Chapters 1 – 5

• Chapter 1:
– Photogrammetry: Definition, introduction, and
applications.
• Chapters 2 – 4:
– Electro-magnetic radiation.
– Optics.
– Film development and digital cameras.
• Chapter 5:
– Vertical imagery: Definitions, image scale, and relief
displacement.
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ENGO 431: Chapter 6

Image Coordinate Measurements

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 Overview
• Image coordinate measurements in analogue,
analytical, and digital environments.
• Comparators: mono and stereo-comparators.
• Automatic comparators.
• Comparator to image coordinate transformation.
• Reduction/refinement of image coordinate
measurements:
– Radial and de-centering lens distortions.
– Atmospheric refraction.
– Earth curvature.
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Measurement and Reduction of Image

Coordinates
• Objective of photogrammetry:
– Derive ground coordinates of object points from
measured image coordinates.
• Thus, photogrammetric processing starts with the
measurement of image coordinates.
• We are going to discuss how to perform this task
in:
– Analogue or analytical environment (i.e., using analogue
images).
– Digital environment (i.e., using digital images).
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 Different Generations of Photogrammetry

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Different Generations of Photogrammetry

• Analogue photogrammetry:
– Analogue imagery + stereo-viewing controlled by optical and
mechanical devices.
– Analogue output.
• Analytical photogrammetry:
– Analogue imagery + stereo-viewing controlled by computers.
– Digital output.
• Digital photogrammetry:
– Digital imagery + stereo-viewing controlled by computers.
– Digital output.
– Automation capabilities (automatic matching and DEM generation).

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 Analogue Photogrammetry

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Analogue Photogrammetry

Wild A8 Analogue Plotter

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 Analytical Photogrammetry

BC3 Analytical Plotter

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Analytical Photogrammetry

Ziess P3 Analytical Plotter

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 Analytical Photogrammetry

Stereo-viewing & Stages

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Digital Photogrammetry

ImageStation 2002 Digital Photogrammetric Workstation (DPW)

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 Digital Photogrammetry

ImagStation SSK: Stereo Softcopy Kit

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Image Coordinate Measurements

y

y
x

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y`
Image Coordinate Measurements
y

x
x`
y
x

y`
x`
Comparator coordinates (x`, y`) → Image coordinates (x, y)
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Image Coordinate Measurements

• We cannot directly measure the image coordinates

of features of interest.
• We use machines (known as comparators) to
measure the coordinates relative to the machine
coordinate system.
– Output: Machine/comparator coordinates.
• The machine/comparator coordinates are reduced
to image coordinates (i.e., relative to the image
coordinate system).

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Coordinate Measurements in Analogue
Images

Comparators

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Analogue Cameras

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 Analogue Cameras

RC 30
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Comparators

• Comparators are highly accurate machines for

measuring the xy-coordinates of selected points in
the image plane.
• Comparators can be classified into:
– Mono-comparators: coordinates are measured in one
image at a time.
– Stereo-comparators: coordinates are measured in a
stereo-pair simultaneously.

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 Stereo-Imaging

y-Parallax

Convergent Imagery
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Stereo-Imaging

No y-parallax → Normal Case Imagery

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 Stereo-Comparators

py
yl

px

xl

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Stereo-Comparators

• Two stages on top of which the two images of a

stereo-pair are mounted.
• If no y-parallax exists, points can be selected and
measured stereoscopically (i.e., in 3-D).
• Condition for stereoscopic viewing:
– dω and dφ between the two images are small.
– Ensure that there is no vertical parallax.

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 Stereo-Comparators

• Measurements:
– (x`l, y`l) stage coordinates in the left image.
– (px, py) offsets (parallax) to the conjugate point in the
right image.
• x`r = px + x`l.
• y`r = py + y`l.
• Advantage: Points are selected stereoscopically →
Higher accuracy → Less mis-matches.
• Disadvantage: Stereoscopic viewing is possible
only if the rotation angles (ω, φ) are small.
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Mono-Comparators

Glass Scale for measuring the y-displacement

Stage that moves in the x&y directions

Glass Scale for measuring the

x-displacement

Stationary Measuring Mark

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 Measurement of Stage Movement

20µm

Stage
20 µm
Scale

Light Source Io Photo Diode Ir

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Measurement of Stage Movement

20µm

Stage
20 µm
Scale

Light Source Io Photo Diode Ir

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 Measurement of Stage Movement

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Measurement of Stage Movement

Ir/Io

0.5

d
40 µm 80 µm 120 µm 160 µm

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 Measurement of Stage Movement

• The number of maxima and minima in the current

from the photo diode are proportional to the stage
displacement.
• Using linear interpolation, we can measure
displacements as small as 1µm.

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Abbe’s Rule

• The accuracy of the comparator depends on the

spacing between the distance to be measured and
the measuring scale.
• Abbe’s rule states that the distance to be measured
and the measuring scale should be along a straight
line (to achieve the highest accuracy possible).

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 Abbe’s Rule

θ
d

d tan θ

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Comparators

• Stereo Comparators: • Mono Comparators:

+ Points are selected in 3-D. – Points are selected in 2-D.
+ More accurate. – Less accurate.
+ Less mis-matches. – More mis-matches.
– More expensive. + Cheaper.
– Larger in size. + Smaller in size.
– Cannot be used for + Can be used with any kind
convergent imagery (Aerial of imagery (Aerial & Close
imagery only). range).

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 Point Transfer Devices

• Point transfer devices physically mark the points

on the emulsion using a needle or a small drill.
• Points are viewed stereoscopically.
• Point transfer devices + mono-comparators will
yield an accuracy which is similar to that obtained
from stereo-comparator.

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Point Transfer Devices

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 Point Transfer Devices

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Automatic Comparators

• Stage (comparator) coordinates are measured

automatically.
• The stage is moved in the xy-directions by means
of high precision servo-motors.
• For this type of comparators, we use retro-
reflective targets:
– When they are illuminated at the moment of exposure,
they produce high contrast to their background.

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 Retro-reflective Targets

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Retro-reflective Targets

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 Automatic Comparators

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Automatic Comparators

• Approximate locations of the targets in the image

are available.
• The stage is driven to the approximate locations of
the targets.
• This part of the image is digitized by a CCD
camera.
• Through a simple thresholding and centroid
extraction algorithm, one can determine the stage
coordinates of the target under consideration.

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 Centroid Extraction

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Centroid Extraction

xc =
∑ (g − g ) xi th i

∑ (g − g ) i th

yc =
∑ (g − g ) yi th i

∑ (g − g ) i th

• The summation is carried over all the pixels that belong to

the blob.

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 Coordinate Measurements in Digital
Images

Pixel Coordinates

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Digital Images
• Digital images can be obtained through either:
– Scanning analog images (Scanners), or
– Directly using digital cameras.

Photogrammetric Scanner
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 Digital Cameras
• A digital camera captures an image through a sensor
called CCD (Charge Coupled Devices) or CMOS
(Complementary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor).
– CCD/CMOS is a chip consisting of an array of light
sensitive photo-cells.
• This sensor has light sensing dots called pixels.
• The actual resolution of a camera is controlled by
the total number of pixels that are located on the
CCD/CMOS sensor.
• The more pixels a digital camera has on its sensor,
the larger the pictures you can take.
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Digital Mapping Camera (DMCTM)

• Digital frame camera developed by Z/I Imaging

• It is a turnkey digital camera designed to support
aerial photogrammetric missions.
• Resolution: 14kx8k.
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 Digital Images

y`

Row
Column

x`

Pixel Coordinates are analogous to comparator coordinates.

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Comparator to Image Coordinate

Transformation

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 Deriving Image Coordinates

• Comparators measure the coordinates of selected

points relative to the comparator coordinate
system (x`, y`).
• We are interested in the coordinates of these
points w.r.t. the image coordinate system (x, y).
• Thus, we need to reduce the comparator
coordinates into image coordinates.

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Comparator to Image Coordinate

Transformation

Images Acquired by Analogue Cameras

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 Image Coordinate System

Fiducial Mark

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Fiducial Marks

• Fiducial marks are small targets on the body of

metric cameras.
• Their positions relative to the camera body are
known through a calibration procedure.
• They define the image coordinate system.
• In that system, the position of the perspective
centre is known.
• Form as well as distribution of Fiducial marks
depend on the camera manufacturer.

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 Sample Fiducial Marks

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Comparator to Image Coordinate

Transformation
• Alternatives:
– Two dimensional similarity transformation.
• Four parameters.
– Affine transformation.
• Six parameters.
– Bilinear transformation.
• Eight parameters.
– Projective transformation.
• Eight parameters.

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 2-D Similarity Transformation

y
y` p

α
x`
xT

yT

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2-D Similarity Transformation

y`
x
α
x`
α
y` y
α x`
α x

x = x` cos(α) - y` sin(α)
y = x` sin(α) + y` cos(α)
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 2-D Similarity Transformation

⎡ x ⎤ ⎡ xT ⎤ ⎡cos α − sin α ⎤ ⎡ x′ ⎤
⎢ y⎥ = ⎢ y ⎥ + S ⎢
cos α ⎥⎦ ⎢ y ′⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ T⎦ ⎣ sin α ⎣ ⎦

Where :
S is a scale factor
xT & yT are shifts
α is a rotation angle
x& y are image coordinates
x′ & y ′ are comparator coordinates

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2-D Similarity Transformation

⎡ x ⎤ ⎡ xT ⎤ ⎡a − b ⎤ ⎡ x′⎤
⎢ y⎥ = ⎢ y ⎥ + ⎢b a ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ y ′ ⎥⎦
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ T⎦ ⎣

Where :
a = S cos α
b = S sin α

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Scale Differences along the x and y axes

Sy
y
y` p

α
x`
xT

Sx
yT

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Scale Differences along the x and y axes

⎡ x ⎤ ⎡ xT ⎤ ⎡ S x cos α − S y sin α ⎤ ⎡ x ′ ⎤
⎢ y⎥ = ⎢ y ⎥ + ⎢ S sin α S y cos α ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ y ′ ⎥⎦
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ T⎦ ⎣ x

Where :
S x is the scale factor along the x − axis
Sy is the scale factor along the y − axis

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Non Orthogonality Between Comparator
Axes
Sy (α + δα)
y
y` p

α
x`
xT

Sx
yT

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Non Orthogonality Between Comparator

Axes

⎡ x ⎤ ⎡ xT ⎤ ⎡ S x cos(α + δα ) − S y sin α ⎤ ⎡ x′ ⎤
⎢ y⎥ = ⎢ y ⎥ + ⎢ S sin(α + δα ) S y cos α ⎥⎦ ⎢ y ′⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ T⎦ ⎣ x ⎣ ⎦

Where :
S x is the scale factor along the x − axis
S y is the scale factor along the y − axis
δα is the non − orthogonal ity angle

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 Affine Transformation

⎡ x ⎤ ⎡ao ⎤ ⎡ a1 a2 ⎤ ⎡ x′⎤
⎢ y ⎥ = ⎢b ⎥ + ⎢ b b 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ y ′ ⎥⎦
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ o⎦ ⎣ 1

Where :
a o = xT
a 1 = S x cos( α + δα )
a 2 = − S y sin α
bo = y T
b1 = S x sin( α + δα )
b 2 = S y cos α
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Bilinear Transformation

• It can compensate for distortions introduced

during film development (e.g. film shrinkage).
• x = ao + a1 x` + a2 y` + a3 x` y`
• y = bo + b1 x` + b2 y` + b3 x` y`
• Number of involved parameters: Eight.

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 Projective Transformation

• Stage to image coordinate transformation is a

plane to plane transformation.
• Projective transformation can be used.
• x = (ao + a1 x` + a2 y`) / (1 + c1 x` + c2 y`) .
• y = (bo + b1 x` + b2 y`) / (1 + c1 x` + c2 y`).
• Number of involved parameters: Eight.

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Comparator to Image Coordinate

Transformation
• For metric cameras, the image coordinate system
is defined by the Fiducial marks.
• The image coordinates of the Fiducial marks are
available in the camera calibration certificate.
• Using the image and comparator coordinates of
the Fiducial marks, we can compute the
transformation parameters.

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 Camera Calibration Certificate (CCC)

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Fiducial Marks Coordinates (CCC)

• ID x-Coordinate mm y-Coordinate mm
• 01 -105.999 -105.978
• 02 105.996 106.022
• 03 -106.018 106.021
• 04 105.988 -105.978

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 Comparator to Image Coordinate
Transformation

Images Acquired by Digital Cameras

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Digital Cameras: Image Coordinate System

• Fiducial marks are not necessary for digital

cameras since the CCD/CMOS sensor is kept
fixed relative to the camera body.
• For imagery acquired by digital cameras, the
image coordinate system is defined by:
– Central row → x-axis.
– Central column → y-axis.

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Pixel to Image Coordinate Transformation
Digital Environment

y`

x`
Image Coordinates
Pixel Coordinates

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Pixel to Image Coordinate

Transformation

x = ( y ′ − n c / 2 . 0 ) × y _ pix _ size
y = ( n r / 2 . 0 − x ′ ) × x _ pix _ size
where :
nc Number of columns
nr Number of rows
x _ pix _ size Pixel size along the row direction
y _ pix _ size Pixel size along the column direction

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 Reduction (Refinement) of Image
Coordinates

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Distortion Parameters

• Distortion parameters compensate for all the

deviations from the assumed perspective
geometry.
• Assumed perspective geometry:
– Object point, perspective center, and the corresponding
image point lie on a straight line.
• Distortions include (for example):
– Lens distortion (radial & de-centering).
– Atmospheric refraction.
– Non planar film platen.
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 Assumed Perspective Geometry

(a) Image Point

Perspective Center

Straight Line

(A) Object Point

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Radial Lens Distortion

Radial Lens Distortion

Theoretical Light Ray

Actual Light Ray

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 Radial Lens Distortion

• The light ray changes its direction after passing

through the perspective center.
• Radial lens distortion is caused by:
– Large off-axial angle.
– Lens manufacturing flaws.
• Radial lens distortion occurs along a radial
direction from the principal point.
• Radial lens distortion increases as we move away
from the principal point.
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Radial Lens Distortion

Fiducial Center ≈ Principal Point

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 Radial Lens Distortion

With distortions
Without distortions
Pin Cushion Type Radial Lens Distortion
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Radial Lens Distortion

Without distortions With distortions

Barrel Type Radial Lens Distortion
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 Radial Lens Distortion

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Radial Lens Distortion

∆r ∆y
∆x
r (y-yp)

(x-xp)

∆x = ∆r * (x - xp) / r
∆y = ∆r * (y - yp) / r
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 Radial Lens Distortion

• Radial lens distortion, ∆r as a function of r, is

available in the camera calibration certificate in
either one of the following forms:
– Graphical form,
– Tabular form, or
– Polynomial coefficients.
• Note: r is the radial distance between the principal
point and the image point under consideration.

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Radial Lens Distortion

∆ x Radial Lens Distortion = ( x − x p ) ( k1 r 2 + k 2 r 4 + k 3 r 6 + .... )

∆ y Radial Lens Distortion = ( y − y p ) ( k1 r 2 + k 2 r 4 + k 3 r 6 + .... )

where: r = {(x - xp)2 + (y - yp)2}0.5

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After Removing Radial Lens Distortion

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Lens Cone Assembly

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 De-centering Lens Distortion

• De-centering lens distortion is caused by mis-

alignment of the components of the lens system.
• De-centering lens distortion has two components:
– Radial component.
– Tangential component.

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De-centering Lens Distortion

Actual Optical Axis

Theoretical Optical Axis

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 De-centering Lens Distortion

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De-centering Lens Distortion

P(r)
P(r ) = J1 r 2 + J 2 r 4 + .........
∆r = 3 P(r ) sin(φ − φo )
φ
φo ∆t = P(r ) cos(φ − φo )

• P (r) is the profile along the axis with the

maximum tangential distortion.
• φο is the direction of the axis with the maximum
tangential distortion.
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 De-centering Lens Distortion

∆x Decenterin g Lens Distortion = (1 + p3 r 2 ){ p1 ( r 2 + 2 x 2 ) + 2 p2 x y }

∆y Decenterin g Lens Distortion = (1 + p3 r 2 ){2 p1 x y + p2 ( r 2 + 2 y 2 )}

where: r = {(x - xp)2 + (y - yp)2}0.5

x = x − xp
y = y − yp
• p1 = -J1 sinφo.
• p2 = J1 cosφo.
• p3 = J2 / J1.
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De-centering Lens Distortion

Without distortions With distortions

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Camera Calibration Certificate: Example

• Wild Heerbrugg Instruments Inc

• Camera type : Wild RC10
• Identification number : 2061
• Lens : Wild 15 UAG I
• Identification Number : 6029
• Calibrated Focal Length : C = 153.167 mm
• Principal point coordinates in the Fiducial system :
– xp = 0.001 mm.
– yp = -0.053 mm.
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Camera Calibration Certificate (CCC)

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 Fiducial Mark Coordinates (CCC)

• ID x-Coordinate mm y-Coordinate mm
• 01 -105.999 -105.978
• 02 105.996 106.022
• 03 -106.018 106.021
• 04 105.988 -105.978

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Camera Calibration Certificate

• Radial Lens Distortion Coefficients:

– K1 = 2.99778547E-08 mm-2.
– K2 = -3.15091119E-12 mm-4.
– K3 = 6.05776623E-17 mm-6.
• De-centering Lens Coefficients :
– P1 = 2.76490955E-07 mm-1.
– P2 = -1.06518601E-06 mm-1.

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 Atmospheric Refraction

• The light ray from the object point to the

perspective center passes through layers with
different temperature, pressure, and humidity.
• Each layer has its own refractive index.
• Consequently, the light ray will follow a curved
not a straight path.
• The distortion occurs along the radial direction
from the nadir point.
• It increases as the radial distance increases.

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Atmospheric Refraction

Atmospheric Refraction

Actual Light Ray

Theoretical Light Ray

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 Atmospheric Refraction

Fiducial Center ≈ Nadir Point

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Atmospheric Refraction

• ∆r = k r {1 + r2 / c2}
• K: is the atmospheric refraction coefficient.
• Image points are always displaced outwardly
along the radial direction.
• ∆r is always negative.
• The above equation is only valid for almost
vertical photography.

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 Atmospheric Refraction

⎧⎪ Zo Z2 ⎫⎪
k = 0.00241 ⎨ 2 − ⎬
⎪⎩ Z o − 6 Z o + 250 Z o ( Z − 6 Z + 250 ⎪⎭
2

Where :
Z & Z o are in Km above the sea level

r2
∆x = k x ( 2 + 1)
c
r2
∆y = k y ( 2 + 1)
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Earth Curvature

• It is not a problem with the image formation

process (i.e., it is not a deviation from the assumed
perspective geometry).
• It is a problem arising from the way we define the
ground coordinate system.
• If the ground coordinates of the GCP are given
relative to a true three-dimensional coordinate
system, the curvature of the Earth’s surface is
already taken into account.

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 Earth Curvature

• If the GCP is given relative to a map coordinate

system (e.g., state plane and orthometric height),
we have a problem with small scale imagery.
– The Earth surface as reconstructed from the imagery is
a spheroid.
– The Earth surface as defined by the GCP is flat.
• In this case, we have to distort the image
coordinates in such a way that the Earth surface as
reconstructed from the imagery is flat.
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Earth Curvature
Earth Curvature Correction

Theoretical Light Ray

Actual Light Ray Assumed Earth Surface

Actual Earth Surface

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 Earth Curvature
• If we are dealing with a single image, and if this image is
a true vertical image,
• Then, the image coordinates can be changed to
compensate for the effect of Earth curvature
• In effect, we get the points depicted in the image plane as
if the Earth surface had been totally flat.
3
∆r = H r
2 R c2
H flying height,
r radial distance from the principal point,
R radius of the Earth (6370 Km),
c principal distance

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Earth Curvature

• ∆r is always +ve.
• Nowadays, the GCP are mainly provided by GPS
which provides us with true spatial coordinate
system.
• Thus, we do not need to apply the earth curvature
correction.

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 Non Planar Film Platen

Distortion
Actual Film Platen

Theoretical Film Platen

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Non Planar Film Platen

dh r
dr

r/c = dr/dh
dr = dh * r/c

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 Non Planar Film Platen

• dh: The deviation of the film platen from a perfect

plane.
• Using height gages, dh can be measured and
modeled by a high order polynomial.
• We can assure that the film is positioned tightly
against the focal plane using either:
– Glass plates (not recommended).
– Suction mechanisms.

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Reseau Camera

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 Reseau Camera

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Reseau Camera
• Reseau: A raster of regularly spaced crosses
marked on a glass plate in front of the film platen.
• The images of the crosses will appear on the final
image.
• The image coordinates of the grid elements are
available in the Camera Calibration Certificate
(CCC).
• Comparing the image coordinates of the grid
elements in both the image and the CCC, we can
correct for the distortions that took place during
film development.
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 Point Classification

• Points can be classified according to:

– How do they appear in the imagery.
• Natural targets.
• Signalized targets.
• Artificial points.
– Their role in the adjustment.
• Control points.
• Check points.
• Tie points.

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Natural Targets

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 Artificial Points

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Signalized Targets

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 Signalized Targets

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Signalized Targets: Preparation

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 Signalized Targets

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Point Classification (II)

• Control Points:
– points whose ground coordinates are available from
geodetic measurements ( e.g. GPS).
– They are used to define the datum during the bundle
adjustment.
• Origin (three parameters),
• Orientation in space (three parameters), and
• Scale (one parameter).
– A minimum of three ground control points is needed to
define the datum.
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 Ground Control Points: Collection

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Point Classification (II)

• Tie Points:
– Their function is to tie together overlapping images.
– They should be well defined in the images.
– Their ground coordinates are determined through
photogrammetric adjustment.

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 Tie Points

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Point Classification (II)

• Check Points:
– Points whose ground coordinates are available from
geodetic measurements.
– In the photogrammetric adjustment, they are used as tie
points.
– By comparing the photogrammetric and geodetic
coordinates, one can check the quality of the
photogrammetric adjustment.

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