EMBEDDED BASED ELECTRICAL THEFT IDENTIFICATION

SYSTEM
 ABSTRACT

Science and technology with all its miraculous advancements has fascinated human life
to a great extent that imagining a world without these innovations is hardly possible. While
technology is on the raising slope, we should also note the increasing immoral activities. With a
technical view, “Power Theft” is a non-ignorable crime that is highly prevalent, and at the same
time it directly affects the economy of a nation.

This project is designed to find out such power theft in the normal distribution lines. Even
though there are certain practical problems in implementing this kind of systems in future there
is a scope for development of these types of systems. This project is using the principle of the
differential protection scheme for the identification of the power theft. The differential protection
scheme consists of two CTs (current transformers) connected at both the terminals of the load. If
there is no fault in the load then the secondary currents of both the CTs will be same. Using the
same principle one CT is connected at the starting end of the distributor and the remaining other
CT is connected to the different loads which are legal. If there is no power theft in the line then
the vector sum of all the ct’s which are connected to the load will be equal to the current in the
main ct. if there is a difference then we can make out that it should either be the power theft or a
fault in the line.
1.1 INTRODUCTION

Generation, transmission and distribution of electrical energy involve many losses.

Whereas, losses implicated in generation can be technically defined, but transmission and
distribution losses cannot be precisely quantified with the sending end information. Overall
technical losses occur naturally and are caused because of power dissipation in transmission
lines, transformers, and other power system components. Technical losses in T&D are computed
with the information about total load and the total energy billed .Total loss cannot be precisely
computed, but can be estimated from the difference between the total energy supplied to the
customers and the total energy billed, losses are caused by the factors external to the power
system. Nowadays power theft is happening in most of the countries. This causes major crisis for
the government and it tends to increase the demand also.

In these days when generation of power is not met up to the need of men, there is large
number of power thefts from domestic and industrial supply lines. This Project is to limit such
thefts, by letting the Electricity Board to know the theft. By this project, we introduce a new
system of power connection, i.e., instead of driving the power straight away from the
transformer, we drive it through a current transformer which is monitored by a Microcontroller.
The embedded system is in contact with the Electricity Board through wires. Hence when large
amount of load is pulled up by a particular household connection, the EB is kept known about
this and it could cut the power supply to that particular House On receiving this particular signal,
the controller cuts off the connection of current transformer disabling to pull load from the
transformer line. When the load of the transformer exceeds, even when all the houses under it
were using exact amount of supply allotted to them, the EB can monitor the theft directly from
the transformer line and cut off the transformer supply entirely to catch the convicted behind the
theft. Thus, this project helps the Electricity Board to trace out the power thefts and block them
instantly.
1.2 BACKGROUND OF THE PROJECT

The software application and the hardware implementation help the microcontroller
(AT89S52) to monitor all the parameters continuously and display it on the LCD. The system is
totally designed using embedded systems technology. AT89S52 is the microcontroller and forms
the heart of the system.

The Controlling unit has an application program to allow the microcontroller read the
incoming data through the current transformers and change the status of the load accordingly.
The performance of the design is maintained by controlling unit. AT89S52continuously receives
the data from the transformers, after processing in the ADC section, the data is displayed on the
LCD. Based on this information AT89S52 controls the loads.

1.3 ORGANIZATION OF THE THESIS

In view of the proposed thesis work explanation of theoretical aspects and algorithms used in this
work are presented as per the sequence described below.

Chapter1: Describes a brief review of the objectives and Aim of the project.

Chapter2: Discusses the introduction of embedded systems and specifications and design of
embedded systems in detail.

Chapter3: Describes the Block diagram of the project and its description. The construction and
description of various modules used for the application are described in detail.

Chapter4: Explains the Software tools required for the project, compilation process of the code in
detail.

Chapter5: Working procedure and schematic diagram of the hardware.

Chapter6: Overall conclusions of this project along with working procedure are given.
 CHAPTER2

INTRODUCTION TO EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

An embedded system can be defined as a computing device that does a specific focused job.
Appliances such as the air-conditioner, VCD player, DVD player, printer, fax machine, mobile
phone etc. are examples of embedded systems. Each of these appliances will have a processor
and special hardware to meet the specific requirement of the application along with the
embedded software that is executed by the processor for meeting that specific requirement. The
embedded software is also called “firm ware”. The desktop/laptop computer is a general purpose
computer. You can use it for a variety of applications such as playing games, word processing,
accounting, software development and so on. In contrast, the software in the embedded systems
is always fixed listed below:

· Embedded systems do a very specific task, they cannot be programmed to do different things. .
Embedded systems have very limited resources, particularly the memory. Generally, they do not
have secondary storage devices such as the CDROM or the floppy disk. Embedded systems have
to work against some deadlines. A specific job has to be completed within a specific time. In
some embedded systems, called real-time systems, the deadlines are stringent. Missing a
deadline may cause a catastrophe-loss of life or damage to property. Embedded systems are
constrained for power. As many embedded systems operate through a battery, the power
consumption has to be very low.

· Some embedded systems have to operate in extreme environmental conditions such as very
high temperatures and humidity.

Application Areas

Nearly 99 per cent of the processors manufactured end up in embedded systems. The embedded
system market is one of the highest growth areas as these systems are used in very market
segment- consumer electronics, office automation, industrial automation, biomedical
engineering, wireless communication,

data communication, telecommunications, transportation, military and so on.

Consumer appliances: At home we use a number of embedded systems which include digital
camera, digital diary, DVD player, electronic toys, microwave oven, remote controls for TV and
air-conditioner, VCO player, video game consoles, video recorders etc. Today’s high-tech car has
about 20 embedded systems for transmission control, engine spark control, air-conditioning,
navigation etc. Even wristwatches are now

becoming embedded systems. The palmtops are powerful embedded systems using which we can
carry out many general-purpose tasks such as playing games and word processing.

Office automation: The office automation products using em embedded systems are copying
machine, fax machine, key telephone, modem, printer, scanner etc.

Industrial automation: Today a lot of industries use embedded systems for process control.
These include pharmaceutical, cement, sugar, oil exploration, nuclear energy, electricity
generation and transmission. The embedded systems for industrial use are designed to carry out
specific tasks such as monitoring the temperature, pressure, humidity, voltage, current etc., and
then take appropriate action based on the monitored levels to control other devices or to send
information to a centralized monitoring station. In hazardous industrial environment, where
human presence has to be avoided, robots are used, which are programmed to do specific jobs.
The robots are now becoming very powerful and carry out many interesting and complicated
tasks such as hardware assembly.
Medical electronics: Almost every medical equipment in the hospital is an embedded system.
These equipments include diagnostic aids such as ECG, EEG, blood pressure measuring devices,
X-ray scanners; equipment used in blood analysis, radiation, colonscopy, endoscopy etc.
Developments in medical electronics have paved way for more accurate diagnosis of diseases.

Computer networking: Computer networking products such as bridges, routers, Integrated

Services Digital Networks (ISDN), Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM), X.25 and frame relay
switches are embedded systems which implement the necessary data communication protocols.
For example, a router interconnects two networks. The two networks may be running different
protocol stacks. The router’s function is to obtain the data packets from incoming pores, analyze
the packets and send them towards the destination after doing necessary protocol conversion.
Most networking equipments, other than the end systems (desktop computers) we use to access
the networks, are embedded systems

Telecommunications: In the field of telecommunications, the embedded systems can be

categorized as subscriber terminals and network equipment. The subscriber terminals such as key
telephones, ISDN phones, terminal adapters, web cameras are embedded systems. The network
equipment includes multiplexers, multiple access systems, Packet Assemblers Dissemblers
(PADs), sate11ite modems etc. IP phone, IP gateway, IP gatekeeper etc. are the latest embedded
systems that provide very low-cost voice communication over the Internet.

Wireless technologies: Advances in mobile communications are paving way for many
interesting applications using embedded systems. The mobile phone is one of the marvels of the
last decade of the 20’h century. It is a very powerful embedded system that provides voice
communication while we are on the move. The Personal Digital Assistants and the palmtops can
now be used to access multimedia services over the Internet. Mobile communication
infrastructure such as base station controllers, mobile switching centers are also powerful
embedded systems.
Insemination: Testing and measurement are the fundamental requirements in all scientific and
engineering activities. The measuring equipment we use in laboratories to measure parameters
such as weight, temperature, pressure, humidity, voltage, current etc. are all embedded systems.
Test equipment such as oscilloscope, spectrum analyzer, logic analyzer, protocol analyzer, radio
communication test set etc. are embedded systems built around powerful processors. Thank to
miniaturization, the test and measuring equipment are now becoming portable facilitating easy
testing and measurement in the field by field-personnel.

Security: Security of persons and information has always been a major issue. We need to protect
our homes and offices; and also the information we transmit and store. Developing embedded
systems for security applications is one of the most lucrative businesses nowadays. Security
devices at homes, offices, airports etc. for authentication and verification are embedded systems.
Encryption devices are nearly 99 per cent of

the processors that are manufactured end up in~ embedded systems. Embedded systems find
applications in . every industrial segment- consumer electronics, transportation, avionics,
biomedical engineering, manufacturing, process control and industrial automation, data
communication, telecommunication, defense, security etc. Used to encrypt the data/voice being
transmitted on communication links such as telephone lines. Biometric systems using fingerprint
and face recognition are now being extensively used for user authentication in banking
applications as well as for access control in high security buildings.

Finance: Financial dealing through cash and cheques are now slowly paving way for
transactions using smart cards and ATM (Automatic Teller Machine, also expanded as Any Time
Money) machines. Smart card, of the size of a credit card, has a small micro-controller and
memory; and it interacts with the smart card reader! ATM machine and acts as an electronic
wallet. Smart card technology has the capability of ushering in a cashless society. Well, the list
goes on. It is no exaggeration to say that eyes wherever you go, you can see, or at least feel, the
work of an embedded system!
Overview of Embedded System Architecture

Every embedded system consists of custom-built hardware built around a Central Processing
Unit (CPU). This hardware also contains memory chips onto which the software is loaded. The
software residing on the memory chip is also called the ‘firmware’. The embedded system
architecture can be represented as a layered architecture as shown in Fig.

The operating system runs above the hardware, and the application software runs above the

operating system. The same architecture is applicable to any computer including a desktop
computer. However, there are significant differences. It is not compulsory to have an operating
system in every embedded system. For small appliances such as remote control units, air
conditioners, toys etc., there is no need for an operating system and you can write only the
software specific to that application. For applications involving complex processing, it is
advisable to have an operating system. In such a case, you need to integrate the application
software with the operating system and then transfer the entire software on to the memory chip.
Once the software is transferred to the memory chip, the software will continue to run for a long
time you don’t need to reload new software.

Now, let us see the details of the various building blocks of the hardware of an embedded
system. As shown in Fig. the building blocks are;

· Central Processing Unit (CPU)

· Memory (Read-only Memory and Random Access Memory)

· Input Devices

· Output devices

· Communication interfaces

· Application-specific circuitry

Central Processing Unit (CPU):

The Central Processing Unit (processor, in short) can be any of the following: microcontroller,
microprocessor or Digital Signal Processor (DSP). A micro-controller is a low-cost processor. Its
main attraction is that on the chip itself, there will be many other components such as memory,
serial communication interface, analog-to digital converter etc. So, for small applications, a
micro-controller is the best choice as the number of external components required will be very
less. On the other hand, microprocessors are more powerful, but you need to use many external
components with them. D5P is used mainly for applications in which signal processing is
involved such as audio and video processing.

Memory:
The memory is categorized as Random Access 11emory (RAM) and Read Only Memory
(ROM). The contents of the RAM will be erased if power is switched off to the chip, whereas
ROM retains the contents even if the power is switched off. So, the firmware is stored in the
ROM. When power is switched on, the processor reads the ROM; the program is program is
executed.

Input devices:

Unlike the desktops, the input devices to an embedded system have very limited capability.
There will be no keyboard or a mouse, and hence interacting with the embedded system is no
easy task. Many embedded systems will have a small keypad-you press one key to give a
specific command. A keypad may be used to input only the digits. Many embedded systems used
in process control do not have any input device for user interaction; they take inputs from sensors
or transducers 1’fnd produce electrical signals that are in turn fed to other systems.

Output devices:

The output devices of the embedded systems also have very limited capability. Some embedded
systems will have a few Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) to indicate the health status of the system
modules, or for visual indication of alarms. A small Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) may also be
used to display some important parameters.

Communication interfaces:

The embedded systems may need to, interact with other embedded systems at they may have to
transmit data to a desktop. To facilitate this, the embedded systems are provided with one or a
few communication interfaces such as RS232, RS422, RS485, Universal Serial Bus (USB), IEEE
1394, Ethernet etc.
Application-specific circuitry:

Sensors, transducers, special processing and control circuitry may be required fat an embedded
system, depending on its application. This circuitry interacts with the processor to carry out the
necessary work. The entire hardware has to be given power supply either through the 230 volts
main supply or through a battery. The hardware has to design in such a way that the power
consumption is minimized.

Chapter 3

Hardware Implementation of the Project

This chapter briefly explains about the Hardware Implementation of the project. It discusses the
design and working of the design with the help of block diagram and circuit diagram and
explanation of circuit diagram in detail. It explains the features, timer programming, serial
communication, interrupts of AT89S52 microcontroller. It also explains the various modules used
in this project.

3.1 Project Design

The implementation of the project design can be divided in two parts.

 Hardware implementation
 Firmware implementation
Hardware implementation deals in drawing the schematic on the plane paper according to the
application, testing the schematic design over the breadboard using the various IC’s to find if the
design meets the objective, carrying out the PCB layout of the schematic tested on breadboard,
finally preparing the board and testing the designed hardware.

The firmware part deals in programming the microcontroller so that it can control the operation
of the IC’s used in the implementation. In the present work, we have used the Orcad design
software for PCB circuit design, the Keil µv3 software development tool to write and compile
the source code, which has been written in the C language. The Proload programmer has been
used to write this compile code into the microcontroller. The firmware implementation is
explained in the next chapter.

The project design and principle are explained in this chapter using the block diagram and circuit
diagram. The block diagram discusses about the required components of the design and working
condition is explained using circuit diagram and system wiring diagram.

INTRODUCTION TO MICROCONTROLLER

Based on the Processor side Embedded Systems is mainly divided into 3 types
1. Micro Processor : - are for general purpose eg: our personal computer
2. Micro Controller:- are for specific applications, because of cheaper cost we will go for these
3. DSP ( Digital Signal Processor ):- are for high and sensitive application purpose

MICROCONTROLLER VERSUS MICROPROCESSOR

A system designer using a general-purpose microprocessor such as the Pentium or the 68040
must add RAM, ROM, I/O ports, and timers externally to make them functional. Although the
addition of external RAM, ROM, and I/O ports makes these systems bulkier and much more
expensive, they have the advantage of versatility such that the designer can decide on the amount
of RAM, ROM and I/O ports needed to fit the task at hand.

A Microcontroller has a CPU (a microprocessor) in addition to a fixed amount of RAM,

ROM, I/O ports, and a timer all on a single chip. In other words, the processor, the RAM, ROM,
I/O ports and the timer are all embedded together on one chip; therefore, the designer cannot add
any external memory, I/O ports, or timer to it. The fixed amount of on-chip ROM, RAM, and
number of I/O ports in Microcontrollers makes them ideal for many applications in which cost
and space are critical.
CPU platform:
Embedded processors can be broken into two distinct categories: microprocessors (μP) and
microcontrollers (μC). Microcontrollers have built-in peripherals on the chip, reducing size of
the system.

There are many different CPU architectures used in embedded designs such as ARM, MIPS,
Coldfire/68k, PowerPC, x86, PIC, 8051, Atmel AVR, Renesas H8, SH, V850, FR-V, M32R,
Z80, Z8, etc. This in contrast to the desktop computer market, which is currently limited to just a
few competing architectures.

PC/104 and PC/104+ are a typical base for small, low-volume embedded and ruggedized system
design. These often use DOS, Linux, NetBSD, or an embedded real-time operating system such
as QNX or VxWorks.

A common configuration for very-high-volume embedded systems is the system on a chip (SoC),
an application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC), for which the CPU core was purchased and
added as part of the chip design. A related scheme is to use a field-programmable gate array
(FPGA), and program it with all the logic, including the CPU.

Embedded systems are based on the concept of the microcontroller, a single integrated circuit
that contains all the technology required to run an application. Microcontrollers make integrated
systems possible by combining several features together into what is effectively a complete
computer on a chip, including:
* Central Processing Unit
* Input/Output interfaces (such as serial ports)
* Peripherals (such as timers)
* ROM, EEPROM or Flash memory for program storage
* RAM for data storage
* Clock generator

By integrating all of these features into a single chip it is possible to greatly reduce the number of
chips and wiring necessary to control an electronic device, dramatically reducing its complexity,
size and cost.
* Size & Weight: Microcontrollers are designed to deliver maximum performance for minimum
size and weight. A centralized on-board computer system would greatly outweigh a collection of
microcontrollers.
* Efficiency: Microcontrollers are designed to perform repeated functions for long periods of
time without failing or requiring service.

MICRO CONTROLLER: is a chip through which we can connect many other devices and
also those are controlled by the program the program which burn into that chip

3.1.1 Block Diagram of the Project and its Description

The block diagram of the design is as shown in Fig 3.1. It consists of power supply unit,
microcontroller, sensor module, ADC, LCD, and the cooling system with its driver circuit. The
brief description of each unit is explained as follows.
3.2 Power Supply:
The input to the circuit is applied from the regulated power supply. The a.c. input i.e., 230V from
the mains supply is step down by the transformer to 12V and is fed to a rectifier. The output
obtained from the rectifier is a pulsating d.c voltage. So in order to get a pure d.c voltage, the
output voltage from the rectifier is fed to a filter to remove any a.c components present even after
rectification. Now, this voltage is given to a voltage regulator to obtain a pure constant dc
voltage.
Transformer:
Usually, DC voltages are required to operate various electronic equipment and these
voltages are 5V, 9V or 12V. But these voltages cannot be obtained directly. Thus the a.c input
available at the mains supply i.e., 230V is to be brought down to the required voltage level. This
is done by a transformer. Thus, a step down transformer is employed to decrease the voltage to a
required level.

Rectifier:
The output from the transformer is fed to the rectifier. It converts A.C. into pulsating D.C.
The rectifier may be a half wave or a full wave rectifier. In this project, a bridge rectifier is used
because of its merits like good stability and full wave rectification.

Filter:
Capacitive filter is used in this project. It removes the ripples from the output of rectifier
and smoothens the D.C. Output received from this filter is constant until the mains voltage and
load is maintained constant. However, if either of the two is varied, D.C. voltage received at this
point changes. Therefore a regulator is applied at the output stage.
Voltage regulator:
As the name itself implies, it regulates the input applied to it. A voltage regulator is an
electrical regulator designed to automatically maintain a constant voltage level. In this project,
power supply of 5V and 12V are required. In order to obtain these voltage levels, 7805 and 7812
voltage regulators are to be used. The first number 78 represents positive supply and the numbers
05, 12 represent the required output voltage levels.

3.3 Microcontrollers:
Microprocessors and microcontrollers are widely used in embedded systems products.
Microcontroller is a programmable device. A microcontroller has a CPU in addition to a fixed
amount of RAM, ROM, I/O ports and a timer embedded all on a single chip. The fixed amount
of on-chip ROM, RAM and number of I/O ports in microcontrollers makes them ideal for many
applications in which cost and space are critical.

The Intel 8051 is Harvard architecture, single chip microcontroller (µC) which was developed by
Intel in 1980 for use in embedded systems. It was popular in the 1980s and early 1990s, but
today it has largely been superseded by a vast range of enhanced devices with 8051-compatible
processor cores that are manufactured by more than 20 independent manufacturers including
Atmel, Infineon Technologies and Maxim Integrated Products.

8051 is an 8-bit processor, meaning that the CPU can work on only 8 bits of data at a time. Data
larger than 8 bits has to be broken into 8-bit pieces to be processed by the CPU. 8051 is available
in different memory types such as UV-EPROM, Flash and NV-RAM.
Features of AT89S52:
 8K Bytes of Re-programmable Flash Memory.
 RAM is 256 bytes.
 4.0V to 5.5V Operating Range.
 Fully Static Operation: 0 Hz to 33 MHz’s
 Three-level Program Memory Lock.
 256 x 8-bit Internal RAM.
 32 Programmable I/O Lines.
 Three 16-bit Timer/Counters.
 Eight Interrupt Sources.
 Full Duplex UART Serial Channel.
 Low-power Idle and Power-down Modes.
 Interrupt recovery from power down mode.
 Watchdog timer.
 Dual data pointer.
 Power-off flag.
 Fast programming time.
 Flexible ISP programming (byte and page mode).

Description:
The AT89s52 is a low-voltage, high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcomputer with 8K bytes of
Flash programmable memory. The device is manufactured using Atmel’s high
density nonvolatile memory technology and is compatible with the industry-
standard MCS-51 instruction set. The on chip flash allows the program memory
to be reprogrammed in system or by a conventional non volatile memory
programmer. By combining a versatile 8-bit CPU with Flash on a monolithic
chip, the Atmel AT89s52 is a powerful microcomputer, which provides a highly
flexible and cost-effective solution to many embedded control applications.

In addition, the AT89s52 is designed with static logic for operation down to zero frequency and
supports two software selectable power saving modes. The Idle Mode stops the
CPU while allowing the RAM, timer/counters, serial port and interrupt system to
continue functioning. The power-down mode saves the RAM contents but freezes
the oscillator disabling all other chip functions until the next hardware reset.
Pin description:

Vcc Pin 40 provides supply voltage to the chip. The voltage source is +5V.

GND Pin 20 is the ground.

Port 0
Port 0 is an 8-bit open drain bidirectional I/O port. As an output port, each pin can sink eight
TTL inputs. When 1s are written to port 0 pins, the pins can be used as high
impedance inputs. Port 0 can also be configured to be the multiplexed low-order
address/data bus during accesses to external program and data memory. In this
mode, P0 has internal pull-ups.

Port 0 also receives the code bytes during Flash programming and outputs the code bytes during
Program verification. External pull-ups are required during program verification.

Port 1
Port 1 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The Port 1 output buffers can
sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 1 pins, they are pulled
high by the internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 1 pins that
are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the internal
pull-ups. In addition, P1.0 and P1.1 can be configured to be the timer/counter 2
external count input (P1.0/T2) and the timer/counter 2 trigger input (P1.1/T2EX),
respectively, as shown in the following table.

Port 1 also receives the low-order address bytes during Flash programming and verification.

Port 2
Port 2 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The Port 2 output buffers can
sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 2 pins, they are pulled
high by the internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 2 pins that
are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the internal
pull-ups.

Port 2 emits the high-order address byte during fetches from external program memory and
during accesses to external data memory that uses 16-bit addresses (MOVX @
DPTR). In this application, Port 2 uses strong internal pull-ups when emitting 1s.
During accesses to external data memory that uses 8-bit addresses (MOVX @
RI), Port 2 emits the contents of the P2 Special Function Register. The port also
receives the high-order address bits and some control signals during Flash
programming and verification.

Port 3
Port 3 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The Port 3 output buffers can
sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 3 pins, they are pulled
high by the internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 3 pins that
are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the pull-ups.
Port 3 receives some control signals for Flash programming and verification.

Port 3 also serves the functions of various special features of the AT89S52, as shown in the
following table.
RST
Reset input A high on this pin for two machine cycles while the oscillator is running resets the
device. This pin drives high for 98 oscillator periods after the Watchdog times
out. The DISRTO bit in SFR AUXR (address 8EH) can be used to disable this
feature. In the default state of bit DISRTO, the RESET HIGH out feature is
enabled.
ALE/PROG
Address Latch Enable (ALE) is an output pulse for latching the low byte of the address during
accesses to external memory. This pin is also the program pulse input (PROG)
during Flash programming.

In normal operation, ALE is emitted at a constant rate of 1/6 the oscillator frequency and may be
used for external timing or clocking purposes. Note, however, that one ALE pulse
is skipped during each access to external data memory.

If desired, ALE operation can be disabled by setting bit 0 of SFR location 8EH. With the bit set,
ALE is active only during a MOVX or MOVC instruction. Otherwise, the pin is
weakly pulled high. Setting the ALE-disable bit has no effect if the
microcontroller is in external execution mode.

PSEN
Program Store Enable (PSEN) is the read strobe to external program memory. When the
AT89S52 is executing code from external program memory, PSEN is activated
twice each machine cycle, except that two PSEN activations are skipped during
each access to external data memory.

EA/VPP
External Access Enable EA must be strapped to GND in order to enable the device to fetch code
from external program memory locations starting at 0000H up to FFFFH. Note,
however, that if lock bit 1 is programmed, EA will be internally latched on reset.

EA should be strapped to VCC for internal program executions. This pin also receives the 12-
volt programming enable voltage (VPP) during Flash programming.

XTAL1
Input to the inverting oscillator amplifier and input to the internal clock operating circuit.

XTAL2
Output from the inverting oscillator amplifier.
XTAL1 and XTAL2 are the input and output, respectively, of an inverting amplifier that can be
configured for use as an on-chip oscillator. Either a quartz crystal or ceramic
resonator may be used. To drive the device from an external clock source, XTAL2
should be left unconnected while XTAL1 is driven. There are no requirements on
the duty cycle of the external clock signal, since the input to the internal clocking
circuitry is through a divide-by-two flip-flop, but minimum and maximum voltage
high and low time specifications must be observed.

Special Function Registers

A map of the on-chip memory area called the Special Function Register (SFR) space is shown in
the following table.

It should be noted that not all of the addresses are occupied and unoccupied addresses may not
be implemented on the chip. Read accesses to these addresses will in general
return random data, and write accesses will have an indeterminate effect.

User software should not write 1s to these unlisted locations, since they may be used in future
products to invoke new features. In that case, the reset or inactive values of the
new bits will always be 0.

Timer 2 Registers:
Control and status bits are contained in registers T2CON and T2MOD for Timer 2. The register
pair (RCAP2H, RCAP2L) is the Capture/Reload register for Timer 2 in 16-bit
capture mode or 16-bit auto-reload mode.

Interrupt Registers:
The individual interrupt enable bits are in the IE register. Two priorities can be set for each of
the six interrupt sources in the IP register.
Dual Data Pointer Registers:
To facilitate accessing both internal and external data memory, two banks of 16-bit Data Pointer
Registers are provided: DP0 at SFR address locations 82H-83H and DP1 at 84H
and 85H. Bit DPS = 0 in SFR AUXR1 selects DP0 and DPS = 1 selects DP1. The
user should ALWAYS initialize the DPS bit to the appropriate value before
accessing the respective Data Pointer Register.

Power off Flag:

The Power off Flag (POF) is located at bit 4 (PCON.4) in the PCON SFR. POF is set to “1”
during power up. It can be set and rest under software control and is not affected
by reset.
Memory Organization
MCS-51 devices have a separate address space for Program and Data Memory. Up to 64K bytes
each of external Program and Data Memory can be addressed.

Program Memory
If the EA pin is connected to GND, all program fetches are directed to external memory. On the
AT89S52, if EA is connected to VCC, program fetches to addresses 0000H
through 1FFFH are directed to internal memory and fetches to addresses 2000H
through FFFFH are to external memory.
Data Memory
The AT89S52 implements 256 bytes of on-chip RAM. The upper 128 bytes occupy a parallel
address space to the Special Function Registers. This means that the upper 128
bytes have the same addresses as the SFR space but are physically separate from
SFR space.

When an instruction accesses an internal location above address 7FH, the address mode used in
the instruction specifies whether the CPU accesses the upper 128 bytes of RAM
or the SFR space. Instructions which use direct addressing access the SFR space.

For example, the following direct addressing instruction accesses the SFR at location 0A0H
(which is P2).

MOV 0A0H, #data

The instructions that use indirect addressing access the upper 128 bytes of RAM. For example,
the following indirect addressing instruction, where R0 contains 0A0H, accesses
the data byte at address 0A0H, rather than P2 (whose address is 0A0H).

MOV @R0, #data

It should be noted that stack operations are examples of indirect addressing, so the upper 128
bytes of data RAM are available as stack space.

Watchdog Timer (One-time Enabled with Reset-out)

The WDT is intended as a recovery method in situations where the CPU may be subjected to
software upsets. The WDT consists of a 14-bit counter and the Watchdog Timer
Reset (WDTRST) SFR. The WDT is defaulted to disable from exiting reset. To
enable the WDT, a user must write 01EH and 0E1H in sequence to the WDTRST
register (SFR location 0A6H).

When the WDT is enabled, it will increment every machine cycle while the oscillator is running.
The WDT timeout period is dependent on the external clock frequency. There is no
 way to disable the WDT except through reset (either hardware reset or WDT
overflow reset). When WDT overflows, it will drive an output RESET HIGH pulse
at the RST pin.

UART
The Atmel 8051 Microcontrollers implement three general purpose, 16-bit timers/ counters. They
are identified as Timer 0, Timer 1 and Timer 2 and can be independently configured to operate in
a variety of modes as a timer or as an event counter. When operating as a timer, the timer/counter
runs for a programmed length of time and then issues an interrupt request. When operating as a
counter, the timer/counter counts negative transitions on an external pin. After a preset number of
counts, the counter issues an interrupt request. The various operating modes of each
timer/counter are described in the following sections.

A basic operation consists of timer registers THx and TLx (x= 0, 1) connected in cascade to form
a 16-bit timer. Setting the run control bit (TRx) in TCON register turns the timer on by allowing
the selected input to increment TLx. When TLx overflows it increments THx; when THx
overflows it sets the timer overflow flag (TFx) in TCON register. Setting the TRx does not clear
the THx and TLx timer registers. Timer registers can be accessed to obtain the current count or to
enter preset values. They can be read at any time but TRx bit must be cleared to preset their
values, otherwise the behavior of the timer/counter is unpredictable.

The C/T control bit (in TCON register) selects timer operation or counter operation, by selecting
the divided-down peripheral clock or external pin Tx as the source for the counted signal. TRx
bit must be cleared when changing the mode of operation, otherwise the behavior of the
timer/counter is unpredictable. For timer operation (C/Tx# = 0), the timer register counts the
divided-down peripheral clock. The timer register is incremented once every peripheral cycle (6
peripheral clock periods). The timer clock rate is FPER / 6, i.e. FOSC / 12 in standard mode or
FOSC / 6 in X2 mode. For counter operation (C/Tx# = 1), the timer register counts the negative
transitions on the Tx external input pin. The external input is sampled every peripheral cycle.
When the sample is high in one cycle and low in the next one, the counter is incremented.

Since it takes 2 cycles (12 peripheral clock periods) to recognize a negative transition, the
maximum count rate is FPER / 12, i.e. FOSC / 24 in standard mode or FOSC / 12 in X2 mode.
There are no restrictions on the duty cycle of the external input signal, but to ensure that a given
level is sampled at least once before it changes, it should be held for at least one full peripheral
cycle. In addition to the “timer” or “counter” selection, Timer 0 and Timer 1 have four operating
modes from which to select which are selected by bit-pairs (M1, M0) in TMOD. Modes 0, 1and
2 are the same for both timer/counters. Mode 3 is different.

The four operating modes are described below. Timer 2, has three modes of operation: ‘capture’,
‘auto-reload’ and ‘baud rate generator’.

Timer 0

Timer 0 functions as either a timer or event counter in four modes of operation. Timer 0 is
controlled by the four lower bits of the TMOD register and bits 0, 1, 4 and 5 of the TCON
register. TMOD register selects the method of timer gating (GATE0), timer or counter operation
(T/C0#) and mode of operation (M10 and M00). The TCON register provides timer 0 control
functions: overflow flag (TF0), run control bit (TR0), interrupt flag (IE0) and interrupt type
control bit (IT0).

For normal timer operation (GATE0= 0), setting TR0 allows TL0 to be incremented by the
selected input. Setting GATE0 and TR0 allows external pin INT0# to control timer operation.
Timer 0 overflow (count rolls over from all 1s to all 0s) sets TF0 flag, generating an interrupt
request. It is important to stop timer/counter before changing mode.

Mode 0 (13-bit Timer)

Mode 0 configures timer 0 as a 13-bit timer which is set up as an 8-bit timer (TH0 register) with
a modulo-32 prescaler implemented with the lower five bits of the TL0 register. The upper three
bits of TL0 register are indeterminate and should be ignored. Prescaler overflow increments the
TH0 register.

As the count rolls over from all 1’s to all 0’s, it sets the timer interrupt flag TF0. The counted
input is enabled to the Timer when TR0 = 1 and either GATE = 0 or INT0 = 1. (Setting GATE =
1 allows the Timer to be controlled by external input INT0, to facilitate pulse width
measurements). TR0 is a control bit in the Special Function register TCON. GATE is in TMOD.

The 13-bit register consists of all 8 bits of TH0 and the lower 5 bits of TL0. The upper 3 bits of
TL0 are indeterminate and should be ignored. Setting the run flag (TR0) does not clear the
registers.

Mode 0 operation is the same for Timer 0 as for Timer 1. There are two different GATE bits, one
for Timer 1 (TMOD.7) and one for Timer 0 (TMOD.3).

Baud Rate Generator

Timer 2 is selected as the baud rate generator by setting TCLK and/or RCLK in T2CON. Note
that the baud rates for transmit and receive can be different if Timer 2 is used for
 the receiver or transmitter and Timer 1 is used for the other function. Setting
RCLK and/or TCLK puts Timer 2 into its baud rate generator mode.

The baud rate generator mode is similar to the auto-reload mode, in that a rollover in TH2
causes the Timer 2 registers to be reloaded with the 16-bit value in registers
RCAP2H and RCAP2L, which are preset by software.

The baud rates in Modes 1 and 3 are determined by Timer 2’s overflow rate according to the
following equation.

The Timer can be configured for either timer or counter operation. In most applications, it is
configured for timer operation (CP/T2 = 0). The timer operation is different for
Timer 2 when it is used as a baud rate generator. Normally, as a timer, it
increments every machine cycle (at 1/12 the oscillator frequency). As a baud rate
generator, however, it increments every state time (at 1/2 the oscillator
frequency). The baud rate formula is given below.

where (RCAP2H, RCAP2L) is the content of RCAP2H and RCAP2L taken as a 16-bit unsigned
integer.

Timer 2 as a baud rate generator is shown in the below figure. This figure is valid only if RCLK
or TCLK = 1 in T2CON. Note that a rollover in TH2 does not set TF2 and will
not generate an interrupt. Note too, that if EXEN2 is set, a 1-to-0 transition in
T2EX will set EXF2 but will not cause a reload from (RCAP2H, RCAP2L) to
 (TH2, TL2). Thus, when Timer 2 is in use as a baud rate generator, T2EX can be
used as an extra external interrupt.

It should be noted that when Timer 2 is running (TR2 = 1) as a timer in the baud rate generator
mode, TH2 or TL2 should not be read from or written to. Under these conditions,
the Timer is incremented every state time, and the results of a read or write may
not be accurate. The RCAP2 registers may be read but should not be written to,
because a write might overlap a reload and cause write and/or reload errors. The
timer should be turned off (clear TR2) before accessing the Timer 2 or RCAP2
registers.
Interrupts
The AT89S52 has a total of six interrupt vectors: two external interrupts (INT0 and INT1), three
timer interrupts (Timers 0, 1, and 2) and the serial port interrupt. These
interrupts are all shown in the below figure.

Each of these interrupt sources can be individually enabled or disabled by setting or clearing a
bit in Special Function Register IE. IE also contains a global disable bit, EA,
which disables all interrupts at once. The below table shows that bit position IE.6
is unimplemented. User software should not write a 1 to this bit position, since it
may be used in future AT89 products.

Timer 2 interrupt is generated by the logical OR of bits TF2 and EXF2 in register T2CON.
Neither of these flags is cleared by hardware when the service routine is vectored
to. In fact, the service routine may have to determine whether it was TF2 or EXF2
that generated the interrupt, and that bit will have to be cleared in software.

The Timer 0 and Timer 1 flags, TF0 and TF1, are set at S5P2 of the cycle in which the timers
overflow. The values are then polled by the circuitry in the next cycle. However,
the Timer 2 flag, TF2, is set at S2P2 and is polled in the same cycle in which the
timer overflows.

3.4 ADC0808
The ADC0808, ADC0809 data acquisition component is a monolithic CMOS device with an 8-
bit analog-to-digital converter, 8-channel multiplexer and microprocessor compatible control
logic. The 8-bit A/D converter uses successive approximation as the conversion technique. The
converter features a high impedance chopper stabilized comparator, a 256R voltage divider with
analog switch tree and a successive approximation register. The 8-channel multiplexer can
directly access any of 8-single-ended analog signals.

Features

 Easy interface to all microprocessors

 Operates ratiometrically or with 5 VDC or analog span adjusted voltage reference
 No zero or full-scale adjust required
 8-channel multiplexer with address logic
 0V to 5V input range with single 5V power supply
 Outputs meet TTL voltage level specifications
 Standard hermetic or molded 28-pin DIP package
 28-pin molded chip carrier package
 ADC0808 equivalent to MM74C949
 ADC0809 equivalent to MM74C949-1

Key Specifications

 Resolution 8 Bits
 Total Unadjusted Error ±1⁄2 LSB and ±1 LSB
 Single Supply 5 VDC
 Low Power 15 mW
 Conversion Time 100 μs
Functional Description

Multiplexer. The device contains an 8-channel single-ended analog signal multiplexer. A

particular input channel is selected by using the address decoder. The below table shows the
input states for the address lines to select any channel. The address is latched into the decoder on
the low-to-high transition of the address latch enable signal.

CONVERTER CHARACTERISTICS

The Converter

The heart of this single chip data acquisition system is its 8-bit analog-to-digital converter. The
converter is designed to give fast, accurate, and repeatable conversions over a wide range of
temperatures. The converter is partitioned into 3 major sections: the 256R ladder network, the
successive approximation register, and the comparator. The converter’s digital outputs are
positive true. The 256R ladder network approach (Figure 1) was chosen over the conventional
R/2R ladder because of its inherent monotonicity, which guarantees no missing digital codes.
Monotonicity is particularly important in closed loop feedback control systems. A non-
monotonic relationship can cause oscillations that will be catastrophic for the system.
Additionally, the 256R network does not cause load variations on the reference voltage.

The A/D converter’s successive approximation register (SAR) is reset on the positive edge of the
start conversion (SC) pulse. The conversion is begun on the falling edge of the start conversion
pulse. A conversion in process will be interrupted by receipt of a new start conversion pulse.
Continuous conversion may be accomplished by tying the end of conversion (EOC) output to the
SC input. If used in this mode, an external start conversion pulse should be applied after power
up. End-of-conversion will go low between 0 and 8 clock pulses after the rising edge of start
conversion. The most important section of the A/D converter is the comparator. It is this section
which is responsible for the ultimate accuracy of the entire converter. It is also the comparator
drift which has the greatest influence on the repeatability of the device. A chopper-stabilized
comparator provides the most effective method of satisfying all the converter requirements.

I/O Pins

ADDRESS LINE A, B, C: The device contains 8-channels. A particular channel is selected by

using the address decoder line. The above table shows the input states for address lines to select
any channel.

Address Latch Enable ALE: The address is latched on the Low – High transition of ALE.

START: The ADC’s Successive Approximation Register (SAR) is reset on the positive edge i.e.
Low- High of the Start Conversion pulse. Whereas the conversion is begun on the falling edge
i.e. high – Low of the pulse.
Output Enable: Whenever data has to be read from the ADC, Output Enable pin has to be
pulled high thus enabling the TRI-STATE outputs, allowing data to be read from the data pins
D0-D7.

End of Conversion (EOC): This Pin becomes high when the conversion has ended, so the
controller comes to know that the data can now be read from the data pins.

Clock: External clock pulses are to be given to the ADC; this can be given either from LM 555
in Astable mode or the controller can also be used to give the pulses.

Algorithm
1. Start.
2. Select the channel.
3. A Low – High transition on ALE to latch in the address.
4. A Low – High transition on Start to reset the ADC’s SAR.
5. A High – Low transition on ALE.
6. A High – Low transition on start to start the conversion.
7. Wait for End of cycle (EOC) pin to become high.
8. Make Output Enable pin High.
9. Take Data from the ADC’s output
10. Make Output Enable pin Low.
11. Stop

The clock can also be provided through the controller thus eliminating the need of external
circuit for clock.

Calculating Step Size

ADC 0808 is an 8 bit ADC i.e. it divides the voltage applied at Vref+ & Vref- into 28 i.e. 256 steps.
Step Size = (Vref+ - Vref-)/256

Suppose Vref+ is connected to Vcc i.e. 5V & Vref- is connected to the ground, then the step size will
be
Step size= (5 - 0)/256= 19.53 mv.

Calculating Dout

The data we get at the D0 - D7 depends upon the step size & the Input voltage i.e. Vin.
Dout = Vin /step Size.
ADC interface with the Microcontroller

The address and data pins of ADC can be connected to any of the ports of 8051

3.5 TRANSFORMERS

A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another
through inductively coupled conductors the transformer's coils. A varying current in the first
or primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the transformer's core and thus a
varying magnetic field through the secondarywinding. This varying magnetic field induces a
varying electromotive force (EMF), or "voltage", in the secondary winding. This effect is
called inductive coupling.

If a load is connected to the secondary, current will flow in the secondary winding, and electrical
energy will be transferred from the primary circuit through the transformer to the load. In an
ideal transformer, the induced voltage in the secondary winding (Vs) is in proportion to the
primary voltage (Vp) and is given by the ratio of the number of turns in the secondary (Ns) to the
number of turns in the primary (Np) as follows:

By appropriate selection of the ratio of turns, a transformer thus enables an alternating

current (AC) voltage to be "stepped up" by making Ns greater than Np, or "stepped down" by
making Ns less than Np.

In the vast majority of transformers, the windings are coils wound around a ferromagnetic
core, air-core transformers being a notable exception.

Transformers range in size from a thumbnail-sized coupling transformer hidden inside a

stage microphone to huge units weighing hundreds of tons used to interconnect portions
of power grids. All operate on the same basic principles, although the range of designs is
wide. While new technologies have eliminated the need for transformers in some electronic
circuits, transformers are still found in nearly all electronic devices designed for household
("mains") voltage. Transformers are essential for high-voltage electric power transmission,
which makes long-distance transmission economically practical.

The transformer is based on two principles: first, that an electric current can produce amagnetic
field (electromagnetism) and second that a changing magnetic field within a coil of wire induces
a voltage across the ends of the coil (electromagnetic induction). Changing the current in the
primary coil changes the magnetic flux that is developed. The changing magnetic flux induces a
voltage in the secondary coil.
An ideal transformer is shown in the adjacent figure. Current passing through the primary coil
creates a magnetic field. The primary and secondary coils are wrapped around a core of very
high magnetic permeability, such asiron, so that most of the magnetic flux passes through both
the primary and secondary coils. If a load is connected to the secondary winding, the load current
and voltage will be in the directions indicated, given the primary current and voltage in the
directions indicated (each will be alternating current in practice).

Ideal power equation

If the secondary coil is attached to a load that allows current to flow, electrical power is
transmitted from the primary circuit to the secondary circuit. Ideally, the transformer is perfectly
efficient. All the incoming energy is transformed from the primary circuit to the magnetic
field and into the secondary circuit. If this condition is met, the input electric power must equal
the output power:

giving the ideal transformer equation

This formula is a reasonable approximation for most commercial built transformers

today.
 If the voltage is increased, then the current is decreased by the same factor. The
impedance in one circuit is transformed by the square of the turns ratio. For example, if
an impedance Zs is attached across the terminals of the secondary coil, it appears to the
primary circuit to have an impedance of (Np/Ns)2Zs. This relationship is reciprocal, so that
the impedance Zp of the primary circuit appears to the secondary to be (Ns/Np)2Zp.

Ideal power equation

If the secondary coil is attached to a load that allows current to flow, electrical power is
transmitted from the primary circuit to the secondary circuit. Ideally, the transformer is perfectly
efficient. All the incoming energy is transformed from the primary circuit to the magnetic
field and into the secondary circuit. If this condition is met, the input electric power must equal
the output power:

giving the ideal transformer equation

This formula is a reasonable approximation for most commercial built transformers

today.

If the voltage is increased, then the current is decreased by the same factor. The
impedance in one circuit is transformed by the square of the turns ratio. For example, if
an impedance Zs is attached across the terminals of the secondary coil, it appears to the
 primary circuit to have an impedance of (Np/Ns)2Zs. This relationship is reciprocal, so that
the impedance Zp of the primary circuit appears to the secondary to be (Ns/Np)2Zp.

Detailed operation
The simplified description above neglects several practical factors, in particular, the primary
current required to establish a magnetic field in the core, and the contribution to the field due to
current in the secondary circuit.

Models of an ideal transformer typically assume a core of negligible reluctance with two
windings of zero resistance. When a voltage is applied to the primary winding, a small current
flows, driving flux around the magnetic circuit of the core.: The current required to create the
flux is termed the magnetizing current. Since the ideal core has been assumed to have near-zero
reluctance, the magnetizing current is negligible, although still required, to create the magnetic
field.

The changing magnetic field induces an electromotive force (EMF) across each winding. Since
the ideal windings have no impedance, they have no associated voltage drop, and so the voltages
VPand VS measured at the terminals of the transformer, are equal to the corresponding EMFs.
The primary EMF, acting as it does in opposition to the primary voltage, is sometimes termed the
"back EMF". This is in accordance with Lenz's law, which states that induction of EMF always
opposes development of any such change in magnetic field.

Energy losses

An ideal transformer would have no energy losses, and would be 100% efficient. In practical
transformers, energy is dissipated in the windings, core, and surrounding structures. Larger
transformers are generally more efficient, and those rated for electricity distribution usually
perform better than 98%.

Experimental transformers using superconducting windings achieve efficiencies of 99.85%. The

increase in efficiency can save considerable energy, and hence money, in a large heavily loaded
transformer; the trade-off is in the additional initial and running cost of the superconducting
design.

Losses in transformers (excluding associated circuitry) vary with load current, and may be
expressed as "no-load" or "full-load" loss. Winding resistance dominates load losses,
whereas hysteresis andeddy currents losses contribute to over 99% of the no-load loss. The no-
load loss can be significant, so that even an idle transformer constitutes a drain on the electrical
supply and a running cost. Designing transformers for lower loss requires a larger core, good-
quality silicon steel, or even amorphous steel for the core and thicker wire, increasing initial cost
so that there is a trade-off between initial cost and running cost (also see energy efficient
transformer).

Transformer losses are divided into losses in the windings, termed copper loss, and those in the
magnetic circuit, termed iron loss. Losses in the transformer arise from:

Winding resistance
Current flowing through the windings causes resistive heating of the conductors. At
higher frequencies, skin effect and proximity effect create additional winding resistance
and losses.
Hysteresis losses
Each time the magnetic field is reversed, a small amount of energy is lost due
to hysteresis within the core. For a given core material, the loss is proportional to the
frequency, and is a function of the peak flux density to which it is subjected.
Eddy currents
Ferromagnetic materials are also good conductors and a core made from such a material
also constitutes a single short-circuited turn throughout its entire length. Eddy
currents therefore circulate within the core in a plane normal to the flux, and are
responsible for resistive heating of the core material. The eddy current loss is a complex
function of the square of supply frequency and inverse square of the material
thickness. Eddy current losses can be reduced by making the core of a stack of plates
electrically insulated from each other, rather than a solid block; all transformers operating
at low frequencies use laminated or similar cores.

Magnetostriction
Magnetic flux in a ferromagnetic material, such as the core, causes it to physically
expand and contract slightly with each cycle of the magnetic field, an effect known
as magnetostriction. This produces the buzzing sound commonly associated with
 transformers that can cause losses due to frictional heating. This buzzing is particularly
familiar from low-frequency (50 Hz or 60 Hz) mains hum, and high-frequency (15,734
Hz (NTSC) or 15,625 Hz (PAL)) CRT noise.
Mechanical losses
In addition to magnetostriction, the alternating magnetic field causes fluctuating forces
between the primary and secondary windings. These incite vibrations within nearby
metalwork, adding to the buzzing noise and consuming a small amount of power.
Stray losses
Leakage inductance is by itself largely lossless, since energy supplied to its magnetic
fields is returned to the supply with the next half-cycle. However, any leakage flux that
intercepts nearby conductive materials such as the transformer's support structure will
give rise to eddy currents and be converted to heat. There are also radiative losses due to
the oscillating magnetic field but these are usually small.

3.6 LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY:

LCD stands for Liquid Crystal Display. LCD is finding wide spread use replacing LEDs (seven
segment LEDs or other multi segment LEDs) because of the following reasons:

1. The declining prices of LCDs.

2. The ability to display numbers, characters and graphics. This is in contrast to LEDs,
which are limited to numbers and a few characters.

3. Incorporation of a refreshing controller into the LCD, thereby relieving the CPU of the
task of refreshing the LCD. In contrast, the LED must be refreshed by the CPU to keep
displaying the data.

4. Ease of programming for characters and graphics.

These components are “specialized” for being used with the microcontrollers, which means that
they cannot be activated by standard IC circuits. They are used for writing different messages on
a miniature LCD.
A model described here is for its low price and great possibilities most frequently used in
practice. It is based on the HD44780 microcontroller (Hitachi) and can display messages in two
lines with 16 characters each. It displays all the alphabets, Greek letters, punctuation marks,
mathematical symbols etc. In addition, it is possible to display symbols that user makes up on its
own.

Automatic shifting message on display (shift left and right), appearance of the pointer, backlight
etc. are considered as useful characteristics.

Pins Functions

There are pins along one side of the small printed board used for connection to the
microcontroller. There are total of 14 pins marked with numbers (16 in case the background light
is built in). Their function is described in the table below:

Function Pin Number Name Logic State Description

Ground 1 Vss - 0V

Power supply 2 Vdd - +5V

Contrast 3 Vee - 0 – Vdd

D0 – D7 are interpreted as
Control of 0
4 RS commands
operating 1
D0 – D7 are interpreted as data
 D0 – D7 are interpreted as
0
4 RS commands
1
D0 – D7 are interpreted as data

0 Write data (from controller to LCD)

Control of 5 R/W
1 Read data (from LCD to controller)
operating
Access to LCD disabled
0
Normal operating
6 E 1
Data/commands are transferred to
From 1 to 0
LCD

7 D0 0/1 Bit 0 LSB

8 D1 0/1 Bit 1

9 D2 0/1 Bit 2

10 D3 0/1 Bit 3
Data / commands
11 D4 0/1 Bit 4

12 D5 0/1 Bit 5

13 D6 0/1 Bit 6

14 D7 0/1 Bit 7 MSB

LCD screen:

LCD screen consists of two lines with 16 characters each. Each character consists of 5x7 dot
matrix. Contrast on display depends on the power supply voltage and whether messages are
displayed in one or two lines. For that reason, variable voltage 0-Vdd is applied on pin marked as
Vee. Trimmer potentiometer is usually used for that purpose. Some versions of displays have
built in backlight (blue or green diodes). When used during operating, a resistor for current
limitation should be used (like with any LE diode).
LCD Basic Commands
All data transferred to LCD through outputs D0-D7 will be interpreted as commands or as data,
which depends on logic state on pin RS:
RS = 1 - Bits D0 - D7 are addresses of characters that should be displayed. Built in processor
addresses built in “map of characters” and displays corresponding symbols. Displaying position
is determined by DDRAM address. This address is either previously defined or the address of
previously transferred character is automatically incremented.

RS = 0 - Bits D0 - D7 are commands which determine display mode. List of commands which
LCD recognizes are given in the table below:

Command RS RW D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0 Execution Time

Clear display 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1.64Ms

Cursor home 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 x 1.64mS

Entry mode set 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 I/D S 40uS

Display on/off control 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 D U B 40uS

Cursor/Display Shif 0 0 0 0 0 1 D/C R/L x x 40uS

Function set 0 0 0 0 1 DL N F x x 40uS

Set CGRAM address 0 0 0 1 CGRAM address 40uS

Set DDRAM address 0 0 1 DDRAM address 40uS

Read “BUSY” flag (BF) 0 1 BF DDRAM address -

Write to CGRAM or DDRAM 1 0 D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0 40uS

Read from CGRAM or DDRAM 1 1 D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0 40uS

I/D 1 = Increment (by 1) R/L 1 = Shift right

0 = Decrement (by 1) 0 = Shift left

S 1 = Display shift on DL 1 = 8-bit interface

0 = Display shift off 0 = 4-bit interface

D 1 = Display on N 1 = Display in two lines

0 = Display off 0 = Display in one line

U 1 = Cursor on F 1 = Character format 5x10 dots

0 = Cursor off 0 = Character format 5x7 dots

B 1 = Cursor blink on D/C 1 = Display shift

0 = Cursor blink off 0 = Cursor shift

LCD Connection
Depending on how many lines are used for connection to the microcontroller, there are 8-bit and
4-bit LCD modes. The appropriate mode is determined at the beginning of the process in a phase
called “initialization”. In the first case, the data are transferred through outputs D0-D7 as it has
been already explained. In case of 4-bit LED mode, for the sake of saving valuable I/O pins of
the microcontroller, there are only 4 higher bits (D4-D7) used for communication, while other
may be left unconnected.

Consequently, each data is sent to LCD in two steps: four higher bits are sent first (that normally
would be sent through lines D4-D7), four lower bits are sent afterwards. With the help of
initialization, LCD will correctly connect and interpret each data received. Besides, with regards
to the fact that data are rarely read from LCD (data mainly are transferred from microcontroller
to LCD) one more I/O pin may be saved by simple connecting R/W pin to the Ground. Such
saving has its price.

Even though message displaying will be normally performed, it will not be possible to read from
busy flag since it is not possible to read from display.

LCD Initialization
Once the power supply is turned on, LCD is automatically cleared. This process lasts for
approximately 15mS. After that, display is ready to operate. The mode of operating is set by
default. This means that:
1. Display is cleared
2. Mode
DL = 1 Communication through 8-bit interface
N = 0 Messages are displayed in one line
F = 0 Character font 5 x 8 dots
3. Display/Cursor on/off
D = 0 Display off
U = 0 Cursor off
B = 0 Cursor blink off
4. Character entry
ID = 1 Addresses on display are automatically incremented by 1
S = 0 Display shift off

Automatic reset is mainly performed without any problems. If for any reason power supply
voltage does not reach full value in the course of 10mS, display will start perform completely
unpredictably.
If voltage supply unit cannot meet this condition or if it is needed to provide completely safe
operating, the process of initialization by which a new reset enabling display to operate normally
must be applied.
Algorithm according to the initialization is being performed depends on whether connection to
the microcontroller is through 4- or 8-bit interface. All left over to be done after that is to give
basic commands and of course- to display messages.

Contrast control:
To have a clear view of the characters on the LCD, contrast should be adjusted. To adjust the
contrast, the voltage should be varied. For this, a preset is used which can behave like a variable
voltage device. As the voltage of this preset is varied, the contrast of the LCD can be adjusted.
Potentiometer

Variable resistors used as potentiometers have all three terminals connected. This arrangement is
normally used to vary voltage, for example to set the switching point of a circuit with a sensor, or control
the volume (loudness) in an amplifier circuit. If the terminals at the ends of the track are connected
across the power supply, then the wiper terminal will provide a voltage which can be varied from zero up
to the maximum of the supply.

Presets

These are miniature versions of the standard variable resistor. They are designed to be mounted directly
onto the circuit board and adjusted only when the circuit is built. For example, to set the frequency of an
alarm tone or the sensitivity of a light-sensitive circuit, a small screwdriver or similar tool is required to
adjust presets.

Presets are much cheaper than standard variable resistors so they are sometimes used in projects where
a standard variable resistor would normally be used.

Multiturn presets are used where very precise adjustments must be made. The screw must be
turned many times (10+) to move the slider from one end of the track to the other, giving very
fine control.
LCD interface with the microcontroller (4-bit mode):

3.7 TRIAC BT136

General Description

Glass passivated, sensitive gate triacs in a plastic envelope, intended for use in general purpose
bidirectional switching and phase control applications, where high voltages sensitivity is required
in all four quadrants.
3.8 TRIAC DRIVER MOC3021

The MOC301XM and MOC302XM series are optically isolated triac driver devices. These
devices consist of gallium arsenide infrared emitting diodes, optically coupled to silicon bilateral
switch and are designed for applications requiring isolated triac triggering, low–current isolated
ac switching, high electrical isolation (to 7500 VAC peak), high detector standoff voltage, small
size, and low cost. This series is designed for interfacing between electronic controls and power
triacs to control resistive and inductive loads for 115/240V AC operations.

Features:

 Low input current required (typically 5mA).

 High isolation voltage-minimum 7500 VAC peak

Applications:
  TRIAC driver
 Industrial controls
 Traffic lights
 Vending machines
 Motor control
 Solid state relay
 Solenoid/valve controls
 Static AC power switch
 Incandescent lamp dimmers
 Lamp ballasts

Chapter 4
Firmware Implementation of the project design
This chapter briefly explains about the firmware implementation of the project. The required
software tools are discussed in section 4.2. Section 4.3 shows the flow diagram of the project
design. Section 4.4 presents the firmware implementation of the project design.
4.1 Software Tools Required
Keil µv3, Proload are the two software tools used to program microcontroller. The
working of each software tool is explained below in detail.

4.1.1 Programming Microcontroller

A compiler for a high level language helps to reduce production time. To program the
AT89S52 microcontroller the Keil µv3 is used. The programming is done strictly in the
embedded C language. Keil µv3 is a suite of executable, open source software development tools
for the microcontrollers hosted on the Windows platform.

The compilation of the C program converts it into machine language file (.hex). This is
the only language the microcontroller will understand, because it contains the original program
code converted into a hexadecimal format. During this step there are some warnings about
eventual errors in the program. This is shown in Fig 4.1. If there are no errors and warnings then
run the program, the system performs all the required tasks and behaves as expected the software
developed. If not, the whole procedure will have to be repeated again. Fig 4.2 shows expected
outputs for given inputs when run compiled program.

One of the difficulties of programming microcontrollers is the limited amount of

resources the programmer has to deal with. In personal computers resources such as RAM and
processing speed are basically limitless when compared to microcontrollers. In contrast, the code
on microcontrollers should be as low on resources as possible.

Keil Compiler:
Keil compiler is software used where the machine language code is written and compiled.
After compilation, the machine source code is converted into hex code which is to be dumped
into the microcontroller for further processing. Keil compiler also supports C language code.
Proload:
Proload is software which accepts only hex files. Once the machine code is converted
into hex code, that hex code has to be dumped into the microcontroller and this is done by the
Proload. Proload is a programmer which itself contains a microcontroller in it other than the one
which is to be programmed. This microcontroller has a program in it written in such a way that it
accepts the hex file from the Keil compiler and dumps this hex file into the microcontroller
which is to be programmed. As the Proload programmer kit requires power supply to be
operated, this power supply is given from the power supply circuit designed above. It should be
noted that this programmer kit contains a power supply section in the board itself but in order to
switch on that power supply, a source is required. Thus this is accomplished from the power
supply board with an output of 12volts.
Features
 Supports major Atmel 89 series devices
 Auto Identify connected hardware and devices
 Error checking and verification in-built
 Lock of programs in chip supported to prevent program copying
 20 and 40 pin ZIF socket on-board
 Auto Erase before writing and Auto Verify after writing
 Informative status bar and access to latest programmed file
 Simple and Easy to use
 Works on 57600 speed

Description
It is simple to use and low cost, yet powerful flash microcontroller programmer for the
Atmel 89 series. It will Program, Read and Verify Code Data, Write Lock Bits, Erase and Blank
Check. All fuse and lock bits are programmable. This programmer has intelligent onboard
firmware and connects to the serial port. It can be used with any type of computer and requires
no special hardware. All that is needed is a serial communication ports which all computers have.

All devices have signature bytes that the programmer reads to automatically identify the
chip. No need to select the device type, just plug it in and go! All devices also have a number of
lock bits to provide various levels of software and programming protection. These lock bits are
fully programmable using this programmer. Lock bits are useful to protect the program to be read
back from microcontroller only allowing erase to reprogram the microcontroller. The
programmer connects to a host computer using a standard RS232 serial port. All the
programming 'intelligence' is built into the programmer so you do not need any special hardware
to run it. Programmer comes with window based software for easy programming of the devices.

Programming Software
Computer side software called 'Proload V4.1' is executed that accepts the Intel HEX format file
generated from compiler to be sent to target microcontroller. It auto detects the hardware
connected to the serial port. It also auto detects the chip inserted and bytes used. Software is
developed in Delphi 7 and requires no overhead of any external DLL.
 CHAPTER 5

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

WORKING PROCEDURE:

This project is designed to find out such power theft in the normal distribution lines.
Even though there are certain practical problems in implementing this kind of systems in future
there is a scope for development of these types of systems. This project is using the principle of
the differential protection scheme for the identification of the power theft. The differential
protection scheme consists of two CTs (current transformers) connected at both the terminals of
the load. If there is no fault in the load then the secondary currents of both the CTs will be same.
Using the same principle one CT is connected at the starting end of the distributor and the
remaining other CT is connected to the different loads which are legal. If there is no power theft
in the line then the vector sum of all the ct’s which are connected to the load will be equal to the
current in the main ct. if there is a difference then we can make out that it should either be the
power theft or a fault in the line.

The current drawn from the both ends of the transformers are given to the ADC0808 to convert
that analog values into the digital and the that converted digital values are displayed on the LCD
screen.
 Chapter 6
Results and Discussions

6.1 Results
Assemble the circuit on the PCB as shown in Fig 5.1. After assembling the circuit on the
PCB, check it for proper connections before switching on the power supply.

6.2 Conclusion
The implementation of Power Theft Identification System in Distribution Lines Using
Differential Power Measurement is done successfully. In this way we are going to design the
microcontroller based power theft identifier. The purpose of designing such system will
ultimately reduce the illegal used of electricity and saves money because it directly affects the
economy of nation, because power theft is non ignorable crime which has to be controlled.

This system will be beneficial to consumer as well as for government. And it will require
only one time installation cost and can be used further. And the big advantage of this system is
that it will increase the revenue.The design of electricity theft monitoring system has been
generated using the embedded system Technology.

The communication is properly done without any interference between different modules in the
design. Design is done to meet all the specifications and requirements. Software tools like Keil
Uvision Simulator, Proload to dump the source code into the microcontroller, Orcad Lite for the
schematic diagram have been used to develop the software code before realizing the hardware.

Circuit is implemented in Orcad and implemented on the microcontroller board. The

performance has been verified both in software simulator and hardware design. The total circuit
is completely verified functionally and is following the application software.
It can be concluded that the design implemented in the present work provide portability,

flexibility and the data transmission is also done with low power consumption.

ADVANTAGES:

1. Field Programmability, Flexibility

2. Highly secured and easy to install
3. The dailies report that Electricity Board suffers a total loss of 22 % in revenue due
to power theft every year, which can be controlled now.
4. The consumer will also get benefit because in most of the cases consumer does
not aware of that someone is tapped his line and he has to pay extra charge.
5. With the help of this project we can reduce the total illegal use of power & saves
electricity.

Disadvantage:-
The disadvantages of this project is that only it has high installation cost. But it can be
bearable because it requires only once installation cost and can be used for life time.

APPLICATIONS:

 Power monitoring at homes, apartments

 Industrial power monitoring
REFERENCES

http://www.sunrom.com/

http://www.atmel.com/dyn/resources/prod_documents/doc1919.pdf

http://www.microdigitaled.com/8051/Software/keil_tutorial.pdf

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero_crossing

datasheets.maximintegrated.com

www.datatronics.com/pdf/current_sense_article.pdf

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TRIAC

www.alldatasheet.com/datasheet-pdf/pdf/4518/.../MCT2E.html

wiki.answers.com › ... › Engineering › Electronics Engineering

www.dnatechindia.com › TUTORIAL › 8051 Tutorial

www.engineersgarage.com/.../16x2-lcd-module-datasheetwww.microscale-
embedded.com/index.php?...adc-0808

BOOKS:
1. Embedded Systems Architecture Programming and Design by Raj Kamal.

2. Embedded And Real Time systems by K V Prasad.

3. Electronic Measurement And Instruments by Bakshi.