CHAPTER 1

ABSTRACT

The technology of pneumatics has gained tremendous importance in the field of

workplace rationalization and automation from old-fashioned timber works and
coal mines to modern machine shops and space robots. It is therefore important
that technicians and engineers should have a good knowledge of pneumatic
system, air operated valves and accessories. The air is compressed in an air
compressor and from the compressor plant the flow medium is transmitted to
the pneumatic cylinder through a well laid pipe line system. To maintain
optimum efficiency of pneumatic system, it is of vital importance that pressure
drop between generation and consumption of compressed air is kept very low.In
this project we also added the feature i.e. it can be used for disabled person by
button operated clutch.
 CHAPTER 2

INTRODUCTION

In an automobile vehicle, there are many different vehicle clutch designs, but
most are based on one or more friction discs, pressed tightly together or against
a flywheel using some springs. The friction material varies in composition
depending on whether the clutch is dry or wet, and on another consideration.
Clutches found in heavy duty applications such as trucks and competitions cars
use ceramic clutches that have greatly increased friction coefficient, however
these have a “grabby” action and are unsuitable for road cars.

It is therefore, necessary that the driven shaft should be disengaged from the
driving shaft. Also, the clutch disconnects the engine from the transmission to
change the gear. It provides a positive linkage for transmitting the maximum
engine torque at high speed of the vehicle requiring direct coupling of the
engine to the transmission without any leakage of the power. The engagement
and disengagement of a clutch is usually operated by a lever.

But in clutch by-wire method, it has no mechanical link between the clutch and
the pedal. The main disadvantage of that method was the wires should be made
enough strong to require much force and power when pressing the clutch and a
lot of accidents was occurred from that test. In this we are using a button or a
switch in the top of the gear lever to press the clutch, thus cutting off the current
to the electromagnet and disengaging the clutch.

FEATURES OF CLUTCH

I. There much be not much excessive force to separate the drive from the
clutch.
II. There must be an equitable coefficient of friction in the clutch friction
surface in all working conditions.
III. It should provide adequate cooling or ventilation to dissipate heat
generated.
IV. The material used for clutch must have adequate thermal conductivity
to dissipate heat, so distortion to flywheel and pressure plate is
avoided.
V. It should withstand high temperatures and clamping loads without
crushing.
VI. The clutch surface should be hard enough to resist wear but not much
hard to cause scoring.
VII. A clutch free pedal play must be provided in the clutch to reduce the
load on the thrust bearing and wear respectively.
VIII. It should be cheap and easy in manufacture.
 CHAPTER 3

LITERATURE REVIEW

A Low-Cost Mobility Solution for Physically Challenged People; “Pranchal

Srivastava, Raj Kumar Pal” The most common approach used in most powered
wheelchairs is having two motors for traction each driving a wheel on either
side of the machine. Forward motion is achieved by keeping the speeds of the
motors identical in one direction and the other direction for reverse motion.
Turns are executed by making the speeds of the motors different. The radius of
turn depends on the speed difference. This system depicts three novel
approaches for cost effectiveness and efficient working, firstly having a
powered wheel chair drive with a gear mechanism which is used to generate
proper speed of the wheels on the either side with single power motor. The
advantage of this system is that it makes the system control easy and cheap.
Secondly, utilization of waste brake energy for battery charging which lead to
reduced cost of powered wheel in the long run.

Dual Steered Three Wheeler For Differently Able People; “Arun Raju C , Anish
Raman C , Veerappan K.R. Venkat Narayanan The aim of this study is to
design and fabricate a 3 wheeler with dual steering system for people with
locomotive disabilities .A greater steering effort is required in the case of a four
wheeler compared to a three wheeler. Hence, a three-wheeler was selected
instead of a four-wheeler. In this case, handle bar steering system and leg
steering system can be individually steered with hands and legs respectively,
enabling its utility people with disabilities in upper extremities. Sprocket chain
system was used in leg steering system. A 98cc Kinetic Honda Engine was used
as the power source and the engine was placed towards the rear end of the
vehicle. Single Rated and double rated suspension spring was used in the front
and rear drive shaft respectively. Sprocket chain system was used in leg steering
system.

An Efficient Car Driving Controller System Design for Physically Challenged

People Using Arm Processor; “Katari Ramaiah, T. Mallikarjun” The aim of the
technology is to help those handicapped who don’t have healthy hands to run a
vehicle by giving the voice commands. In this the driver need not use the
steering instead his head. This vehicle is only for those handicapped those who
can nod head well. Four switches are interfaced over the neck of the driver, and
the vehicle can be controlled by the head movement. Corresponding tactile
switches are activated according to the movement of the head, and towards the
conclusion the practical difficulties are described and the possible solutions are
discussed.
 CHAPTER 4

COMMON PROPOSED WORK

Proposed Work:

To prepare any machine part, the type of material should be properly

selected, considering design, safety and following points. The selection of
material for engineering application is given by the following factors:-

1) Availability of materials.

2) Suitability of the material for the required components.

3) Suitability of the material for the desired working conditions.

4) Cost of the materials.

In addition to the above factors the other properties to be considered while

selecting the material are as follows:-

1) Availability of materials.

2) Suitability of the material for the required components.

3) Suitability of the material for the desired working conditions.

4) Cost of the materials.

In addition to the above factors the other properties to be considered while

selecting the material are as follows:-

Physical properties:-

These properties are color, shape, density, thermal conductivity, electrical

conductivity, melting point etc.
Mechanical properties:-

The properties are associated with the ability of the material to resist the
mechanical forces and load.

The various properties are:-

i) Strength: It is the property of material due to which it can resist the external
forces without breaking or yielding.

ii) Stiffness: It is the ability of material to withstand the deformation under stress.

iii) Ductility: It is the property of material due to which it can be drawn into wires
under tensile load.

iv) Malleability: It is the property of material which enables it to be rolled into

sheets.

vi) Brittleness: It is the property of material due to which it breaks into pieces
with little deformation.

vii) Hardness: It is the property of material to resist wear, deformation and the
ability to cut another material.

viii) Resilience: It is the ability of the material to store energy and resist the shock
and impact loads.

ix) Creep: It is the slow and permanent deformation induced in a part subjected
to a constant stress at high temperature. We have selected the material considering
the above factors and also as per the availability of the material. The materials
which cover most of the above properties are
MILD STEEL:

Why steel, in particular simply because, in my humble opinion, it is the

greatest material mankind has for construction. It is cheap, strong, readily
available, easily cut, joined, and formed. Wood can be light and stiff, but not very
strong.

The best aluminum is strong and light, but very difficult to join. Titanium is
superb in terms of strength to weight ratio and stiffness but it’s incredibly
expensive, difficult to obtain, and even more difficult and expensive to machine
properly. There’s no way you’re ever going to perform a battery-welded-fix on a
part made from 7075-T6 aluminum or titanium.

In the end we come back to steel from mild carbon to some of the more
exotic alloy steels pound for pound it is the most righteous material available for
our needs. Where does steel come from? Steel is not a naturally occurring
substance - it is entirely manmade. Steel is chiefly a combination of two naturally
occurring elements: iron and carbon (along with small amounts of other elements
- depending on the steel in question).

The process by which man makes steel, would, again, fill several volumes.
Here is my amateur synopsis Iron is mined from the ground in the form if a
reddish-brown rock called iron-ore. This ore is then smashed up, strained, filtered,
chemically treated etc., until ultimately it is melted in huge blast furnaces into
something called pig iron. The process uses coke (a type of coal), which in turn
imparts large amounts of carbon to the pig iron.

As a result, pig iron itself is full of impurities, brittle, and unmaking-able -

practically useless. Except - it is the raw material from which all other irons and
steels are made. Pig iron is so produced in either huge vats of molten material, or
it is cast into ingots (in fact, pig iron got its name because the ingots or ”chunks”
produced were thought to have resembled piglets).Pig iron is then refined into
either metallic iron or steel using specialized furnaces and processes. The
distinction between the two is that metallic iron has between 2-6A final words
about carbon. Carbon is critically important to our whole discussion because it is
the presence of carbon that turns the element of iron that is naturally soft and
weak, into the strong, rigid materials we know as iron and steel. Precisely how
this is so is beyond the scope of this article, sufficeto say.

The strength, hardness and toughness that make the ferrous based metals
useful to us are profoundlyinfluenced by the remarkable sensitivity of the physical
and chemical properties of iron crystals to relatively small percentages of carbon
dissolved within their matrixes (actually, the sensitivity is to the movement of
dislocations within the crystal space lattice). This sensitivity to dissolved carbon
is in fact, the very basis of ferrous metallurgy.

MACHINE CONSTRUCTION:

The machine is basically made up of mild steel.Reasons:1. Mild steel is readily

available in market2. It is economical to use3. It is available in standard sizes4. It
has good mechanical properties i.e. it is easily machinable5. It has moderate
factor of safety, because factor of safety results in unnecessary wastage of
material and heavy selection. Low factor of safety results in unnecessary risk of
failure6. It has high tensile strength7. Low co-efficient of thermal expansion
Properties of Mild Steel: M.S. has a carbon content from 0.15BRIGHT
MATERIAL.

It is a machine drowned. The main basic difference between mild steel and
bright metal is that mild steel plates and bars are forged in the forging machine
by means is not forged. But the materials are drawn from the dies in the plastic
state. Therefore the material has good surface finish than mild steel and has no
carbon deposits on its surface for extrusion and formation of engineering
materials thus giving them a good surface finish and though retaining their
metallic properties poor, but perhaps useful metaphor may be the use of fibre-mat
and resin in fibre glass work. The bulk raw material of fiberglass is the fibre
matting (as iron is to steel) - but by itself the matting is of no practical use. Not
until we add the resin to it to make fibre glass (as we add carbon to iron to make
steel) do we get a useful product.

In both cases, neither raw material is much use alone, but combines them
nor do we really have something. Similarly, though carbon may only be present
in small quantities, Justas the amount of hardener added to fibre glass resin has a
profound effect on the material, so does the small amount of carbon present in
useful metallic iron and steel.
 CHAPTER 5

MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

Manufacturing processes are the steps through which raw materials are
transformed into a final product. The manufacturing process begins with the
creation of the materials from which the design is made. These materials are then
modified through manufacturing processes to become the required part.
Manufacturing processes can include treating (such as heat treating or coating),
machining, or reshaping the material. The manufacturing process also includes
tests and checks for quality assurance during or after the manufacturing, and
planning the production process prior to manufacturing.
METAL CUTTING:

Metal cutting or machining is the process of by removing unwanted

material from a block of metal in the form of chips.

Cutting processes work by causing fracture of the material that is

processed. Usually, the portion that is fractured away is in small sized pieces,
called chips. Common cutting processes include sawing, shaping (or planning),
broaching, drilling, grinding, turning and milling. Although the actual machines,
tools and processes for cutting look very different from each other, the basic
mechanism for causing the fracture can be understood by just a simple model
called for orthogonal cutting.
 In all machining processes, the work piece is a shape that can entirely cover
the final part shape. The objective is to cut away the excess material and obtain
the final part. This cutting usually requires to be completed in several steps – in
each step, the part is held in a fixture, and the exposed portion can be accessed by
the tool to machine in that portion. Common fixtures include vise, clamps, 3-jaw
or 4-jaw chucks, etc. Each position of holding the part is called a setup. One or
more cutting operation may be performed, using one or more cutting tools, in
each setup. To switch from one setup to the next, we must release the part from
the previous fixture, change the fixture on the machine, clamp the part in the new
position on the new fixture, set the coordinates of the machine tool with respect
to the new location of the part, and finally start the machining operations for this
setup.
 Therefore, setup changes are time-consuming and expensive, and so we
should try to do the entire cutting process in a minimum number of setups; the
task of determining the sequence of the individual operations, grouping them into
(a minimum number of) setups, and determination of the fixture used for each
setup, is called process planning.
These notes will be organized in three sections:
(i) Introduction to the processes,
(ii) The orthogonal cutting model and tool life optimization and
(iii) Process planning and machining planning for milling.

SAWING:

Cold saws are saws that make use of a circular saw blade to cut through
various types of metal, including sheet metal. The name of the saw has to do with
the action that takes place during the cutting process, which manages to keep both
the metal and the blade from becoming too hot. A cold saw is powered with
electricity and is usually a stationary type of saw machine rather than a portable
type of saw.
 The circular saw blades used with a cold saw are often constructed of high
speed steel. Steel blades of this type are resistant to wear even under daily usage.
The end result is that it is possible to complete a number of cutting projects before
there is a need to replace the blade. High speed steel blades are especially useful
when the saws are used for cutting through thicker sections of metal.

Along with the high speed steel blades, a cold saw may also be equipped
with a blade that is tipped with tungsten carbide. This type of blade construction
also helps to resist wear and tear. One major difference is that tungsten tipped
blades can be re-sharpened from time to time, extending the life of the blade. This
type of blade is a good fit for use with sheet metal and other metallic components
that are relatively thin in design.

WELDING:
 Welding is a process for joining similar metals. Welding joins metals by
melting and fusing 1, the base metals being joined and 2, the filler metal applied.
Welding employs pinpointed, localized heat input. Most welding involves
ferrous-based metals such as steel and stainless steel. Weld joints are usually
stronger than or as strong as the base metals being joined.

Welding is used for making permanent joints. It is used in the manufacture

of automobile bodies, aircraft frames, railway wagons, machine frames, structural
works, tanks, furniture, boilers, general repair work and ship building.

OPERATION:
 Several welding processes are based on heating with an electric arc, only a
few are considered here, starting with the oldest, simple arc welding, also known
as shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) or stick welding.

In this process an electrical machine (which may be DC or AC, but

nowadays is usually AC) supplies current to an electrode holder which carries an
electrode which is normally coated with a mixture of chemicals or flux. An earth
cable connects the work piece to the welding machine to provide a return path for
the current. The weld is initiated by tapping ('striking') the tip of the electrode
against the work piece which initiates an electric arc. The high temperature
generated (about 6000oC) almost instantly produces a molten pool and the end of
the electrode continuously melts into this pool and forms the joint.

The operator needs to control the gap between the electrode tip and the
work piece while moving the electrode along the joint.
 In the shielded metal arc welding process (SMAW) the 'stick' electrode is
covered with an extruded coating of flux. The heat of the arc melts the flux which
generates a gaseous shield to keep air away from the molten pool and also flux
ingredients react with unwanted impurities such as surface oxides, creating a slag
which floats to the surface of the weld pool. This forms a crust which protects the
weld while it is cooling. When the weld is cold the slag is chipped off.

The SMAW process cannot be used on steel thinner than about 3mm and
being a discontinuous process it is only suitable for manual operation. It is very
widely used in jobbing shops and for onsite steel construction work. A wide range
of electrode materials and coatings are available enabling the process to be
applied to most steels, heat resisting alloys and many types of cast iron.
DRILLNG:

Drilling is a cutting process that uses a drill bit to cut or enlarge a hole of
circular cross-section in solid materials. The drill bit is a rotary cutting tool, often
multipoint. The bit is pressed against the workpiece and rotated at rates from
hundreds to thousands of revolutions per minute. This forces the cutting edge
against the workpiece, cutting off chips (sward) from the hole as it is drilled.

OPERATION:

The geometry of the common twist drill tool (called drill bit) is complex;
it has straight cutting teeth at the bottom – these teeth do most of the metal cutting,
and it has curved cutting teeth along its cylindrical surface. The grooves created
by the helical teeth are called flutes, and are useful in pushing the chips out from
the hole as it is being machined. Clearly, the velocity of the tip of the drill is zero,
and so this region of the tool cannot do much cutting. Therefore it is common to
machine a small hole in the material, called a center-hole, before utilizing the
drill. Center-holes are made by special drills called center-drills; they also provide
a good way for the drill bit to get aligned with the location of the center of the
hole. There are hundreds of different types of drill shapes and sizes; here, we will
only restrict ourselves to some general facts about drills.

Common drill bit materials include hardened steel (High Speed Steel,
Titanium Nitride coated steel); for cutting harder materials, drills with hard
inserts, e.g. carbide or CBN inserts, are used;
In general, drills for cutting softer materials have smaller point angle,
while those for cutting hard and brittle materials have larger point angle;
If the Length/Diameter ratio of the hole to be machined is large, then we
need a special guiding support for the drill, which itself has to be very long; such
operations are called gun-drilling. This process is used for holes with diameter of
few mm or more, and L/D ratio up to 300. These are used for making barrels of
guns;
 Drilling is not useful for very small diameter holes (e.g. < 0.5 mm), since
the tool may break and get stuck in the work piece; - Usually, the size of the hole
made by a drill is slightly larger than the measured diameter of the drill – this is
mainly because of vibration of the tool spindle as it rotates, possible misalignment
of the drill with the spindle axis, and some other factors;
For tight dimension control on hole diameter, we first drill a hole that is
slightly smaller than required size (e.g. 0.25 mm smaller), and then use a special
Type of drill called a reamer. Reaming has very low material removal rate,
low depth of cut, but gives good dimension accuracy.
 CHAPTER 6

COMPONENTS USED

S.No. Components

1. Solenoid Valve

2. Push Button

3. Pneumatic Cylinder

4. Spring

5. Pedal

6. Gear Rod

7. Tubes

8. Frame
 CHAPTER 7

COMPONENT DETAILS

A solenoid valve is an electromechanically operated valve. The valve is

controlled by an electric current through a solenoid: in the case of a two-port
valve the flow is switched on or off; in the case of a three-port valve, the
outflow is switched between the two outlet ports. Multiple solenoid valves can
be placed together on a manifold.

Solenoid valves are the most frequently used control elements in fluidics. Their
tasks are to shut off, release, dose, distribute or mix fluids. They are found in
many application areas. Solenoids offer fast and safe switching, high reliability,
long service life, good medium compatibility of the materials used, low control
power and compact design.

Besides the plunger-type actuator which is used most frequently, pivoted-

armature actuators and rocker actuators are also used.

1 Operation

There are many valve design variations. Ordinary valves can have many ports
and fluid paths. A 2-way valve, for example, has 2 ports; if the valve is open,
then the two ports are connected and fluid may flow between the ports; if the
valve is closed, then ports are isolated. If the valve is open when the solenoid is
not energized, then the valve is termed normally open (N.O.). Similarly, if the
valve is closed when the solenoid is not energized, then the valve is termed
normally closed. There are also 3-way and more complicated designs. A 3-way
valve has 3 ports; it connects one port to either of the two other ports (typically
a supply port and an exhaust port).
Solenoid valves are also characterized by how they operate. A small solenoid
can generate a limited force. If that force is sufficient to open and close the
valve, then a direct acting solenoid valve is possible. An approximate
relationship between the required solenoid force Fs, the fluid pressure P, and the
orifice area A for a direct acting solenoid value is:

Fs =PA=Pπd2/4

Where d is the orifice diameter. A typical solenoid force might be 15 N (3.4 lb).
An application might be a low pressure (e.g., 10 psi (69 kPa)) gas with a small
orifice diameter (e.g., 3⁄8 in (9.5 mm) for an orifice area of 0.11 in2 (7.1×10−5
m2) and approximate force of 1.1 lbf (4.9 N)).

The solenoid valve (small black box at the top of the photo) with input airline
(small green tube) used to actuate a larger rack and pinion actuator (gray box)
which controls the water pipe valve.

When high pressures and large orifices are encountered, then high forces are
required. To generate those forces, an internally piloted solenoid valve design
may be possible. In such a design, the line pressure is used to generate the high
valve forces; a small solenoid controls how the line pressure is used. Internally
piloted valves are used in dishwashers and irrigation systems where the fluid is
water, the pressure might be 80 pounds per square inch (550 kPa) and the
orifice diameter might be 3⁄4 in (19 mm).

1. OPERATION

In some solenoid valves the solenoid acts directly on the main valve. Others use
a small, complete solenoid valve, known as a pilot, to actuate a larger valve.
While the second type is actually a solenoid valve combined with a
pneumatically actuated valve, they are sold and packaged as a single unit
referred to as a solenoid valve. Piloted valves require much less power to
control, but they are noticeably slower. Piloted solenoids usually need full
power at all times to open and stay open, where a direct acting solenoid may
only need full power for a short period of time to open it, and only low power to
hold it.

A direct acting solenoid valve typically operates in 5 to 10 milliseconds. The

operation time of a piloted valve depends on its size; typical values are 15 to
150

milliseconds.

Power consumption and supply requirements of the solenoid vary with

application, being primarily determined by fluid pressure and line diameter. For
example, a popular 3/4” 150 psi sprinkler valve, intended for 24 VAC (50 - 60
Hz) residential systems, has a momentary inrush of 7.2 VA, and a holding
power requirement of 4.6 VA. Comparatively, an industrial 1/2” 10000 psi
valve, intended for 12, 24, or 120 VAC systems in high pressure fluid and
cryogenic applications, has an inrush of 300 VA and a holding power of 22
VA.Neither valve lists a minimum pressure required to remain closed in the
unpowered state.

1.1 Internally piloted

While there are multiple design variants, the following is a detailed breakdown
of a typical solenoid valve design.

A solenoid valve has two main parts: the solenoid and the valve. The solenoid
converts electrical energy into mechanical energy which, in turn, opens or
closes the valve mechanically. A direct acting valve has only a small flow
circuit, shown within section E of this diagram (this section is mentioned below
as a pilot valve). In this example, a diaphragm piloted valve multiplies this
small pilot flow, by using it to control the flow through a much larger orifice.
Solenoid valves may use metal seals or rubber seals, and may also have
electrical interfaces to allow for easy control. A spring may be used to hold the
valve opened (normally open) or closed (normally closed) while the valve is not
activated.

The diagram to the right shows the design of a basic valve, controlling the flow
of water in this example. At the top figure is the valve in its closed state. The
water under pressure enters at A. B is an elastic diaphragm and above it is a
weak spring pushing it down. The diaphragm has a pinhole through its center
which allows a very small amount of water to flow through it. This water fills
the cavity C on the other side of the diaphragm so that pressure is equal on both
sides of the diaphragm, however the compressed

A- Input side

B- Diaphragm

C- Pressure chamber

D- Pressure relief passage

E- Electro Mechanical Solenoid- Output side

spring supplies a net downward force. The spring is weak and is only able to
close the inlet because water pressure is equalized on both sides of the
diaphragm.

Once the diaphragm closes the valve, the pressure on the outlet side of its
bottom is reduced, and the greater pressure above holds it even more firmly
closed. Thus, the spring is irrelevant to holding the valve closed.

The above all works because the small drain passage D was blocked by a pin
which is the armature of the solenoid E and which is pushed down by a spring.
If current is passed through the solenoid, the pin is withdrawn via magnetic
force, and the water in chamber C drains out the passage D faster than the
pinhole can refill it. The pressure in chamber C drops and the incoming pressure
lifts the diaphragm, thus opening the main valve. Water now flows directly from
A to F.

When the solenoid is again deactivated and the passage D is closed again, the
spring needs very little force to push the diaphragm down again and the main
valve closes. In practice there is often no separate spring; the elastomer
diaphragm is molded so that it functions as its own spring, preferring to be in
the closed shape.

From this explanation it can be seen that this type of valve relies on a
differential of pressure between input and output as the pressure at the input
must always be greater than the pressure at the output for it to work. Should the
pressure at the output, for any reason, rise above that of the input then the valve
would open regardless of the state of the solenoid and pilot valve.

2.Components

Example core tubes. Non-magnetic core tubes are used to isolate the fluid from
the coil. The core tube encloses the plunge, the core spring, and the core. The
coil slips over the core tube; a retaining clip engages the depression near the
closed end of the core tube and holds the coil on the core tube.

Solenoid valve designs have many variations and challenges.

Common components of a solenoid valve:

• Solenoid subassembly

• Retaining clip (a.k.a. coil clip)

• Solenoid coil (with magnetic return path)

• Core tube (a.k.a. armature tube, plunger tube, solenoid valve tube, sleeve,
guide assembly)

• Plunge (a.k.a. fixed core)

• Shading coil (a.k.a. shading ring)

• Core spring (a.k.a. counter spring)

• Core (a.k.a. plunger, armature)

• Core tube–bonnet seal

• Bonnet (a.k.a. cover)

• Bonnet–diaphragm–body seal

• Hanger spring

• Backup washer

• Diaphragm

• Bleed hole

• Disk

• Valve body

• Seat

The core or plunger is the magnetic component that moves when the solenoid is
energized. The core is coaxial with the solenoid. The core’s movement will
make or break the seals that control the movement of the fluid. When the coil is
not energized, springs will hold the core in its normal position.

The plunge is also coaxial.

The core tube contains and guides the core. It also retains the plunge and may
seal the fluid. To optimize the movement of the core, the core tube needs to be
nonmagnetic. If the core tube were magnetic, then it would offer a shunt path
for the field lines. In some designs, the core tube is an enclosed metal shell
produced by deep drawing. Such a design simplifies the sealing problems
because the fluid cannot escape from the enclosure, but the design also
increases the magnetic path resistance because the magnetic path must traverse
the thickness of the core tube twice: once near the plunge and once near the
core. In some other designs, the core tube is not closed but rather an open tube
that slips over one end of the plunge. To retain the plunge, the tube might be
crimped to the plugnut. An O-ring seal between the tube and the plunge will
prevent the fluid from escaping.

The solenoid coil consists of many turns of copper wire that surround the core
tube and induce the movement of the core. The coil is often encapsulated in
epoxy. The coil also has an iron frame that provides a low magnetic path
resistance.

2.1 Materials

The valve body must be compatible with the fluid; common materials are brass,
stainless steel, aluminum, and plastic.

The seals must be compatible with the fluid.

To simplify the sealing issues, the plunge, core, springs, shading ring, and other
components are often exposed to the fluid, so they must be compatible as well.
The requirements present some special problems. The core tube needs to be
non-magnetic to pass the solenoid’s field through to the plunge and the core.
The plunge and core need a material with good magnetic properties such as
iron, but iron is prone to corrosion. Stainless steels can be used because they
come in both magnetic and non-magnetic varieties. For example, a solenoid
valve might use 304 stainless steel for the body, 305 stainless steel for the core
tube, 302 stainless steel for the springs, and 430 F stainless steel (a magnetic
stainless steel) for the core and plunge.

3 Types

Many variations are possible on the basic, one-way, onesolenoid valve

described above:

• one- or two-solenoid valves;

• direct current or alternating current powered;

• different number of ways and positions;

4 Common uses

Solenoid valves are used in fluid power pneumatic and hydraulic systems, to
control cylinders, fluid power motors or larger industrial valves. Automatic
irrigation sprinkler systems also use solenoid valves with an automatic
controller. Domestic washing machines and dishwashers use solenoid valves to
control water entry into the machine. Solenoid valves are used in the paintball
industry, solenoid valves are usually referred to simply as “solenoids.” They are
commonly used to control a larger valve used to control the propellant In
addition to this, these valves are now being used in household water purifiers.

Solenoid valves can be used for a wide array of industrial applications,

including general on-off control, calibration and test stands, pilot plant control
loops, process control systems, and various original equipment manufacturer
applications.

PUSH BUTTON

A push-button (also spelled pushbutton) or simply button is a

simple switch mechanism for controlling some aspect of a machine or a process.
Buttons are typically made out of hard material, usually plastic or metal. The
surface is usually flat or shaped to accommodate the human finger or hand, so
as to be easily depressed or pushed. Buttons are most often biased switches,
though even many un-biased buttons (due to their physical nature) require
a spring to return to their un-pushed state. Different people use different terms
for the "pushing" of the button, such as press, depress, mash, hit, and punch.

PNEUMATIC CYLINDER

Pneumatic cylinders can be used to get linear, rotary and oscillatory motion.
There are three types of pneumatic actuator:

1. Linear Actuator or Pneumatic cylinders

2. Rotary Actuator or Air motors
3. Limited angle Actuators

Pneumatic cylinders are devices for converting the air pressure into linear
mechanical force and motion. The pneumatic cylinders are basically used for
single purpose application such as clamping, stamping, transferring, branching,
allocating, ejecting, metering, tilting, bending, turning and many other
applications.

Based on the cylinder action

Based on cylinder action we can classify the cylinders as single acting and double
acting. Single acting cylinders have single air inlet line. Double acting cylinders
have two air inlet lines. Advantages of double acting cylinders over single acting
cylinders are

1. In single acting cylinder, compressed air is fed only on one side. Hence
this cylinder can produce work only in one direction. But the compressed air
moves the piston in two directions in double acting cylinder, so they work in both
directions
 2. In a single acting cylinder, the stroke length is limited by the compressed
length of the spring. But in principle, the stroke length is unlimited in a double
acting cylinder

3. While the piston moves forward in a single acting cylinder, air has to
overcome the pressure of the spring and hence some power is lost before the
actual stroke of the piston starts. But this problem is not present in a double acting
cylinder.

Single acting cylinders

Single acting cylinder has one working port. Forward motion of the piston is
obtained by supplying compressed air to working port. Return motion of piston
is obtained by spring placed on the rod side of the cylinder.

Single acting cylinders are used where force is required to be exerted only in one
direction. Such as clamping, feeding, sorting, locking, ejecting, braking etc.,
Single acting cylinder is usually available in short stroke lengths [maximum
length up to 80 mm] due to the natural length of the spring. Single Acting
Cylinder exert force only in one direction. Single acting cylinders require only
about half the air volume consumed by a double acting cylinder for one operating
cycle.
Double acting cylinders.

Schematic diagram of double acting cylinder is shown in Figure 1.6. Double

Acting Cylinders are equipped with two working ports- one on the piston side
and the other on the rod side.

To achieve forward motion of the cylinder, compressed air is admitted on the

piston side and the rod side is connected to exhaust. During return motion supply
air admitted at the rod side while the piston side volume is connected to the
exhaust. Force is exerted by the piston both during forward and return motion of
cylinder. Double acting cylinders are available in diameters from few mm to
around 300 mm and stroke lengths of few mm up to 2 meters

Construction of Double acting cylinder

There are two types of double acting cylinders.

Double acting cylinder with piston rod on one side.

i) Double acting cylinder with piston rod on both sides

ii) Double acting cylinder with piston rod on one side.

the operation of a double acting cylinder with piston rod on one side. To extend
the cylinder, pump flow is sent to the blank end port as in Figure 1.8 (a). Fluid
from the rod end port returns to the reservoir. To retract the cylinder, the pump
flow is sent to the rod end port and fluid from the blank end port returns to the
tank. A double acting cylinder with piston rod on both sides is a cylinder with
rod extending from both ends. This cylinder can be used in an application where
work can be done by both ends of the cylinder, thereby making the cylinder more
productive. Double rod cylinders can withstand higher side loads because they
have an extra bearing one on each rod to withstand the loading. Double rod
cylinders are used when there is bending load and accurate alignment and
maximum strength is required. A further advantage is that rod is precisely located
and may be used to guide the machine member coupled to it, dispensing with
external guides or bearing in many cases, most standard production models are
available either in single rod or double rod configuration A disadvantage of
double rod configuration is that there is a reduction in maximum thrust due to the
blanking effect of the rod cross section on the piston area and a slightly larger
size of cylinder is required for a given duty. The thus will be the same on the
ingoing stroke as that of a single rod double acting cylinder.

SPRING
Mechanical springs have varied use in different types of machines. We shall
briefly discuss here about some applications, followed by design aspects of
springs in general.

Definition of spring: Spring act as a flexible joint in between two parts or

bodies

Objectives of spring

Following are the objectives of a spring when used as a machine member:

1. Cushioning, absorbing, or controlling of energy due to shock and

vibration.
 Car springs or railway buffers
 To control energy, springs-supports and vibration dampers.
2. Control of motion
 Maintaining contact between two elements (cam and its follower) In
a cam and a follower arrangement, widely used in numerous
applications, a spring maintains contact between the two elements.
It primarily controls the motion.
 Creation of the necessary pressure in a friction device (a brake or a
clutch) A person driving a car uses a brake or a clutch for controlling
the car motion. A spring system keep the brake in disengaged
position until applied to stop the car. The clutch has also got a spring
system (single springs or multiple springs) which engages and
disengages the engine with the transmission system.
 Restoration of a machine part to its normal position when the applied
force is withdrawn (a governor or valve) A typical example is a
governor for turbine speed control. A governor system uses a spring
controlled valve to regulate flow of fluid through the turbine, thereby
controlling the turbine speed.
 3. Measuring forces
Spring balances, gages
4. Storing of energy
 In clocks or starters The clock has spiral type of spring which is
wound to coil and then the stored energy helps gradual recoil of the
spring when in operation. Nowadays we do not find much use of the
winding clocks.

Commonly used spring materials

One of the important considerations in spring design is the choice of the spring
material. Some of the common spring materials are given below.

Hard-drawn wire:

This is cold drawn, cheapest spring steel. Normally used for low stress and static
load. The material is not suitable at subzero temperatures or at temperatures above
1200C.

Oil-tempered wire:

It is a cold drawn, quenched, tempered, and general purpose spring steel.

However, it is not suitable for fatigue or sudden loads, at subzero temperatures
and at temperatures above 1800C.

When we go for highly stressed conditions then alloy steels are useful.

Chrome Vanadium:

This alloy spring steel is used for high stress conditions and at high temperature
up to 2200C. It is good for fatigue resistance and long endurance for shock and
impact loads.

Chrome Silicon:
This material can be used for highly stressed springs. It offers excellent service
for long life, shock loading and for temperature up to 2500C.

Music wire:

This spring material is most widely used for small springs. It is the toughest and
has highest tensile strength and can withstand repeated loading at high stresses.
However, it cannot be used at subzero temperatures or at temperatures above
1200C.

Normally when we talk about springs we will find that the music wire is a
common choice for springs.

Stainless steel:

Widely used alloy spring materials.

Phosphor Bronze / Spring Brass:

It has good corrosion resistance and electrical conductivity. That’s the reason it
is commonly used for contacts in electrical switches. Spring brass can be used at
subzero temperatures.

Spring manufacturing processes

If springs are of very small diameter and the wire diameter is also small then the
springs are normally manufactured by a cold drawn process through a mangle.
However, for very large springs having also large coil diameter and wire diameter
one has to go for manufacture by hot processes. First one has to heat the wire and
then use a proper mangle to wind the coils.

Two types of springs which are mainly used are, helical springs and leaf springs.
We shall consider in this course the design aspects of two types of springs.

Helical spring
The figures below show the schematic representation of a helical spring acted
upon by a tensile load F (Fig.7.1.1) and compressive load F (Fig.7.1.2). The
circles denote the cross section of the spring wire. The cut section, i.e. from the
entire coil somewhere we make a cut, is indicated as a circle with shade.

Fig.7.11

If we look at the free body diagram of the shaded region only (the cut section)
then we shall see that at the cut section, vertical equilibrium of forces will give
us force, F as indicated in the figure. This F is the shear force. The torque T, at
the cut section and it’s direction is also marked in the figure. There is no
horizontal force coming into the picture because externally there is no
horizontal force present. So from the fundamental understanding of the free
body diagram one can see that any section of the spring is experiencing a torque
and a force. Shear force will always be associated with a bending moment.
However, in an ideal situation, when force is acting at the centre of the circular
spring and the coils of spring are almost parallel to each other, no bending
moment would result at any section of the spring ( no moment arm), except
torsion and shear force. The Fig.7.1.3 will explain the fact stated below.

Fig.7.1.3

Stresses in the helical spring wire:

From the free body diagram, we have found out the direction of the internal
torsion T and internal shear force F at the section due to the external load F acting
at the centre of the coil. The cut sections of the spring, subjected to tensile and
compressive loads respectively, are shown separately in the Fig.7.1.4 and 7.1.5.
The broken arrows show the shear stresses ( τT ) arising due to the torsion T and
solid arrows show the shear stresses ( τF )due to the force F. It is observed that
for both tensile load as well as compressive load on the spring, maximum shear
stress (τT + τF) always occurs at the inner side of the spring. Hence, failure of the
spring, in the form of crake, is always initiated from the inner radius of the spring.

Fig 7.1.4 Fig 7.1.5

The radius of the spring is given by D/2. Note that D is the mean diameter of the
spring. The torque T acting on the spring is
If d is the diameter of the coil wire and polar moment of inertia,

the shear stress in the spring wire due to torsion is

Average shear stress in the spring wire due to force F is

Therefore, maximum shear stress the spring wire is

Where, C=D/d, is called the spring index.

Finally, where,

The above equation gives maximum shear stress occurring in a spring. Ks is the
shear stress correction factor.

Deflection of helical spring

The Fig.7.1.7 (a) and Fig.7.1.7 (b) shows a schematic view of a spring, a cross
section of the spring wire and a small spring segment of length dl. It is acted upon
by a force F. From simple geometry we will see that the deflection, δ, in a helical
spring is given by the formula,

Where, N is the number of active turns and G is the shear modulus of elasticity.
Now what is an active coil? The force F cannot just hang in space, it has to have
some material contact with the spring. Normally the same spring wire e will be
given a shape of a hook to support the force F. The hook etc., although is a part
of the spring, they do not contribute to the deflection of the spring. Apart from
these coils, other coils which take part in imparting deflection to the spring are
known as active coils.

How to compute the deflection of a helical spring?

Consider a small segment of spring of length ds, subtending an angle of dβ at the

center of the spring coil as shown in Fig.7.1.7 (b). Let this small spring segment
be considered to be an active portion and remaining portion is rigid. Hence, we
consider only the deflection of spring arising due to application of force F. The
rotation, dφ, of the section a-d with respect to b-c is given as,

The rotation, dφ will cause the end of the spring O to rotate to O', shown in
Fig.7.1.7 (a). From geometry, O-O' is given as,

However, the vertical component of O-O' only will contributes towards spring
deflection. Due to symmetric condition, there is no lateral deflection of spring, ie,
the horizontal component of O-O' gets cancelled. The vertical component of O-
O', dδ, is given as,

Total deflection of spring, δ, can be obtained by integrating the above expression

for entire length of the spring wire.
Simplifying the above expression we get,

The above equation is used to compute the deflection of a helical spring. Another
important design parameter often used is the spring rate. It is defined as,

PEDAL

The pedal is the part of a bicycle that the rider pushes with their foot to propel
the bicycle. It provides the connection between the cyclist's foot or shoe and
the crank allowing the leg to turn the bottom bracket spindle and propel the
bicycle's wheels. Pedals usually consist of a spindle that threads into the end of
the crank and a body, on which the foot rests or is attached, that is free to rotate
on bearings with respect to the spindle.

Pedals were initially attached to cranks connecting directly to the driven (usually
front) wheel. The safety bicycle, as it is known today, came into being when the
pedals were attached to a crank driving a sprocket that transmitted power to the
driven wheel by means of a roller chain.

Traditionally, platform pedals were pedals with a relatively large flat area for the
foot to rest on, in contrast to the quill pedal which had very little surface area.

One form of the platform pedal had a large flat top area and flat bottom for use
with toe clips and toe straps. They were designed for greater comfort when using
shoes with less than rigid soles. They typically had a smaller cutaway underside
giving greater cornering clearance, which was often needed for track cycling.
They were often marketed as being more aerodynamic than conventional quill
pedals.
Attaching the shoes to the pedals gives the user more control over the pedal
movements. There are two methods for attaching a cyclist's shoes to their pedals:
toe clips, a basket-and-strap device which hold the foot in place; and so-called
clip less pedals, where specialized shoes with built-in bindings attach to
compatible pedals.

In mountain biking (MTB) and BMX, platform pedals typically refer to any flat
pedal without a cage. BMX riders typically use plastic pedals made of nylon,
polycarbonate, or carbon reinforced plastic, although aluminum alloy, and
magnesium are not uncommon pedal body materials. Mountain bikers tend to use
aluminum or magnesium because of the necessary use of metal studs to offer grip
while the pedals are wet, muddy and slippery. BMX'ers tend to prefer platforms
to cage pedals because they offer more support and grip for flexible "skate" shoes
by using short metal studs. Cage pedals are more popular in the low end mountain
bike range. In general, cage pedals are uncommon in all types of biking, although
there is a niche market within mountain biking.

Platform pedals are available in a wide variety of types and prices, ranging from
disposable plastic units used for test rides on new bicycles to high-end downhill
models. Budget models may be made of steel or aluminum and incorporate
reflectors for safer riding on streets at night, in addition to complying with some
traffic laws. Less expensive platform pedals are generally considered disposable
and cannot be rebuilt when worn out.

More expensive platform pedals for the mountain bike market are available with
replaceable metal traction pins and cartridge bearings. Lightweight pedals
intended for Free ride and downhill cycling have been made from exotic metals
such as magnesium.

Toe clips typically are generally not installed on this type of pedal because they
are considered unsafe by some MTB and BMX riders. In downhill racing, the
extra power and grip offered by clipped pedals is utilized at the risk of clipped in
crashing in which the bicycle can potentially stay attached to the foot of the
victim. However, fixed gear riders have started using fabric straps instead.

HOSES

A hose is a flexible hollow tube designed to carry fluids from one location to
another. Hoses are also sometimes called pipes (the word pipe usually refers to a
rigid tube, whereas a hose is usually a flexible one), or more generally tubing.
The shape of a hose is usually cylindrical (having a circular cross section).

Hose design is based on a combination of application and performance. Common

factors are size, pressure rating, weight, length, straight hose or coil hose, and
chemical compatibility.

Hoses are made from one or a combination of many different materials.

Applications mostly use nylon, polyurethane, polyethylene, PVC, or synthetic or
natural rubbers, based on the environment and pressure rating needed. In recent
years, hoses can also be manufactured from special grades of polyethylene
(LDPE and especially LLDPE). Other hose materials
include PTFE (Teflon), stainless steel and other metals

FRAME

A frame is a structural system that supports other components of a physical

construction. Frame is used to carry the total setup of arrangement. It has to able
to sustain the total weight of
arrangement. It would be joined
by arc welding to get permanent
joint. So frame is very important
to our project.
Material: Mild Steel

Type: Rectangular

The rolled steel "profile" or cross section of steel columns takes the shape of the
letter "I". The two wide flanges of a column are thicker and wider than the
flanges on a beam, to better withstand compressive stress in the structure.
Square and round tubular sections of steel can also be used, often filled with
concrete. Steel beams are connected to the columns with bolts and threaded
fasteners, and historically connected by rivets. The central "web" of the steel I-
beams is often wider than a column web to resist the higher bending moments
that occur in beams.

Wide sheets of steel deck can be used to cover the top of the steel frame as a
"form" or corrugated mold, below a thick layer of concrete and steel reinforcing
bars. Another popular alternative is a floor of precast concrete flooring units
with some form of concrete topping. Often in office buildings, the final floor
surface is provided by some form of raised flooring system with the void
between the walking surface and the structural floor being used for cables and
air handling ducts.

The frame needs to be protected from fire because steel softens at high
temperature and this can cause the building to partially collapse. In the case of
the columns this is usually done by encasing it in some form of fire-resistant
structure such as masonry, concrete or plasterboard.

The beams may be cashed in concrete, plasterboard or sprayed with a coating to

insulate it from the heat of the fire or it can be protected by a fire-resistant
ceiling construction. Asbestos was a popular material for fireproofing steel
structures up until the early 1970s, before the health risks of asbestos fibers
were fully understood.

The exterior "skin" of the building is anchored to the frame using a variety of
construction techniques and following a huge variety of architectural styles.
Bricks, stone, reinforced concrete, architectural glass, sheet metal and simply
paint have been used to cover the frame to protect the steel from the weather.

This is also known as LSF or Lightweight Steel Framing.

Thin sheets of galvanized steel can be cold formed into steel studs for use as a
structural or non-structural building material for both external and partition
walls in both residential, commercial and industrial construction projects
(pictured). The dimension of the room is established with horizontal track that is
anchored to the floor and ceiling to outline each room. The vertical studs are
arranged in the tracks, usually spaced 16" apart, and fastened at the top and
bottom.

The typical profiles used in residential construction are the C-shape stud and the
U-shaped track, and a variety of other profiles. Framing members are generally
produced in a thickness of 12 to 25 gauge. Heavy gauges, such as 12 and 14
gauge, are commonly used when axial loads (parallel to the length of the
member) are high such as in loadbearing construction.
Medium-heavy gauges, such as 16 and 18 gauge, are commonly used when
there are no axial loads but heavy lateral loads (perpendicular to the member)
such as exterior wall studs that need to resist hurricane-force wind loads along
coasts. Light gauges, such as 25 gauge, are commonly used where there are no
axial loads and very light lateral loads such as in interior construction where the
members serve as framing for demising walls between rooms.

The wall finish is anchored to the two flange sides of the stud, which varies
from 1-1/4" to 3" thick, and the width of web ranges from 1-5/8" to 14".
Rectangular sections are removed from the web to provide access for electrical
wiring.

Steel mills produce galvanized sheet steel, the base material for the manufacture
of cold formed steel profiles. Sheet steel is then roll-formed into the final
profiles used for framing. The sheets are zinc coated (galvanized) to prevent
oxidation and corrosion. Steel framing provides excellent design flexibility due
to the high strength to weight ratio of steel, which allows it to span over a long
distance, and also resist wind and earthquake loads.

Steel framed walls can be designed to offer excellent thermal and acoustic
properties - one of the specific considerations when building using cold formed
steel is that thermal bridging can occur across the wall system between the
outside environment and interior conditioned space. Thermal bridging can be
protected against by installing a layer of externally fixed insulation along the
steel framing - typically referred to as a 'thermal break'.

The spacing between studs is typically 16 inches on center for homes exterior
and interior walls depending on designed loading requirements. In office suites
the spacing is 24 inches on center for all walls except for elevator and staircase
wells.
 CHAPTER 8

COST ESTIMATION

1. MATERIAL COST:

Sl.No Component Name Qty. Cost

2. LABOUR COST

LATHE, DRILLING, WELDING, GRINDING, POWER HACKSAW, GAS

CUTTING:

Cost =

3. OVERHEAD CHARGES
The overhead charges are arrived by “Manufacturing cost”

Manufacturing Cost = Material Cost + Labor cost

Overhead Charges = 20% of the manufacturing cost

4 TOTAL COST

Total cost = Material Cost + Labor cost + Overhead Charges

Total cost for this project =

 CHAPTER 9

WORKING PRINCIPLE

• This clutch system is very different from existing system. This system is
designed as user friendly to disabled person too. In this project we use the
push button to operate the clutch. Push button is attached on the top of the
gear lever.

• When we press the button, it switches on the solenoid valve which

operates the pneumatic cylinder and presses the clutch pedal. Clutch
pedal is comprised of return spring that retracts the clutch pedal.

• We use the compressor and several pneumatic components for the air
supply. As the button is attached to the gear lever, it is easy for disabled
person to operate the clutch by a single press.
CHAPTER 10

2D LAYOUT
 CHAPTER 11

ADVANTAGES, DISADVANTAGES AND APPLICATIONS

ADVANTAGES

• It requires simple maintenance cares

• The safety system for automobile.

• Checking and cleaning are easy, because of the main parts are screwed.

• Easy to handle.

• Repairing is easy.

• Replacement of parts is easy.

• Used by disabled persons.

APPLICATIONS

It is very much useful for Car Owners & Auto-garages.

Thus, it can be useful for the following types of vehicles;

1) MARUTI,

2) AMBASSADOR,

3) FIAT,

4) MAHINDRA,

5) TATA
 CHAPTER 12

CONCLUSION

This project work has provided us an excellent opportunity and experience, to

use our limited knowledge. We gained a lot of practical knowledge regarding,
planning, purchasing, assembling and machining while doing this project work.
We feel that the project work is a good solution to bridge the gates between
institution and industries.

We are proud that we have completed the work with the limited time
successfully. The “HAND CLUTCH FOR HANDICAPPED PERSON” is
working with satisfactory conditions. We are able to understand the difficulties
in maintaining the tolerances and also quality. We have done to our ability and
skill making maximum use of available facilities. In conclusion remarks of our
project work, let us add a few more lines about our impression project work.

Thus, we have developed a “HAND CLUTCH FOR HANDICAPPED

PERSON” which helps to know how to achieve low cost automation. The
operating procedure of this system is very simple, so any person can operate. By
using more techniques, they can be modified and developed according to the
applications.
 CHAPTER 13

REFERENCES

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Two Wheeler Vehicle For Physically Challenged Persons” , International
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[2] D.P. Kapoor, Prof. S.R. Zaveri, Prof. Y.L. Yenarkar “Identification And
Modification Of Desired Features To Improve The Performance Of Manually
Operated Wheelchair”, International Journal of Advanced Engineering Research
and Studies E-ISSN2249–8974, July-2013

[3] Tatyaso A. Garande, Prof. P.D. Sonawane, Prof. Dr. S.T.Chavan, Prof.
G.S.Barpande , “Review Of Motorized Tricycle For The Disabled Person” ,
International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR), Volume 4 Issue 2,
February 2015

[4] Design data book, PSG College of Engineering, DPV printers, Coimbatore,
page no 8.1-8.30

[5] Prof. Narayana Iyengar B. R & Dr.Lingaiah K “Data desing data hand book,
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[6] J.E Shigley “Mechanical Engineering Design”, Mc Graw Hill Book

Company, Second Edition, page no 98-102.

[7] Kirpal Singh “Automobile Engineering “Vol 2, Eleventh Edition, page no

1,36,185,

[8] Juvinall R.C & Marshek K.M “Fundamentals of Machine Components

Design” Third Edition, page no, 368-372.
[9] Doughtie V.L & Vallance A.V “Design of Machine Elements”, Mc Graw
Hill Book Company, Second Edition, page no 235-249

[10] R.S Khurmi” Machine Design Book”, First Edition, page no 839-850.