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Developing the Young Athlete


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Review article

Developing of the Elite Young Athlete

Neil Armstrong
Children's Health and Exercise Research Centre, University of Exeter, United Kingdom

during youth is underpinned by a range of physical,


biochemical, and physiological factors which operate in a
Abstract sport-specific manner and are dependent on individual
biological clocks. This paper will review the effects of age,
Success in youth sport is underpinned by a range of age-, growth, and maturation on sport performance during
growth- and maturation- related factors which influence childhood and adolescence with particular reference to elite
performance in a sex- and sport-specific manner. Biological young athletes.
clocks run at different rates and boys who mature early are taller,
heavier, and more muscular than boys of the same chronological Growth and Maturation
age who mature later. Earlier maturing boys benefit from a
marked increase in strength during late adolescence. The muscle
All young people follow a similar pattern of growth and
enzyme profile needed to promote the anaerobic generation of maturation but there are wide individual variations in the
energy is enhanced as children move through adolescence into magnitude of growth and in the timing of the initiation and
young adulthood and this is reflected by a surge in anaerobic the rate of progress through puberty. Body size, body shape,
performance, particularly in boys. Aerobic fitness benefits from and body composition are key componente of success in
age and maturation-related increases in stroke volume and chronological age-group sport and most elite young athletes
muscle mass. As selection for youth sport is based on have physiques that promote their sport performance.
chronological age, few later maturing boys are successful during During the first year of life body length increases
early adolescence. Earlier maturing girls do experience an
by —25cm with further growth in stature of —12-13 cm
adolescent spurt in physiological variables such as muscle
strength, muscle power, and aerobic fitness which promote
during the second year. By age 2 years boys have attained
sport-performance but the differences in physical and —50% of adult stature. Girls are always closer to their
physiological characteristics associated with maturity are less mature status than boys and reach —50% of their adult
pronounced in girls than in boys. The linear physiques, with less stature by age 18 months. Thereafter, with the exception of
weight for height, less fatness, relatively longer legs and lower a small mid-growth spurt between 6 and 8 years, there is a
hip-to-shoulder ratios of later maturing girls are more suitable steady deceleration of growth rate to —5-6 cm/y until the
for success in some sports. Elite young athletes present higher initiation of the adolescent growth spurt. The onset of girls'
levels of fitness than their untrained peers. Young athletes of adolescent growth spurt occurs —2 years earlier than that
both sexes engage in intensive training from an early age but
of boys with their peak height velocity (PHV) being
there is no convincing evidence to show that training affects the
timing or tempo of growth and maturation. Coaches and reached, on average, between 11.3 and 12.2 years. Boys, on
scientists who work with young people should be aware of and average, reach their PHV between 13.4 and 14.4 years. By
alert to the effects of sex, age, growth, maturation and exercise PHV both sexes have attained —92% of their adult height
training on sports performance. The emphasis must be on and growth rate decreases until adult stature is attained.
fostering participation in sport for all, indentifying talent, and With their extra 2 years of pre-adolescent growth (-10 cm)
nurturing it irrespective of the ticking of individual biological and greater magnitude of PHV (-3 cm) adult males are, on
clocks. average, —13 cm taller than adult females (Baxter-Jones,
2008).
Key words: Developing, young athlete
Elite young female athletes in most sports (e.g.,
volleyball, rowing, swimming, and tennis) have, on
average, statures that equal or exceed the 50th percentile
Introduction from childhood through adolescence. In contrast, gymnasts
Participation in organized, competitive sport often begins as and figure skaters tend to be shorter than average.
young as 6-7 years of age and elite young athletes often Similarly, elite young male athletes in most sports (e.g.,
experience several years of high-level competition during tennis, ice hockey, swimming, rowing) are generally taller
childhood and adolescence. It is not unusual to see 2-3 year- than their non-athletic peers although in some sports there
old children participating in initiation programmes in sports is variation by playing position (e.g., soccer, basketball).
such as gymnastics. Time engaged in training increases with Gymnastics is the only sport that consistently presents a
age and elite young athletes in gymnastics or swimming profile of stature below the 50th percentile. With both sexes
might be training for —30 hours or more each week by their data on gymnasts must, however, be considered in the
early teens. Initial selection for, and retention in, elite youth context of the selective criteria applied to this sport,
sport takes place within a matrix of biocultural including selection at an early age for small body size and
characteristics, which include health status, family size, physique characteristics associated with later maturation.
parental support, socio-economic status, and psychological There are no secure data
readiness. However, performance in sport

1
Neil Armstrong Developing of the Elite Young Athlete

to suggest that intensive training influences attained stature are therefore less dominant than earlier maturing boys in
or rate of growth in stature (Malina, 1994). Body mass youth sport. (McManus & Armstrong, 2011).
quadruples by age 2 years and thereafter there is a slight but
constantly accelerating rate of Mercase in mass prior to the Muscle Strength
adolescent growth spurt. The adolescent spurt in mass is The maximal force that can be generated by skeletal muscle
similar to that of stature but normally occurs —0.2-0.4 years is primarily a function of muscle size and particularly of
later. The increase in boys' body mass is primarily due to cross-sectional area but there is compelling evidence that
gains in muscle mass and skeletal tissue with fat mass during late adolescence a higher percentage of motor units
declining from —16% to —12-14% of body mass. Peak can be voluntarily activated than during childhood. Muscles
muscle growth velocity (PMV) follows peak mass velocity Mercase in size from early childhood reaching peak size
and over the age range 7-17 years boys' relative muscle mass during late adolescence or young adulthood. Growth
increases from —42-54% of body mass. Young male hormone, somatomedins, insulin, myostatin and thyroid
athletes are normally thinner than their non-sporting peers hormones are important regulators of muscle growth but the
but have body masses that equal or exceed the 50th dramatic Mercase in testosterone during male adolescence
percentile. During the growth spurt girls experience a rise in has the most crucial influence on muscle size. PMV occurs
% fat mass from —18-25% but elite young female athletes several months later than PHV and peak muscle strength
are generally leaner than their peers with values as low as growth velocity lags PHV by —1.0-1.5 years. In addition,
14% of their body composition as fat recorded in gyrrmasts. changes in muscle pennation with increased muscle size
Girls' muscle mass increases from —40-45% of body mass during adolescence positively influence the expression of
between 5-13 years but then, in relative terms, declines due strength in relation to muscle cross-sectional area (Williams
to body fat accumulation during adolescence (Malina et al., et al., 2012).
2004). In boys, muscle strength mercases linearly with
During adolescence body shape changes and the chronological age from early childhood until —13-14 years
effect on sport performance of differences in body shape of age when there is a marked mercase in strength through
becomes marked during late adolescence. Earlier maturing the pubertal years, followed by a slower mercase into the
boys are generally taller, heavier, have higher mass-to- early, mid or even late twenties. Superior strength often
stature ratios, and broader shoulders than later maturing differentiates the elite young athlete from the less successful
boys. In addition to greater body size, earlier maturing performer and provides a significant advantage to earlier
boys enjoy changes in body composition and shape that are maturing boys in many sports. Girls experience an almost
advantageous in most sports. Mercases in muscle size are linear mercase in strength with age until —14-15 years with
reflected by strength Mercases and even small differences no clear evidence of an adolescent spurt. Sex-related
in shoulder breadth can result in large Mercases in upper differences in strength have been reported in children as
trunk muscle. When, for example, greater upper body young as 3 years of age but differences are small prior to
muscle is combined with the greater leverage of longer puberty and there is a considerable overlap of male and
arms the advantages in throwing, racquet sports and female scores. As girls tend to enter puberty —2 years ahead
rowing become readily apparent. The physical and
of boys it is not unusual for 10 and 11 year-old girls to be
physiological characteristics of earlier maturing boys at
stronger than similar aged boys.
the same chronological age as later maturing boys enhance
The prepubertal strength difference is, however,
performance in most sports, particularly during the age
greatly magnified during late adolescence by which time
range 13-16 years when participation in elite youth sport is
very few girls outscore boys on strength measures. The sex-
at its peak. Since selection for youth sport is generally
related difference is more marked in the arms and the trunk
based on chronological age, few later maturing boys are
than in the legs, even alter adjusting for body size
successful during early adolescence, except in sports such
differences. Correlations between measures of muscle
as gyrrmastics (Armstrong & McManus, 2011).
strength from different muscle actions and/or muscle
Earlier maturing girls' greater hip breadths than
groups are generally quite low. Nevertheless, regardless of
later maturing girls is one of the reasons why they tend to
muscle action and whether individual strength or composite
throw out their heels when they run, as their thighs have to
strength scores from several muscle groups are examined
create a greater angle to bring their knees together. Earlier
data describing the development of strength during growth
maturing girls have advantages over later maturing girls in
and maturation are consistent and are illustrated using grip
sports that are reliant on body size and strength but their
strength data in Figure 1 (De Ste Croix, 2008). Recent
broader hips, relatively shorter legs and greater body research has demonstrated that although resistance training
fatness are characteristics which can be disadvantageous in is associated with risk of injury due to repetitive
some sports. Later maturing girls present linear physiques, microtrauma to musculo-skeletal structures there is no
less body fat, relatively longer legs, and lower hip-to- compelling evidence to show that appropriately supervised
shoulder ratios which are more suitable for success in many resistance training is more likely to induce injury than
sports. Earlier maturing girls participation in other sporting activities.

2
Neil Armstrong Developing of the Elite Young Athlete

70

60

50

GripStrength (kg)
40

30 .............

20

10

0
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Age (y)

Figure 2. Grip strength in relation to age and sex. Boys solid line, girls dotted line.

Following resistance training pre-pubertal children In sports where muscle strength is an asset, earlier maturing
normally experience similar (or greater) relative gains in boys have distinct advantages over later maturing boys both
muscle strength than adolescents and adults but smaller in their superior strength due to maturation and their ability
absolute gains. The mechanisms underlying training- to enhance it further through training (Tolfrey, 2008; Ratel,
induced changes in muscle strength vary with age, 2011).
maturation, and possibly sex. It is difficult to quantify the
relative contribution of muscle hypertrophy and Aerobic Fitness
neurological adaptations such as enhanced neural drive, Peak oxygen uptake (peak V02) is the best single criterion
increased motor unit synchronisation, and reduced central of young people's aerobic fitness and young people's peak
nervous system inhibition during youth. However, in pre- VO2 has been well-documented over a 75 year period. Data
pubertal children strength gains can be principally show a progressive rise in boys' peak VO2 (L/min) with age
attributed to neurological adaptations with muscle and girls demonstrate a similar but less consistent trend
hypertrophy the dominant influence in late adolescence, with a tendency to level-off from —14 years of age (Figure
particularly in boys. There are no, or only small, sex- 2). Between the ages 8 and 16 years, peak VO2 increases by
related differences in response to resistance training —150% in boys and —80% in girls respectively with the
among pre- and early- pubertal children although absolute sex difference increasing from —10% at age 10 years to —
muscle strength increases are likely to be more pronounced 35% by age 16 years (Armstrong & Welsman, 1994).
in boys during late adolescence and young adulthood.

3.5 -

3
Peak axygen uptake (L/min}

2.5

1.5

0.5

o
8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 11
Age (y)

Figure 2. Peak oxygen uptake in relation to age and sex. Boys solid line, girls dotted line.

3
Neil Armstrong Developing of the Elite Young Athlete

The increase in peak VO2 with age reflects the increase in SHORT-TERM HIGH INTENSITY EXERCISE
body size during the transition from childhood into young The improvement in peak VO 2 through training is largely
adulthood. When peak VO2 is expressed in ratio with body due to enhanced oxygen delivery to the muscles through
mass (mL/kg'min) a different picture emerges from that an increase in maximum stroke volume (Armstrong &
apparent when absolute values (L/min) are used. Boys' Barker, 2011). The ability to perform short-terco high
mass-related peak VO2 remains essentially unchanged at intensity exercise is important in virtually all sports but
48-50 mL/kg/min-1 from 8-18 years, whilst girls' values the difficulty of assessing and interpreting physiological
decline from — 45-35 mL/kg'min over the same time variables under these conditions has limited
period. Although mass-related peak VO2 remains an understanding of the mechanisms underpinning
important measure in relation to sports which require the performance. Research has focused on the assessment of
movement of body mass, the use of this ratio standard has external power output and variants of the Wingate
clouded physiological understanding of aerobic fitness anaerobic test (WAnT), which allow the determination of
during growth and maturation. Rather than removing the cycling peak power (CPP) have emerged as the most
influence of body mass, ratio scaling 'over scales' thereby popular tests of young people's peak power output.
favoring light children and penalizing heavy children. Running peak power has been estimated (Sutton et al.,
When appropriately analysed the data show that, in conflict 2000) but CPP is better documented with young people.
with the conventional interpretation (using ratio scaling), Cross-sectional data show that in both sexes, there is an
there is a progressive rise in peak VO2 in both sexes almost linear increase in CPP with age over the range 7-
independent of the influence of body mass (Welsman & 13 years then, in boys but not girls, a second and steeper
Armstrong, 2008). linear increase in CPP through to young adulthood is
As young people grow they also mature and the observed (Figure 3).
physiological responses of adolescents must be considered Longitudinal data have emphasized the sex
in relation to biological as well as chronological age. difference in power output in relation to age and
Studies using appropriate statistical techniques have maturation by showing 12 year- old boys and girls,
demonstrated that although fat free mass is the predominant respectively, to generate —45% and —60% of the CPP
influence in the increase of peak VO2 through adolescence they achieved at 17 years of age (Armstrong et al., 2001;
stage of maturation is an additional explanatory variable, Van Praagh, 2000). The overlapping performance of girls
independent of both chronological age and body mass. This and boys at —12-13 years which is evident in Figure 3 is
gives earlier maturers an advantage over later maturers in probably due to the girls being more mature than similarly
performance in sports dependent on aerobic fitness aged boys. This was demonstrated in a study of 100 boys
(Armstrong et al., 2008). and 100 girls aged 12 years who had their CPP assessed
Elite young athletes present peak VO2 values —30- using the WAnT. No significant sex difference in CPP was
50% higher than their non-athletic peers but this is likely to observed but when the children were classified into the
be due to both selection and training (Armstrong et al., stages of maturation described by Tanner (1962) it was
2011). Genetic influences on the responsiveness of peak noted that whereas the girls in Tanner stage 1 achieved
VO2 to training are not well-understood but it appears that 95% of the stage 1 boys' CPP the girls in Tanner stage 4
there is a continuum from high responders to non- only achieved 87% of the stage 4 boys' CPP. Earlier
responders. It has been hypothesised that there is a maturing boys (Tanner stage 4) presented CPP values 66%
`maturational threshold' or a `trigger point' below which the higher than later maturing boys (Tanner stage 1). Earlier
effects of training will be minimal (Katch, 1983) but recent maturing girls (Tanner stage 4) presented CPP values 51%
research using exercise intensities in the range 85-90% of higher than later maturing girls (Tanner stagel).
maximum heart rate has demonstrated clearly that this is
not the case and both prepubertal children anadolescents
will respond to endurance training in a similar manner.

1200

1000

800

8.00 -
o
O_
400 -

200

0
nr.3 -
=
1 C
O
tl o O O O O O O O
00
ti ti
Age (y)

Figure 3. Peak power output in relation to age and sex. Boys solid line, girls dotted line.

4
Neil Armstrong Developing of the Elite Young Athlete

The children were all 12 years of age and with body mass percentage of type I fibres in the vastus lateralis is a
also controlled, using allometry, there was a significant function of age, at least in males. The data indicate
maturational effect on performance in both sexes although decreases in the percentage of type I fibres in healthy
it was more marked in boys. These fmdings illustrate males over the age range 10-35 years. No clear age-
clearly the advantage of the earlier maturer in sporting related fibre distribution changes have been observed in
events dependent on the expression of peak power output females but this might be a methodological artifact as few
(Armstrong et al., 1997). data on girls and women are available (Jansson, 1996).
Compared with the extant data on training- Studies comparing the muscle fibre composition
induced changes in aerobic fitness data on the effects of of boys and girls are confounded by the small number of
high intensity training on power output are sparse. Most participants and large inter-individual variations which
studies using laboratory power output tests such as the cloud statistical analyses. However, the literature shows a
WAnT as the criterion measure have been short in duration consistent trend with adolescent and young adult males
and have not required the participants to train at maximal exhibiting, on average, 8-15% more type I fibres in the
intensity. There are muscle biopsy data which show that vastus lateralis than similarly aged females in the same
participation in a high-intensity training programme for 16 study (Armstrong & Fawkner, 2008).
weeks can increase 11-13 year old boys' resting adenosine Sport performances of varying intensities and
triphosphate (ATP), phosphocreatine (PCr), durations are supported by different energy systems and the
phosphofructokinase (PFK), and glycogen by 12%, 39%, relative contribution of there systems is dependent on age
83%, and 32% respectively (Eriksson et al., 1973). There and maturation. Direct knowledge of children's ATP, PCr,
are no similar muscle biopsy data on girls. However, and glycogen stores is limited to a single muscle biopsy
muscle biopsy studies tend not to be well-controlled and study of boys aged 11.6-15.5 years, reported by Eriksson
provide in vitro resting values on small samples of and Saltin (1974). There are no comparable data on girls.
predominantly male participants. The influence of age and Eriksson and Saltin's data indicate that resting ATP stores
maturation on the trainability of maximal power output is in the quadriceps femoris are very similar to values
therefore unclear (Tolfrey, 2008). recorded by others in adults but PCr concentrations increase
In a longitudinal study it was observed that, over by 63% from age 11 to 16 years when they approach adult
the age range 12-17 years, CPP increased by 121% in boys values. Muscle glycogen concentration at rest increases by
and 66% in girls whereas increases in peak VO2 were 61% from 11 to 16 years when values are comparable to
somewhat less at 70% and 50% for boys and girls those of adults. Following heavy exercise, Eriksson and
respectively. These data indicate that there are age- and Saltin (1974) noted a decrease in glycogen concentration at
sex-related changes in predominantly anaerobic and all ages but the decrease was three times greater in the
predominantly aerobic performance which are oldest compared to the youngest boys (Eriksson, 1980).
asynchronous and suggest that during adolescence both Enzyme activities measured at rest and in vitro do
sexes experience a greater increase in the ability to perform not necessarily reflect exercise in vivo conditions because
anaerobically than aerobically, with the effect more interactions which influence the cytoplasmic and
marked in males. However, metabolic profiles founded on mitochondrial arrangement as a functionally complex
CPP and peak VO2 tests are the sum of numerous factors system are neglected. However some insights are
and do not provide the granulation of data required to tease presented and pioneering research by Eriksson et al. (1974)
out the subtle age and maturation-related changes in described the levels of succinic dehydrogenase (SDH, an
exercise metabolism which support sport performance oxidative enzyme) and PFK (a glycolytic enzyme) activity
(Armstrong & Welsman, 2001; Armstrong et al., 2001). at rest in the vastus lateralis of 5 boys, mean age 11.2 years.
They observed SDH activity to be 20% higher and PFK
DEVELOPMENTAL EXERCISE activity to be 50% lower respectively than they had
previously recorded for adults. Consistent with Eriksson et
METABOLISM al.'s data, Haralambie (1979, 1980) observed higher
activity in two oxidative enzymes in 11-14 year-old girls
Muscle Biopsy Studies than in adults and lower activity of several glycolytic
Boisseau and Delmarche (2000) suggested that maturation enzymes in prepubertal children compared to adults. In a
of skeletal muscle fibre patterns might account for age- subsequent study of 13-15 year-olds, however, Haralambie
related changes in the metabolic responses to exercise but, (1982) noted higher activity of oxidative enzymes in
for both ethical and methodological reasons, the muscle adolescents than adults but reported no significant
biopsy technique has been used rarely with healthy difference in glycolytic enzymes activity between
children. The few muscle biopsy studies which have been adolescents and adults. Berg et al. (1986) reported
performed with children have focused on resting and post- glycolytic enzymes activity to be positively correlated with
exercise measures and have generally been restricted to age and oxidative enzymes activity to be negatively
small samples of predominantly male children and correlated with age over the age range 6-17 years although,
adolescents. Nevertheless, some interesting patterns have with small sample sizes, the values did not reach statistical
emerged from the extant literature which infers that muscle significance. Haralambie (1982) compared the resting
fibre size increases with age from birth to adolescence and activity of rate-limiting enzymes of glycolysis and the
in males into young adulthood. The tricarboxylic acid cycle,

5
Neil Armstrong Developing of the Elite Young Athlete

namely PFK and isocitrate dehydrogenase (ICDH) significance. Furthermore, unpublished data from my
respectively and calculated the ratio of PFK/ICDH activity laboratory indicate that boys have significantly faster PCr
to be 93% higher in adults than in adolescents. These time constants than men in response to the onset of very
findings were subsequently supported by Berg et al's (1986) high-intensity exercise (Willcocks et al., unpublished PhD
data where the calculated ratio of glycolytic to oxidative thesis, 2011).
enzyme activity (i.e. pyruvate kinase/fumarase activity) Children's pulmonary oxygen uptake (pVO2)
was 12% higher in adults than in 14 year-old adolescents, kinetics during upright cycle ergometer exercise has been
and 185%% higher in adults than in 6 year-old children. In demonstrated to closely reflect their PCr kinetics during
adolescents the ratio was 154% higher than in children prone quadriceps exercise. The study of pVO2 kinetics
(Berg & Keul, 1988). therefore provides a window through which muscle can be
interrogated during exercise (Barker et al., 2008a).
Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy and During both moderate and high intensity exercise
the pVO2 kinetic response to a step change in exercise
Pulmonary Oxygen Uptake Kinetics Studies
intensity is significantly faster in children compared with
Magnetic resonance spectroscopy using the phosphorus adults, resulting in a smaller absolute and relative oxygen
nucleus (31P MRS) is able to interrogate the muscle and deficit. During a transition to high intensity exercise boys'
monitor ATP, PCr, and inorganic phosphate (Pi), in vivo pVO2 kinetic response is faster than that of girls.
during exercise. During exercise Pi increases with a Children's faster increase in pVO2 to a new steady-state
corresponding decline in PCr and the expression of muscle and therefore lower contribution to ATP re-synthesis from
Pi/PCr against power output provides an índex of anaerobic sources during the non-steady state reflects a
mitochondrial function. The chemical shift of the Pi spectral more efficient oxygen delivery system, enhanced oxygen
peak relative to the PCr peak reflects the acidification of the utilization or both compared to adults. During high
muscle and allows the determination of the intracellular pH intensity exercise the magnitude of the pVO2 slow
which gives an indication of muscle glycolytic activity. component is reduced in children compared to adults and
Incremental exercise results in non-linear changes in the in boys compared to girls. This is consistent with an age-
ratio Pi/PCr plotted against power output and in pH plotted related decline in the % of type 1 muscle fibres and the
against power output. In both cases as power output noted sex differences are in accord with boys having a
increases, an initial shallow slope is followed by a second higher % of type 1 fibres than similarly aged girls
steeper slope and the transition point is known as the (Fawkner & Armstrong, 2003; Armstrong & Barker 2009).
intracellular threshold (IT). Exercise below the Pi/PCr or pH
IT which, in children, occurs at —60% of peak power
output, is termed moderate intensity exercise and aboye the
Summary of Studies of Developmental Exercise
Pi/PCr or pH IT high intensity exercise (Barker & Metabolism
Armstrong, 2010).
During incremental quadriceps exercise to Data from muscle biopsy, 31P MRS and pVO2 kinetics
exhaustion, with power output normalized to quadriceps studies are in general accord. On balance the muscle biopsy
muscle mass, it has been observed that, during exercise data indicate that in terms of enzyme activity and high
aboye the ITs age-related differences in the muscle energy phosphate stores children are disadvantaged
phosphates and pH are present with adult men and women compared to adults in short-duration, high intensity
exhibiting a greater anaerobic contribution to exercise activities but appear well-equipped for low to moderate
metabolism than boys and girls. Maturational effects on intensity activities predominantly supported by aerobic
metabolism were not demonstrated in boys, aged 9-12 metabolism. Earlier maturers are advantaged over later
years, however, similarly aged but earlier maturing girls maturers in sports dependent on short bursts of high
displayed pH dynamics akin to those of adult women. The intensity activity. Studies using 31P MRS and pVO2
lack of a maturational relationship in the boys is probably kinetics to interrogate muscles indicate a developmental
due to the boys in the study being prepubertal or early influence on the mitochondrial oxygen utilization potential
pubertal (Barker et al., 2010). that supports enhanced oxidative function during childhood
Incremental exercise is a useful laboratory (Armstrong & Barker, 2012).
model but not representative of sporting performance.
PCr kinetics, however, are important for all sports which Conclusion
require rapid step changes in exercise intensity (e.g.,
changes of pace in soccer). To date only two published
31 Performance in sport during childhood and adolescence is
P MRS studies have examined age-related differences
dependent on a range of physical and physiological
in PCr kinetics during a transition from rest to exercise.
variables which are age-, growth-, maturation-and sex-
During step changes at the onset of exercise both below
related. Earlier maturing boys are generally taller, heavier,
and aboye the Pi/PCr IT no significant age or sex- related
and more muscular than boys of the same chronological age
differences in PCr kinetics were detected (Barker et al.,
who mature later. Earlier maturing boys also benefit from
2008a, Willcocks et al., 2010). However, it is worth
changes in body shape which are advantageous in many
noting that during the transition to high intensity exercise
sports. In some sports earlier maturing girls benefit from
24-30% differences in PCr time constants were reported
enhanced size and muscle strength compared to similar
between boys and men which while not statistically
aged later maturing girls but
different infer possible biological

6
Neil Armstrong Developing of the Elite Young Athlete

in other sports the body shape and size of later maturing activity during youth. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 45, 849-
858.
girls is advantageous. Mercases in muscle strength and
Armstrong, N. & Welsman, J.R. (1994). Assessment and interpretation of
power output with age are apparent in both sexes during aerobic fitness in children and adolescents. Exercise and Sport
adolescence but the changes are much more marked in Science Reviews, 22, 435-476.
boys. With age and body mass appropriately controlled Armstrong, N. & Welsman, J.R. (2001). Peak oxygen uptake in relation to
maturation exerts a significant additional positive effect growth and maturation in 11-17 year-old humans. European Journal
of Applied Physiology, 85, 546-551.
on muscle strength and power output which benefits Armstrong, N., Welsman, J.R., & Chia, M. (2001). Short-terco power
earlier maturers. The muscle enzyme profile needed to output in relation to growth and maturation. British Journal of Sports
promote the anaerobic generation of energy is enhanced Medicine, 35, 118-125.
as boys and girls move from childhood through Armstrong, N., Welsman, J.R. & Kirby, B.J. (1997). Performance on the
Wingate anaerobic test and maturation. Pediatric Exercise Science,
adolescence into young adulthood. Peak VO2 increases 9, 253-261.
with fat free body mass but additionally benefits from age- Barker, A.R. & Armstrong, N. (2010). Insights into developmental muscle
and maturation- related increases which are more marked metabolism through the use of 31P-magnetic resonance spectroscopy:
in boys. Children and adolescents of both sexes improve A review. Pediatric Exercise Science, 22, 350-368.
Barker, A.R., Welsman, J.R., Fulford, J., Welford, D. & Armstrong, N.
performance with training and there is no evidence to (2008a). Muscle phosphocreatine kinetics in children and adults at
suggest that endurance, high intensity or resistance the onset and offset of moderate-intensity exercise. Journal of
training adversely affects growth and maturation. Applied Physiology, 105, 446-456.
Further research is necessary to tease out the Barker, A.R., Welsman, J.R., Fulford, J., Welford, D., & Armstrong, N.
(2008b). Muscle phosphocreatine and pulmonar), oxygen uptake
underlying physiological factors determining elite sport kinetics in children and adults at the onset of moderate intensity
performance during youth. The development of techniques exercise. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 102, 727-738.
and technologies, such as 31P MRS and breath- by- breath Barker, A.R., Welsman, J.R., Fulford, J., Welford, D., & Armstrong, N.
respiratory gas kinetics, has unleashed the potential to (2010). Quadriceps muscle energetics during incrementa) exercise in
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E Neil Armstrong, PhD, DSc


Children's Health and Exercise Research Centre,
University of Exeter, United Kingdom
Email: n.armstrong@exeter.ac.uk

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