Deflection of Beams

Introduction:

In all practical engineering applications, when we use the different components, normally we have to operate
them within the certain limits i.e. the constraints are placed on the performance and behavior of the components.
For instance we say that the particular component is supposed to operate within this value of stress and the
deflection of the component should not exceed beyond a particular value.

In some problems the maximum stress however, may not be a strict or severe condition but there may be the
deflection which is the more rigid condition under operation. It is obvious therefore to study the methods by which
we can predict the deflection of members under lateral loads or transverse loads, since it is this form of loading
which will generally produce the greatest deflection of beams.

Assumption: The following assumptions are undertaken in order to derive a differential equation of elastic curve
for the loaded beam

1. Stress is proportional to strain i.e. hooks law applies. Thus, the equation is valid only for beams that are not
stressed beyond the elastic limit.

2. The curvature is always small.

3. Any deflection resulting from the shear deformation of the material or shear stresses is neglected.

It can be shown that the deflections due to shear deformations are usually small and hence can be ignored.

Consider a beam AB which is initially straight and horizontal when unloaded. If under the action of loads the
beam deflect to a position A'B' under load or infact we say that the axis of the beam bends to a shape A'B'. It is
customary to call A'B' the curved axis of the beam as the elastic line or deflection curve.

In the case of a beam bent by transverse loads acting in a plane of symmetry, the bending moment M varies
along the length of the beam and we represent the variation of bending moment in B.M diagram. Futher, it is
assumed that the simple bending theory equation holds good.

If we look at the elastic line or the deflection curve, this is obvious that the curvature at every point is different;
hence the slope is different at different points.

To express the deflected shape of the beam in rectangular co-ordinates let us take two axes x and y, x-axis
coincide with the original straight axis of the beam and the y – axis shows the deflection.
 Futher,let us consider an element ds of the deflected beam. At the ends of this element let us construct the
normal which intersect at point O denoting the angle between these two normal be di

But for the deflected shape of the beam the slope i at any point C is defined,

This is the differential equation of the elastic line for a beam subjected to bending in the plane of symmetry. Its
solution y = f(x) defines the shape of the elastic line or the deflection curve as it is frequently called.

Relationship between shear force, bending moment and deflection: The relationship among shear
force,bending moment and deflection of the beam may be obtained as

Differentiating the equation as derived

Therefore, the above expression represents the shear force whereas rate of intensity of loading can also be
found out by differentiating the expression for shear force
 Methods for finding the deflection: The deflection of the loaded beam can be obtained various methods.The
one of the method for finding the deflection of the beam is the direct integration method, i.e. the method using the
differential equation which we have derived.

Direct integration method: The governing differential equation is defined as

Where A and B are constants of integration to be evaluated from the known conditions of slope and deflections
for the particular value of x.

Illustrative examples : let us consider few illustrative examples to have a familiarty with the direct integration
method

Case 1: Cantilever Beam with Concentrated Load at the end:- A cantilever beam is subjected to a concentrated
load W at the free end, it is required to determine the deflection of the beam

In order to solve this problem, consider any X-section X-X located at a distance x from the left end or the
reference, and write down the expressions for the shear force abd the bending moment
The constants A and B are required to be found out by utilizing the boundary conditions as defined below

i.e at x= L ; y= 0 -------------------- (1)

at x = L ; dy/dx = 0 -------------------- (2)

Utilizing the second condition, the value of constant A is obtained as

Case 2: A Cantilever with Uniformly distributed Loads:- In this case the cantilever beam is subjected to U.d.l with
rate of intensity varying w / length.The same procedure can also be adopted in this case
 Boundary conditions relevant to the problem are as follows:

1. At x = L; y = 0

2. At x= L; dy/dx = 0

The second boundary conditions yields

Case 3: Simply Supported beam with uniformly distributed Loads:- In this case a simply supported beam is
subjected to a uniformly distributed load whose rate of intensity varies as w / length.
In order to write down the expression for bending moment consider any cross-section at distance of x metre from
left end support.

Boundary conditions which are relevant in this case are that the deflection at each support must be zero.

i.e. at x = 0; y = 0 : at x = l; y = 0

let us apply these two boundary conditions on equation (1) because the boundary conditions are on y, This yields
B = 0.

Futher
In this case the maximum deflection will occur at the centre of the beam where x = L/2 [ i.e. at the position where
the load is being applied ].So if we substitute the value of x = L/2

Conclusions

(i) The value of the slope at the position where the deflection is maximum would be zero.

(ii) Thevalue of maximum deflection would be at the centre i.e. at x = L/2.

The final equation which is governs the deflection of the loaded beam in this case is

By successive differentiation one can find the relations for slope, bending moment, shear force and
rate of loading.

Deflection (y)

Slope (dy/dx)

So the bending moment diagram would be

Bending Moment

Shear Force
 Shear force is obtained by taking

third derivative.

Rate of intensity of loading

Case 4: The direct integration method may become more involved if the expression for entire beam is not valid
for the entire beam.Let us consider a deflection of a simply supported beam which is subjected to a concentrated
load W acting at a distance 'a' from the left end.

Let R1 & R2 be the reactions then,

These two equations can be integrated in the usual way to find ‘y' but this will result in four constants of
integration two for each equation. To evaluate the four constants of integration, four independent boundary
conditions will be needed since the deflection of each support must be zero, hence the boundary conditions (a)
and (b) can be realized.

Further, since the deflection curve is smooth, the deflection equations for the same slope and deflection at the
point of application of load i.e. at x = a. Therefore four conditions required to evaluate these constants may be
defined as follows:
 (a) at x = 0; y = 0 in the portion AB i.e. 0 ≤ x ≤ a

(b) at x = l; y = 0 in the portion BC i.e. a ≤ x ≤ l

(c) at x = a; dy/dx, the slope is same for both portion

(d) at x = a; y, the deflection is same for both portion

By symmetry, the reaction R1 is obtained as

Using condition (c) in equation (3) and (4) shows that these constants should be equal, hence letting

K1 = K 2 = K

Hence
Now lastly k3 is found out using condition (d) in equation (5) and equation (6), the condition (d) is that,

At x = a; y; the deflection is the same for both portion

ALTERNATE METHOD: There is also an alternative way to attempt this problem in a more simpler way. Let us
considering the origin at the point of application of the load,
 Boundary conditions relevant for this case are as follows

(i) at x = 0; dy/dx= 0

hence, A = 0

(ii) at x = l/2; y = 0 (because now l / 2 is on the left end or right end support since we have taken the origin at the
centre)

Hence the integration method may be bit cumbersome in some of the case. Another limitation of the method
would be that if the beam is of non uniform cross section,

i.e. it is having different cross-section then this method also fails.

So there are other methods by which we find the deflection like

1. Macaulay's method in which we can write the different equation for bending moment for different sections.

2. Area moment methods

 3. Energy principle methods

A column is essentially a vertical member designed to transmit a

compressive load. Being a compression member, it is reasonable
to suppose that a column would fail by crushing of the material
when the load reached a high enough value, but for most columns
failure occurs at a lower load than the crushing strength; this is
because most columns are relatively slender, i.e. they are long in
relation to their lateral dimensions. It is generally seen that when
a slender member is loaded in compression, as for example when
a slender garden cane is leaned on rather heavily, it will bow
sideways or buckle, and if the load is then increased further the
cane will eventually fail in bending.

If, on the other hand, a stocky column is used, one with a low
length to breadth ratio, then a crushing mode of failure is more
likely than a buckling mode. For example, if a block of timber 50
mm x 50 mm x 100 mm high were loaded in compression, one
could not imagine it failing by buckling.

Thus the normal compression elements, length and lateral

dimension play a part in determining the mode of failure that will
result. Also, for a given section, there will be a critical length of
the compression member below which it will be crushed and
above which it will buckle.

The shape of a column is also very important. For example, a

sheet of cardboard has practically no strength as a column, but if
bent to form an angle section or other shapes as shown below, it
is capable of supporting a load.

It follows that by intelligent use of available

material, economical columns can be constructed.

Buckling of slender columns and struts

If a long thin flexible rod is loaded longitudinally in compression, it

is noticeable that it deflects readily near the mid point of its
length with a considerable amount of displacement.

The phenomenon is called BUCKLING and occurs when the

stresses in the rod are still well below those required to cause a
shearing type failure.
However, if the length of the rod is gradually reduced, whilst still
applying the axial load, a length is eventually reached below
which the rod will not buckle. Its failure will be internal. I.e.
material failure rather than structural distortion.

Columns and struts may therefore be described as either SHORT

or SLENDER depending on its mode of failure.

A short column or strut will fail internally by yielding in the case of

ductile materials, such as mild steel, or by shearing in the case of
brittle materials such as concrete.

A slender column or strut will fail by buckling, where a relatively

large bending distortion will develop along its length. The
member does not collapse immediately but remains in bent
equilibrium unless the yield strength of the material has been
exceeded.

The buckling phenomenon is an example of unstable equilibrium,

whereas the behaviour of a short strut is that of stable
equilibrium.

The axial load to cause buckling is called the critical load (P). For
a given load, a critical length may also be deduced. In the case of
slender structural columns or struts, the critical buckling load and
the critical length depend upon a number of factors, such as the
shape and size of the cross-section, the relationship between the
length of the column and its lateral dimensions and the degree of
fixity at both ends.

For a strut of given length which is pinned at both ends, the

minimum load at which buckling will occur may be determined
using a mathematical analysis which produces what is known as
the EULER FORMULA. The Swiss mathematician, Leonhard Euler
(1707 – 83), calculated the load at which a column would buckle if
it were axially loaded and pinned at its ends.

Thus, the Euler buckling load for an axially loaded pin ended
column is given by:

PE = the Euler buckling load

 E = Young’s modulus for the material

I = the least second moment of area of the section

L = the length of the strut between the pinned ends

The magnitude of the buckling load given by this formula is the

appropriate value for initially straight struts which are pinned at
both ends and are subject to an axial load only. In the cases
where one end is fixed and the other end is pinned, or where both
ends are fixed, the effective length has to be determined by
multiplying the length between supports by an effective length
factor.

1. Both ends pinned

Effective length = actual length x 1.0

2. Both ends fixed

Effective length = actual length x 0.5

3. One end pinned other end fixed

Effective length = actual length x 0.7

4. One end fixed,

other end completely free

Effective length = actual length x 2.0

In practice, the assumptions of the Euler formula rarely hold good
and some bending occurs in the strut, causing bending stresses.
Also the initial straightness and eccentricity of loading are almost
impossible to produce in practice with any reasonable degree of
accuracy.

Therefore several empirical formulae have been developed for

practical use. The Rankine-Gordon formula and the Perry-
Robertson formula.

Perry-Robertson is the one most used but it is rather complex and

so tables have been produced to assist the designer and these
can be found in the respective codes of practice.

The safe axial load depends on:

A = area of cross-section

r = least radius of gyration of the section

l = effective length (takes into account length and

end conditions).

The safe stress depends upon:

Slenderness ratio =

Where r =

Because of the problems previously mentioned with the Euler

equation, the effective length factors are modified to take into
account these practical limitations.

1. Both ends pinned Effective length

= actual length x 1.0

2. Both ends fixed Effective

length = actual length x 0.7

3. One end pinned,

other end fixed Effective length
= actual length x 0.85

4. One end fixed,

other end completely free Effective length
= actual length x 2.0

Note: These values for effective length factor apply to design to

the current BS but may well vary in the new Euro Codes and thus
reference should be made to the appropriate Euro Code for actual
design values.
 Deflections and Slopes of Beams
Table 1. Deflections and slopes of cantilever beams

v= deflection in the y direction

(positive upward)

dv/dx = slope of the deflection

curve

δB = –v(L) = deflection at end B of

the beam (downward)

θB = angle of rotation at end B

of the beam (clockwise)

EI = constant

2
3

4
5

7
8

1
0
Table 2. Deflections and slopes of simple beams

v= deflection in the y direction

(positive upward)

dv/dx = slope of the deflection curve

δC = –v(L/2) = deflection at midpoint C of

the beam (downward)

x1 = distance from support A to

point of maximum deflection

δmax = –vmax = maximum deflection (downward)

θA = angle of rotation at left-hand

end of the beam (clockwise)

θB = angle of rotation at right-hand

end of the beam (counter

clockwise)

EI = constant

2
3

4
5

7
8

9
10

11

12
13