CONSTRUCTION TUTORIAL

V YEAR X SEMESTER
SECTION A
QUESTION-1 Explain in brief, the causes of Earthquake.

Earthquakes occur when the ground is subjected to so much force that it

breaks.

Tectonic earthquakes

The surface of the Earth is in continuous slow motion. This is plate tectonics-
where the motion of immense rigid plates at the surface of the Earth is caused
due to flow of rocks within the Earth. The plates cover the entire surface of the
globe. Since they are all moving, they rub against each other in some places,
sink beneath each other in others, or spread apart from each other. At such
places the motion isn't smooth--the plates are stuck together at the edges but
the rest of each plate is continuing to move, so the rocks along the edges are
distorted ("strain"). As the motion continues, the strain builds up to the point
where the rock cannot withstand any more bending. With a lurch, the rock
breaks and the two sides move. An earthquake is the shaking that radiates out
from the breaking rock.

Earthquakes are caused by a sudden release of stress along faults in the earth's
crust. The continuous motion of tectonic plates causes a steady build-up of
pressure in the rock strata on both sides of a fault until the stress is sufficiently
great that it is released in a sudden, jerky movement. The resulting waves of
seismic energy propagate through the ground and over its surface, causing the
shaking we perceive as earthquakes.

The Earth’s crust consists of seven large lithospheric plates and numerous smaller
plates. Rupture generally occurs along fault planes, or lines of weakness in the
Earth's crust. Plates move towards each other (a convergent boundary), apart
(a divergent boundary) or past each other (a transform boundary). Each type
of boundary is associated with one of three basic types of fault, called normal,
thrust and strike-slip faults.

TYPES OF FAULT
Divergent boundary
Plates can move apart at a boundary. This type of boundary is called
a divergent boundary. It is also referred to as a constructive plate boundary, as
new material is being produced at the boundary surface. This type of boundary
is dominated by normal faulting. Hot magma rises from the mantle at mid-
ocean ridges pushing the plates apart. Earthquakes occur along the fractures
that appear as the plates move apart.

Convergent boundary
Plates can move towards each other at a boundary. This type of is called
a convergent boundary. This type of boundary is dominated by thrust faulting.
When the boundary is in between an oceanic plate and a continental plate, it is
also referred to as a destructive plate boundary.
At subduction zones, the oceanic plate is pushed down, or sub ducted, below
the continental lithosphere. As the oceanic slab descends, earthquakes are
generated within the slab and at the interface between the plates.

Transform boundary
Plates can move past each other in the same plane at a boundary. This type of
boundary is called a transform boundary. This type of boundary is dominated
by strike-slip faulting.
Where two plates slide past each other, earthquakes originate at shallow
depths.

This type of plate boundary is also referred to as a conservative plate boundary,

as it involves movement but no loss or creation of material at the surface.
Transform boundaries typically produce large, shallow-focus earthquakes.
Although earthquakes do occur in the central regions of plates, these regions
do not usually have large earthquakes.

CAUSES OF MOVEMENT OF TECTONIC PLATES

There are three forces that have been proposed as the main drivers of tectonic
plate movement:

 Mantle convection currents— warm mantle currents drive and carry plates
of lithosphere along a like a conveyor belt;

 Ridge push (buoyant upwelling mantle at mid-ocean ridges) — newly-

formed plates at oceanic ridges are warm, and so have a higher elevation
at the oceanic ridge than the colder, more dense plate material further
 away; gravity causes the higher plate at the ridge to push away the
lithosphere that lies further from the ridge;

 Slab pull — older, colder plates sink at subduction zones, because as they
cool, they become denser than the underlying mantle. The cooler sinking
plate pulls the rest of the warmer plate along behind it.

MOVEMENT OF TECTONIC PLATES

QUESTION-2 What do you understand by seismic zones. Write in detail about seismic
zones in India.

Seismic Zonation may be termed as the geographic delineation of areas having

different potentials for hazardous effects for future earthquakes. Seismic
zonation can be done at any scale, national, regional, local, or site.
A seismic zone is a region in which the rate of seismic activity remains fairly
consistent.
Many nations have government agencies concerned with seismic activity.
These agencies use the data they collect about seismic activity to divide the
nation into various seismic zones. A number of different zoning systems are used,
from numerical zones to colored zones, with each number or color representing
a different level of seismic activity
Need for Seismic Zonation
Seismic zoning is used to reduce the human and economic losses caused by
earthquakes, thereby enhancing Economic development and Political stability.
New probabilistic maps have been developed as the basis of seismic design
provisions for building practice. These usually give the expected intensity of
ground shaking in terms of peak acceleration. The peak acceleration can be
thought of as the maximum acceleration in earthquakes on firm ground at the
frequencies that affect sizable structures. Shaking may have occurred or may
be anticipated.
SEISMIC ZONES OF INDIA
India lies in north western end of Indo Australian Plate, which includes India,
Australia, a major portion of Indian Ocean and other small countries. This plate is
colliding against the huge Eurasian plate and going under it.
This process of one tectonic plate getting under another is responsible for
making India earthquake prone country.
Earthquake hazard of the country is being monitored mainly by Geological
Survey of India (GSI) and the India Meteorological Department (IMD). A macro
level map has been prepared, which divides the country into four hazard zones,
V to II, of various probable maximum intensities on a decreasing scale.
Based on earthquake intensity and vulnerability, Zone 5 on the seismic map,
expects the highest level of seismicity whereas ZONE 2 is associated with lowest
level of seismicity.
INTENSITY OF EARTHQUAKE
MEDVEDEV- SPONHEUER- KARNIK - The MSK is the intensity broadly associated
with various seismic zones like 6, 7, 8, and 9 and above.
MAXIMUM CONSIDERED EARTHQUAKE- the MCE is the intensity broadly
associated with seismic zones like 2,3,4,5.
Each zone indicates the effect of earthquake at a particular place based on
observations of affected areas and also can be described using descriptive
scale like Modified Mercalli intensity scale or Medved- Sponheuer- Karnik scale
ZONE 5
It is the highest risk zone that suffers earthquake of intensity MSK-9 or greater.
The IS code assigns it the zone factor of 0.36. Structural designers use it for
Earthquake resistant design.
Generally the areas having trap rock or basaltic rock are prone to earthquake.
Region of Kashmir, Western and Central Himalayas, North and Central Bihar,
North eastern India, Rann of Kutch, fall in this zone.
ZONE 4
This zone is called High Damage Risk zone, and covers areas liable to MSK-8.
The IS Code assigns it the zone factor of 0.24.
The Indo-Gangetic Basin, Delhi, Jammu and Kashmir, Patan area in
Maharashtra, Northern part of Bihar like Raksaul, Border of India-Nepal lies in this
zone.
ZONE 3
This zone is classified as Moderate Damage Risk Zone which is liable to MSK-7
IS code assigns it the zone factor of 0.16.
The Andaman and Nicobar Island, part of Kashmir, Western Himalayas fall under
this zone.
Zone 2
This region is liable to MSK-6 or less and is classified as Low Damage Risk Zone.
The IS Code assigns zone factor of 0.10 (Maximum Horizontal Acceleration
experienced by the structure in this zone is 10% of gravitational acceleration)

About 59% of the land area in India is liable to seismic hazard damage.
QUESTION-3 Describe various construction system and building form an architect need
to adopt to make a building earthquake resistant.

BUILDING FORM AND CONSTRUCTION SYSTEM

The behavior of the building during earthquakes depends critically on its overall
shape, size, and geometry in addition to how the earthquake forces are carried
to ground. Hence, at planning stage architect and structural engineer must
work to make the structure earthquake resistant.

ARCHITECTURAL FEATURES

Choice of shapes and structure has significant bearing on the performance of

the building during strong earthquake. The wide range of structural damages
observed during past earthquakes identifies structural configurations that are
desirable or those which must be avoided.

SIZE OF THE BUILDING- In tall buildings with

large height-to-base ratio, the horizontal
movement of floors during earthquake is
large. In short but long buildings the
damaging effects are many, and in buildings
with large plan area, the horizontal seismic
forces can be excessive to be carried by
columns and walls.

HORIZONTAL LAYOUT OF THE BUILDING-

Buildings with simple geometry performs well
during strong earthquakes. Buildings with re-
entrant corners like U, V, H, Plus shaped in
plan have sustained significant damage.

The corners of the buildings can be avoided

by dividing the building into parts. For
example- The L shaped building plan can be
broken up into 2 parts forming rectangles
using a separation joint at the intersection.
FIGURE 2: SIMPLE SHAPES OF THE BUILDING DO WELL DURING
EARTHQUAKE
 VERTICAL LAYOUT OF THE BUILDING-

The earthquake forces developed at different floor

levels of the building need to be brought down along
the height to the ground by shortest path; any
deviation or discontinuity in the load transfer path
results in poor performance of the building,

Buildings with vertical setbacks, Buildings that have

fewer columns, Buildings with open ground intended
for parking may collapse during earthquake.

Buildings on sloppy ground have unequal column

height along the slope, which may cause twisting or
damage on small columns. Earthquake resistant
buildings have reinforced concrete walls to carry the
load to the foundation. Buildings in which these walls
do not go to the ground, but stop at upper level, are
liable to get severely damaged during earthquake.

ADJANCENCY OF THE BUILDINGS-

When two buildings are too close to each other, they

may pound on each other during strong shaking.
With increase in height, this may be a greater
problem. The roof of the shorter building may pound
over the mid-height columns of the taller building
which can be dangerous.

EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT BUILDING

Engineers do not attempt to make earthquake proof buildings that will not get
damaged. Such buildings may get too expensive and robust. Instead the
intention is to make buildings which may resist the earthquake. I.e. buildings must
resist ground shaking. Even if they face damage, buildings wont collapse.
BUILDING DESIGN PHILOSOPHY

 Under minor but frequent shaking, the main members of the buildings
which carry vertical and horizontal forces should not be damaged.
However, building parts that do not carry load may sustain repairable
damage.
 Under moderate but occasional shaking, the main member may sustain
repairable damage, while the other parts of the building may be
damaged such that they may even have to be replaced after
earthquake
 Under strong but rare shaking, main members may sustain severe damage
but should not collapse.

Buildings should be made like a ductile chain by using composite material like
reinforced cement concrete with strong columns and weak beam design.
QUESTION 4- How do structural elements behave during earthquake? And with neat
sketches explain various measures to be taken while designing to minimize earthquake
effect.

LOAD PATHS

Mass is present all through in a building -

from roof parapet to foundation.
Earthquake ground shaking induces
inertia forces in a building where mass is
present. These inertia forces are
transferred downwards through
horizontally and vertically aligned
structural elements to foundations,
which, in turn, transmit these forces to
the soil underneath. The paths along
which these inertia forces are
transferred through building are Load
Paths.

Buildings may have multiple load paths

running between locations of mass and
foundations. Load paths are as much a
concern for transmitting vertical loads
(e.g., self-weight, occupancy load, and
snow) as for horizontal loads (e.g.,
earthquake and wind).

Structural elements in buildings that constitute load paths include:

(a) Horizontal diaphragm elements laid in horizontal plane, i.e., roof slabs, floor
slabs or trussed roofs and bracings;

(b) Vertical elements spanning in vertical plane along height of building, i.e.,
planar frames (beams and columns interconnected at different levels), walls
(usually made of RC or masonry), & planar trusses;
(c) Foundations and Soils, i.e., isolated and combined footings, mats, piles, wells,
soil layers and rock; and

(d) Connections between the above elements.

IMPORTANCE OF LOAD PATHS

Buildings perform best in earthquakes, when inertia forces generated in them

are transmitted to foundation by continuous and direct load paths without
being bent or interrupted. When some structural elements are discontinued
along a direct load path, loads have to bend and take detours to other load
paths; buildings with discontinuous or indirect load paths are undesirable,
because brittle damage can occur in structural elements at the interruptions or
bends.

HORIZONTAL DIAPHRAGMS

Floor and roof slabs are thin, wide

structural elements laid in a
horizontal plane at different levels.
They transfer inertia forces induced
by their own masses, to vertical
elements on which they rest. During
earthquake shaking, horizontal
diaphragms act like beams in their
own horizontal plane and transmit
inertia forces to vertical elements,
such as structural walls or planar
frames. Slabs that are long in plan
(i.e., flexible in their own plane),
bend and undergo undesirable
stretching along one edge and
shortening along the other (Figure 2); they perform best when relative
deformations are minimal and in-plane stiffness and strength sufficiently large.

Why Load Paths are Important in Buildings?

Horizontal floors can effectively resist and transfer earthquake forces through
direct load paths, provided that they do not have significant openings. Large
openings or cut-outs in floors interrupt load paths and may prevent smooth,
direct transfer of forces to vertical elements. Openings in floors are necessary,
e.g., to allow for elevator core or staircase to pass through. But, these should be
as small as possible, and as few as possible. Their locations should be carefully
considered; the ideal location for openings is close to center of floor slabs in
plan.

VERTICAL ELEMENTS

Typical structural elements (present in

vertical planes) of buildings are
columns, braces and structural walls or
a combination of these (Figure 3). They
collect gravity and (horizontal and
vertical) earthquake inertia forces from
floor diaphragms at different levels,
and bring them down to the
foundations below. It is possible to
design and construct earthquake resistant buildings with various structural
systems, including Moment Resisting Frames (MRFs), Frames with Brace Members
(called Braced Frames (BFs)), Structural Walls (SWs; also called Shear Walls), or a
combination of these. Some of these systems require more advanced
knowledge of design and higher quality control during construction than others,
as reflected by their relative performance during earthquakes. For instance,
buildings with SWs are easy to design and construct, and generally perform
better during earthquakes, than buildings with MRFs alone.

Salient requirements of load paths are-

(a) Load paths must exist in all directions of a building: Earthquake shaking
occurs in all directions, and can be expressed as a combination of
shaking in one vertical and two (mutually perpendicular) horizontal
directions. Hence, adequate load paths are needed along the vertical
and the two mutually perpendicular horizontal directions.
(b) Load path geometry must be simple: Uninterrupted, direct load paths
should be provided at regular intervals along length and width of the
building;
(c) Load paths must be symmetrical in plan: A building will sway uniformly in
two horizontal directions, when structural elements constituting load
 paths are placed symmetrically in plan. Otherwise, it may twist about a
vertical axis, which is detrimental to its earthquake performance.
(d) Robust connections are needed between structural elements along load
paths: In an earthquake-resistant structure, every connection is tested
during strong earthquake shaking. These connections should be stiff and
strong to offer continuous load paths without being damaged during
strong earthquake shaking

How to reduce earthquake effect on the building?

Two basic technologies are used to protect

buildings from damaging earthquake effects:

1) Base Isolation Devices- The idea is to

detach the building (isolate) from the ground
in such a way that earthquake motions are not
transmitted up through the building or at least
are greatly reduced.
2) Seismic Dampers- These are the special
devices introduced in the building to absorb
the energy provided by the ground motion of
the building.
QUESTION 5- Write a Note on Pre-cast and cast in situ pile.

Pile foundation, a kind of deep foundation, is actually a slender column or long

cylinder made of materials such as concrete or steel which are used to support
the structure and transfer the load at desired depth either by end bearing or skin
friction.

Pile foundations are usually used for large structures and in situations where the
soil at shallow depth is not suitable to resist excessive settlement, resist uplift etc.

Following are the situations when using a pile foundation system can be

 When the groundwater table is high.

 Heavy and un-uniform loads from superstructure are imposed.
 Other types of foundations are costlier or not feasible.
 When the soil at shallow depth is compressible.
 When there is the possibility of scouring, due to its location near the river
bed or sea shore etc.
 When there is a canal or deep drainage systems near the structure.
 When soil excavation is not possible up to the desired depth due to poor
soil condition.
 When it becomes impossible to keep the foundation trenches dry by
pumping or by any other measure due to heavy inflow of seepage.

Pile foundations can be classified based on function, materials and installation

process etc. Followings are the types of pile foundation used in construction:

A. Based on Function or Use

1. Sheet Piles
2. Load Bearing Piles
3. End bearing Piles
4. Friction Piles
5. Soil Compactor Piles
B. Based on Materials and Construction Method
1. Timber Piles
2. Concrete Piles
3. Steel Piles
4. Composite Piles

CONCRETE PILES

(A)Pre-cast Piles

(B)Cast-in-place Piles
Precast & cast-in-situ concrete are the product produced by casting concrete
in a mould or formwork which cured to get the strength of RCC elements. The
precast concrete is transported to the construction site, lifted and positioned at
the predetermined place. The cast-in-situ concrete is standard concrete which
is poured into the specific form work on the site and cured to get the strength of
RCC elements.

Pre-cast Concrete Pile

The precast concrete pile is cast in pile bed in horizontal form if they are
rectangular in shape. Usually, circular piles are cast in vertical forms. Precast
piles are usually reinforced with steel to prevent breakage during its mobilization
from casting bed to the location of the foundation. After the piles are cast,
curing has to be performed as per specification. Generally curing period for pre-
cast piles is 21 to 28 days.
Advantages of Pre-cast Piles

 Provides high resistance to chemical and biological cracks.

 They are usually of high strength.
 To facilitate driving, a pipe may be installed along the center of the pile.
 If the piles are cast and ready to be driven before the installation phase is
due, it can increase the pace of work.
 The confinement of the reinforcement can be ensured.
 Quality of the pile can be controlled.
 f any fault is identified, it can be replaced before driving.
 Pre-cast piles can be driven under the water.
 The piles can be loaded immediately after it is driven up to the required
length.

Disadvantages of Pre-cast Piles

 Once the length of pile is decided, it is difficult to increase or decrease

the length of the pile afterward.
 They are difficult to mobilize.
 Needs heavy and expensive equipment to drive.
 As they are not available for readymade purchase, it can cause a delay
in the project.
 There is a possibility of breakage or damage during handling and driving
of piles.
Cast-in-Palace Concrete Piles

This type of pile is constructed by boring of soil up to the desired depth and
then, depositing freshly mixed concrete in that place and letting it cure there.
This type of pile is constructed either by driving a metallic shell to the ground
and filling it with concrete and leaving the shell with the concrete or the shell is
pulled out while concrete is poured.
Advantages of Cast-in-Place Concrete Piles

 The shells are light weighted, so they are easy to handle.

 Length of piles can be varied easily.
 The shells may be assembled at sight.
 No excess enforcement is required only to prevent damage from
handling.
 No possibility of breaking during installation.
 Additional piles can be provided easily if required.

Disadvantages of Cast-in-Place Concrete Piles

 Installation requires careful supervision and quality control.

 Needs sufficient place on site for storage of the materials used for
construction.
 It is difficult to construct cast in situ piles where the underground water
flow is heavy.
 Bottom of the pile may not be symmetrical.
 If the pile is un-reinforced and uncased, the pile can fail in tension if there
acts and uplifting force.

Driving pre-casted pile by

Hammering

Construction of Cast in-situ

pile