Chapters 1-3

• Chapter 1: Introduction and applications of

photogrammetry.
• Chapter 2: Electro-magnetic radiation.
– Radiation sources.
– Classification of remote sensing systems (passive
versus active).
– Electromagnetic radiation wavebands.
• Chapter 3: Basic optics.
– Definitions.
– Factors affecting the radiometric and geometric quality
of acquired imagery.
– Resolving power of an optical system.
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ENGO 431: Chapter 4

Film Development & Digital Cameras

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 Overview

• Photographic film components.

• Processing of Black and White (B/W) film.
– Negative film.
– Inverse film.
• Nature of colour.
• Processing of colour film.
– Negative film.
– Inverse film.
• Sensitometric properties of the emulsion.
• Analog versus digital cameras.
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Photographic Film Development

B/W and Color Film Development

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 Photographic Film

Sensitized Emulsion

Base

Anti-halation Layer

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Photographic Film

• Emulsion:
– Micro-thin layer of gelatin in which light-sensitive
ingredients (silver bromide crystals) are suspended.
• Base:
– Transparent flexible sheet on which light sensitive
emulsion is coated.
• Anti-halation layer:
– Prevents transmitted light through the base from
reflecting back towards the emulsion.

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 Black and white Films

• Negative film:
– Bright areas in the object space appear dark and dark
areas appear bright.
– Directions are inverted.
• Diapositive:
– Bright areas in the object space appear bright and dark
areas appear dark.
– Image and object space directions are compatible.

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Negative Film

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 Diapositive

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Processing of Black and White Negative Film

development process:
crystals with speckle reduced to silver
Silver speckle
other crystals washed out

emulsion

Base
A.H.L.

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Processing of Black and White Negative Film

• Exposure of film to light → Latent image.

• Latent Image:
– The bond between the silver and the bromide is broken.
• Development of latent image:
– The silver (in the affected crystals) is separated from
the bromide. We get rid of the bromide.
• Fixing:
– We get rid of the unaffected crystals. They are
converted into salt, which can be dissolved into water
and released.
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Negative Film Development

Bright Intermediate Dark Scene Brightness

Unexposed Film

Latent Image

After Developing

Uniform White Light

After Fixing

Dark Intermediate Bright

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 Processing of Black and White Inverse Film
• Exposure of film to light → Latent image.
• Latent Image:
– The bond between the silver and the bromide is broken.
• Pre-development (bleaching) of latent image:
– The affected silver bromide crystals are released. Only,
unexposed silver bromide crystals remain.
• Exposing the film to uniform white light,
development, and Fixing:
– The film is uniformly exposed to white light. This is
followed by development (where we get rid of the
bromide) and fixing stages.
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Development of Reversal (Inverse) B/W Film

Bright Intermediate Dark Scene Brightness

Unexposed Film

Latent Image

Uniform White Light

Pre-development

Uniform White Light

Development & Fixing

Bright Intermediate Dark

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 Nature of Color
• Primary Colors:
– Colors that can not be derived from other colors.
– Red, Green, and Blue.
– Red + Green + Blue → White.
– Green + Blue → Cyan.
– Red + Green → Yellow.
– Red + Blue → Magenta.
– Cyan filter subtracts Red (passes Green and Blue).
– Yellow filter subtracts Blue (passes Red and Green).
– Magenta filter subtracts Green (passes Red and Blue).
– Cyan + Yellow + Magenta → Black.
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Color Film

Blue Sensitive
Yellow Filter

Green & Blue Sensitive

Red & Blue Sensitive

Anti-halation
layer
Base

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 Development of Color Negative Film
• Exposure of film to light → Latent image.
• Latent Image:
– The bond between the silver and the bromide is broken.
• Development of latent image:
– The silver (in the affected crystals) is separated from
the bromide. We get rid of the bromide. Only metallic
silver and unexposed crystals remain.
• Fixing and Dying:
– We get rid of the unaffected crystals and the yellow
filter. The silver crystals are dyed with complementary
color.
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Processing of Color Negative Film

Blue Green Red White Cyan Magenta Yellow Scene Brightness
Blue Sensitive
Green Sensitive
Red Sensitive

Blue Sensitive
Green Sensitive
Red Sensitive

Latent Image
Blue Sensitive
Green Sensitive
Red Sensitive

Developed Latent Image

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 Processing of Color Negative Film

Blue Sensitive
Green Sensitive
Red Sensitive

After Fixing
Uniform White Light
Yellow Dye
Magenta Dye
Cyan Dye

After Dying
Yellow Magenta Cyan Black Red Green Blue Negative Color

Blue Green Red White Cyan Magenta Yellow Scene Brightness

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Development of Color Inverse Film

• Exposure of film to light → Latent image.

• Latent Image:
– The bond between the silver and the bromide is broken.
• Pre-development of latent image:
– We get rid of the exposed grains.
• Expose the film to uniform white light.
• Film Development, Fixing and Dying:
– We get rid of the bromide and the yellow filter. The
silver crystals are dyed with complementary color.

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 Development of Color Inverse Film
Blue Green Red White Cyan Magenta Yellow Scene Brightness
Blue Sensitive
Green Sensitive
Red Sensitive

Blue Sensitive
Green Sensitive
Red Sensitive

Latent Image
Blue Sensitive
Green Sensitive
Red Sensitive

Pre-development Latent Image

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Development of Color Inverse Film

Uniform White Light
Blue Sensitive
Green Sensitive
Red Sensitive

Blue Sensitive
Green Sensitive
Red Sensitive

Uniform White Light

Yellow Dye
Magenta Dye
Cyan Dye
After Dying & Fixing
Blue Green Red White Cyan Magenta Yellow Film Brightness

Blue Green Red White Cyan Magenta Yellow Scene Brightness

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Sensitometric Properties of the Emulsion

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Sensitometric Properties of the Emulsion

Incident Intensity Ii

Film

Transmitted Intensity It

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Sensitometric Properties of the Emulsion

• Sensitometry (t):
– A measure of the emulsion’s response to light.
• Opacity (O):
– The ratio between the incident intensity (Ii) and the
transmitted intensity (It).
– O = Ii / It
• Transmittance (T):
– T=1/O
• Density (D):
– D = log10 (O) = log10 (Ii / It)
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Density
• Density = 2
– Ii / It = 100 → It = 0.01 Ii.
– 99% of the incident intensity was absorbed by the
emulsion.
• Density = 1
– Ii / It = 10 → It = 0.1 Ii.
– 90% of the incident intensity was absorbed by the
emulsion.
• Density = 0
– I i / I t = 1 → I t = I i.
– 0% of the incident intensity was absorbed by the
emulsion → Transparent material.
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Sensitometric Properties of the Emulsion

• Exposure (H):
– The product of the illuminance “E” falling on the
emulsion (in LUX) times the exposure time.
– H is expressed in (LUX • Sec).
• Characteristic “density” curve for an emulsion:
– The graphical plot of (log H) against the corresponding
density (D).

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Characteristic “Density” Curve

Under Correct Over Solarization
Exposure Exposure Exposure

D 4
r
lde
h ou
3S 5

e
L in
ht
ig
ra
St γ = tan α
2 α

1 Toe

Log(H)

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 The Density Curve: Remarks
• Area of under exposure (Toe):
– The density builds up with a higher rate than that of the
exposure.
• Area of correct exposure (Straight Line):
– Scene brightness is in proper proportion with the film
brightness.
• Area of over exposure (Shoulder):
– The rate with which the density increases is smaller
than the rat of increase in the exposure.
• Solarization:
– Any increase in the exposure would reduce the density.
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Gradation of the Emulsion

• Gradation γ = tan (α).
• Gradation > 1 (Hard Photographic Material):
– Small differences in the exposure → Larger differences
in the density → Increase the contrast.
• Gradation < 1 (Soft Photographic Material):
– Large differences in the exposure → Smaller
differences in the density → Decrease the contrast.
• Gradation = 1 (Normal Photographic Material):
– Differences in the exposure → Similar differences in
the density.
• Correct exposure of hard films is more difficult
than soft ones.
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 Analog Versus Digital Cameras

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Analog Photogrammetric cameras

• Mapping film cameras with 9" x 9" format and a

focal length of 6" have enjoyed a dominant
position in the airborne mapping and remote
sensing business (e.g., RC30).
• A modern analog camera will deliver a film with
resolving power of approximately 40–100 line
pairs/mm.
• The dynamic range of a typical analog camera is
roughly180 shades of gray.
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 Analog Aerial Camera: RC30

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Resolving Power: Line Pairs/mm

Average grain size: 1 – 3 μm.

1--3 microns
1 mm

1 line pair (lp)

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 Resolving Power: Line Pairs/mm
• Factors affecting the resolving power of an analog
camera include:
– Lens aberrations, depth of field, depth of focus,
diffraction, film material, and motion blur.
• Fine grained emulsions > 100 lp/mm
• Including atmosphere + optics ~100 lp/mm
• Hazy conditions 40 lp/mm

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Radiometric Resolution (Dynamic Range)

• Radiometric resolution is the ability of the sensor to quantify
different amounts of energy at a specific wavelength.
• A sensor's ability to detect low to high amounts of detected
energy is called the dynamic range of the sensor.

Perceiving Gray Shades

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 Radiometric Resolution (Dynamic Range)

3 -- 9 mu

1 silver crystal: 2 gray shades min 10 gray shades

1--3 microns

min 5 gray shades

2---6 mu

Perceiving Gray Shades

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Digital Cameras & Photogrammetric Mapping

• Digital camera technology is finding its way into the

airborne imaging market place (DMCTM, ADS 40).
• The basic difference between analog and digital
cameras is that:
– Film and film processing are replaced by solid state
electronics such as charge coupled devices (CCD), which
are arrays with thousands of tiny detectors called picture
elements (pixels).
• Digital camera uses computer technology to quickly
process the image data and store it on a large storage
system.
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 Digital Frame Cameras

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Digital Aerial Camera: DMCTM

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 Digital Cameras: Block Diagram
Controls the dynamic range

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Dynamic Range in Digital Cameras

• The sensing elements (pixels) in a digital camera absorb

the energy of the incoming photons and yield an electrical
charge.
• The electrical charge is converted to a voltage, which is
amplified to a level that can be processed further by the
Analog to Digital Converter (ADC).
• The ADC classifies ("samples") the analog voltages from
the pixels into a number of discrete levels of brightness
and assigns each level a binary label.
– A "one bit" ADC would classify the pixel values as either black or
white.
– A "two bit" ADC would categorize them into four groups.
– Most consumer digital cameras use 8 bit ADC, allowing up to 256
gray shades for a single pixel.

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 Resolving Power and Pixel Size
• Factors affecting the resolving power of a digital
camera include:
– Lens aberrations, depth of field, depth of focus,
diffraction, pixel size, and motion blur.
• Pixel size = 1/2 of smallest detail to be resolved
• Smallest detail: lp/mm
• Pixel size = 1/(2*lp/mm)
– 100 lp/mm pixel size = 1000 μm/200 = 5 μm
– 40 lp/mm pixel size = 1000 μm/80 = 12.5 μm

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Analog Versus Digital Cameras

Components Analog Cameras Digital Camera

Optics Lenses and Mirrors Lenses and Mirrors

Detectors Film Solid State Detectors

(CCD , CMOS)
Processors Chemistry Digital Computers

Output Media Film Computer Readable

Disks and/or Tapes and
Monitors
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 Analog Versus Digital Cameras
• The dynamic range of a digital camera can yield up
to 4096 shades of gray (12 bits ADC).
– Remember that the dynamic range of a typical analog
camera is about 180 shades of gray.
• An analog camera with 9" x 9" format will deliver a
resolving power of approximately 40 lp/mm.
– Comparable digital camera should have 20,800 x 20,800
pixels, with each pixel being 11μm in size.
• Image size 432 mega-pixels per frame.
– Today’s largest digital cameras have up to 9000 x 9000
pixels.

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Resolution and Storage Requirement

• Problem: Largest available 2-D array 9k x 9k.

• Solution: Linear Array Scanners (Line Cameras).
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 Frame Camera & Data Acquisition
Focal Plane

Perspective Center

Footprint

• The image footprint is captured through a single exposure.

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Frame Camera & Data Acquisition

Aircraft

Vehicle Trajectory

Ground swath

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 Line Cameras
• Digital frame cameras capture 2- D images
through a single exposure of a two-dimensional
CCD array.
• Line cameras capture scenes with large ground
coverage and high geometric and radiometric
resolutions through multiple exposures of few
scan lines along the focal plane.
• Successive coverage of different areas on the
ground is achieved through the motion of the
imaging platform.
– Open shutter mechanism.

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Frame Versus Line Cameras

Flight Direction
x
y x

Perspective Center
Perspective Center

Frame Camera Single Line Camera

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 Line Cameras

Single CCD line in the image plane

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Line Camera & Data Acquisition

Linear CCD array

Optics

Vehicle Trajectory

Ground swath

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 Digital Aerial Camera: ADS 40
Three Line Scanner

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Digital Aerial Camera – ADS 40 (Triple Coverage)

d d

Flight Direction

PC(t) PC(t + dt)

Backward Image Downward Image Forward Image

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Digital Aerial Camera – ADS 40 (Triple Coverage)
Flight Direction

• Triple coverage is achieved by having three scanners in the

focal plane.
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Digital Aerial Camera – ADS 40 (Triple Coverage)

Backward scene Nadir scene Forward scene

composed composed composed

of backward view lines of nadir view lines of forward view lines
Backward

Nadir

Forward

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