with FFS < 55 mi/h or > 75 mi/h
• Demand conditions in excess of capacity
• Influence of downstream blockages or queuing
• Posted speed limit
• Intelligent transportation system features
• Capacity-enhancing effects of ramp metering
 Input
Geometric Data
Measured FFS or BFFS
Volume
BFFS Input

BFFS Adjustment Volume Adjustment

Lane width PHF
Number of lanes Number of lanes
Interchange density Measured Driver population
Lateral clearance FFS Input Heavy vehicles

Compute FFS Compute flow rate

Define speed-flow curve

Compute density using flow rate and speed

Determine speed using speed-flow curve

Determine LOS
 LOS Criteria for Basic Freeway Segments

From Highway Capacity Manual, 2000

 Determining FFS
• Measure FFS in the field
• Low to moderate traffic conditions

• Use a baseline and adjust it (BFFS)

FFS = BFFS − f LW − f LC − f N − f ID
FFS = free-flow speed (mph)
BFFS = base free-flow speed, 70 mph (urban), 75 mph (rural)
fLW = adjustment for lane width (mph)
fLC = adjustment for right-shoulder lateral clearance (mph)
fN = adjustment for number of lanes (mph)
fID = adjustment for interchange density (mph)
Lane Width Adjustment (fLW)

• Base condition (fLW = 0)

• Average width of 12 ft. or wider across all lanes

From Highway Capacity Manual, 2000

 Lateral Clearance Adjustment (fLC)
• Base condition (fLC = 0)
• 6 ft. or greater on right side
• 2 ft. or greater on the median or left side

From Highway Capacity Manual, 2000

 Number of Lanes Adjustment (fN)
• Base condition (fN = 0)
• 5 or more lanes in one direction
• Do not include HOV lanes
• fN = 0 for all rural freeway segments

From Highway Capacity Manual, 2000

 Interchange Density Adjustment (fIC)
• Base condition (fIC = 0)
• 0.5 interchanges per mile (2-mile spacing)
• Interchange defined as having at least one on-ramp
• Determined over 6-mile segment

From Highway Capacity Manual, 2000

Determining Flow Rate
• Adjust hourly volumes to get pc/ln/hr

V
vp =
PHF  N  f HV  f p
vp = 15-minute passenger-car equivalent flow rate (pcphpl)
V = hourly volume (veh/hr)
PHF = peak hour factor
N = number of lanes in one direction
fHV = heavy-vehicle adjustment factor
fP = driver population adjustment factor
 Peak Hour Factor (PHF)

• Typical values
• 0.80 to 0.95
• Lower PHF characteristic or rural or off-peak
• Higher PHF typical of urban peak-hour

V
PHF =
V15  4

V = hourly volume (veh/hr) for hour of analysis

V15 = maxiumum 15-min. flow rate within hour of analysis
4 = Number of 15-min. periods per hour
Heavy Vehicle Adjustment (fHV)

• Base condition (fHV = 1.0)

• No heavy vehicles
• Heavy vehicle = trucks, buses, RVs

• Two-step process
• Determine passenger-car equivalents
(ET)
• Determine fHV
 Determine fHV

1
f HV =
1 + PT (ET − 1) + PR (ER − 1)

fHV = Heavy vehicle adjustment factor

ET, ER = Passenger-car equivalents for trucks/buses and RVs
PT, PR = Proportion of trucks/buses and RVs in traffic stream
Passenger-Car Equivalents (ET)

• Extended segments method

• Determine the type of terrain and select ET
• No one grade of 3% or more is longer than 0.25 miles
OR
• No one grade of less than 3% is longer than 0.5 miles

From Highway Capacity Manual, 2000

 Passenger-Car Equivalents (ET)
• Specific grades method
• Any grade of 3% or more that is longer than 0.25 miles
OR
• Any grade of less than 3% that is longer than 0.5 miles

From Highway Capacity Manual, 2000

From Highway Capacity Manual, 2000
Passenger-Car Equivalents (ET)
 Passenger-Car Equivalents (ET)

• Composite grades method

• Determines the effect of a series of steep grades in
succession
• Method OK if…
• All subsection grades are less than 4%
OR
• Total length of composite grade is less than 4000 ft.
• Otherwise, use a detailed technique in the Highway
Capacity Manual (HCM)

From Highway Capacity Manual, 2000

Determine fHV

1
f HV =
1 + PT (ET − 1) + PR (ER − 1)

fHV = Heavy vehicle adjustment factor

ET, ER = Passenger-car equivalents for trucks/buses and RVs
PT, PR = Proportion of trucks/buses and RVs in traffic stream
Driver Population Adjustment (fP)

• Base condition (fP = 1.0)

• Most drivers are familiar with the route
• Commuter drivers
• Typical values between 0.85 and 1.00

• Two-step process
• Determine passenger-car equivalents
(ET)
• Determine fHV
 Define Speed-Flow Curve
Select a Speed-Flow curve based on FFS

From Highway Capacity Manual, 2000

 Determine Average PC Speed (S)
Use vp and FFS curve to find average passenger car speed (S)

From Highway Capacity Manual, 2000

 Determine Average PC Speed (S)

For 70 < FFS ≤ 75 mph AND (3400 – 30FFS) < vp ≤ 2400

 
160  p v + 30FFS − 3400 
2.6

S = FFS −  FFS −   
 3  30FFS − 1000  


For 55 < FFS ≤ 70 mph AND (3400 – 30FFS) < vp ≤ (1700 + 10FFS)
1  v p + 30FFS − 3400  
2.6

S = FFS −  (7 FFS − 340)  

 9  40FFS − 1700  

For 55 < FFS ≤ 75 mph AND vp < (3400 – 30FFS)

S = FFS
 Determine Density

• Calculate density
using:
vp
D=
S
D = density (pc/mi/ln)
vp = flow rate (pc/hr/ln)
S = average passenger-car speed (mph)
 LOS Criteria for Basic Freeway Segments
LOS

From Highway Capacity Manual, 2000

Determine
Example
Determine the typical LOS for a three lanes highways at 7 a.m.
(4000vph) and 10 p.m. (1700vph)

Geometry
• 11 ft. lane width
• Left lateral clearance = 5 ft.
• Right lateral clearance = 4 ft.

Other
• 7 am PHF = 0.95
• 10 pm PHF = 0.99
• 2% trucks
• 3% buses
• Assume BFFS=70mph
• 0.5 interchange per mile
• Assume no RVs and commuters
Determine FFS
Determine FFS
Determine fID
Determine FFS
Determine Flow Rate (vp)
Determine LOS
 LOS Criteria for Basic Freeway Segments

From Highway Capacity Manual, 2000

LOS EXERCISES
 EXAMPLE 1
• In a future highway is expected a demand of 3,000
veh/h, where 12% will be trucks, 5% busses and 0%
recreational vehicles.
• Determine the minimum number of lanes needed on
the highway to provide a level of service C, knowing
that:
• PHF = 0.80
• The ground is slightly inclined (rolling)
• Design speed = 70 mph
• Lane width = 12 feet
• The road will have appropriate lateral spaces
 EXAMPLE 2

• A flat highway has a volume V = 4500 veh/h in 4 lanes

of 11 feet per direction.
• The combination of vehicles consists of 75% private
cars, 10% trucks, 10% busses y 5% recreational
vehicles.
• Obstruction sides are 5 feet to the right and 3 feet to
the left of the roadway.
• If the design speed is 60 mph and the PHF = 0.75
• Calculate the level of service level and the ratio v/c
 EXERCISE
• A 6-lane highway is used by 3500 veh/h in the peak
direction. This volume is composed by 10% trucks and
90% private vehicles.
• The ground is slightly inclined.
• The design speed is 60 mph.
• Beyond that, all other conditions are ideal.
• If the peak count in 5 min is 350 vehicles, calculate:
• Road capacity in one direction
• Level of Service under given conditions
• Average speed under given conditions
 CONCLUSIONS

Is the job of the Transportation Engineer to determine the existing conditions of

01 the roadways and anticipate future operational conditions, in order to provide
countermeasures and enhance the quality of the transportation service.

02 To measure existing and future conditions is necessary to determine the LEVEL OF

SERVICE of the highways. The Highway Capacity Manual (HCM) considers six levels
of service, from A to F, being A the best condition and F the worst.
 REFERENCES

▪ Mannering, F.L.; Kilareski, W.P. and Washburn, S.S. (2003). Principles of

Highway Engineering and Traffic Analysis, Third Edition (Draft). Chapter 5

▪ Transportation Research Board. (2000). Highway Capacity Manual 2000.

National Research Council, Washington, D.C.