Aziz et al.

Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2018) 14:11

DOI 10.1186/s13002-018-0212-0

RESEARCH Open Access

Traditional uses of medicinal plants used

by Indigenous communities for veterinary
practices at Bajaur Agency, Pakistan
Muhammad Abdul Aziz1*, Amir Hasan Khan2, Muhammad Adnan1 and Habib Ullah3

Abstract
Background: The pastoral lifestyle of Indigenous communities of Bajaur Agency is bringing them close to natural
remedies for treating their domestic animals. Several studies have been conducted across the globe describing the
importance of traditional knowledge in veterinary care. Therefore, this study was planned with the aim to record
knowledge on ethnoveterinary practices from the remote areas and share sit with other communities through
published literature.
Methods: Data was gathered from community members through semi-structured interviews and analyzed through
informant consensus factor (Fic) to evaluate the consent of current ethnoveterinary practices among the local people.
Results: In total, 73 medicinal plants were recorded under the ethnoveterinary practices. Most widely used medicinal
plants with maximum use reports (URs) were Visnaga daucoides Gaertn., Foeniculum vulgare Mill., Solanum virginianum
L., Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal, Glycyrrhiza glabra L., and Curcuma longa L. New medicinal values were found with
confidential level of citations for species including Heracleum candicans and Glycerhiza glabra. Family Apiaceae was the
utmost family with high number (7 species) of medicinal plants. Maximum number of medicinal plants (32) was used
for gastric problems. High Fic was recorded for dermatological (0.97) followed by reproductive (0.93) and
gastrointestinal disorders (0.92). The main route of remedies administration was oral.
Conclusions: Current study revealed that the study area has sufficient knowledge on ethnoveterinary medicinal plants.
This knowledge is in the custody of nomadic grazers, herders, and aged community members. Plants with new
medicinal uses need to be validated phytochemically and pharmacologically for the development of new alternative
drugs for veterinary purposes.
Keywords: Folk knowledge, Indigenous communities, Livestock diseases, Fic, Phytopharmacological studies

Background ethnoveterinary products [2]. The utilization of trad-

The historical utilization of plants as health remedies itional remedies poses a cheaper, easier, and sustainable
both for human and animal is centuries old. It has been alternative to synthetic drugs and pharmaceuticals [3]. It
recognized that plants have the capacity to combat has been reported that due to lack of proper animal
several types of diseases ethnoveterinary medicines, a husbandry practices, about 30–35% of the losses occur
term generally used for folk skills, beliefs, knowledge, in the animals’ breeding sectors especially in developing
practices, methods related to animals’ health, and cure countries [4], where the rural people are heavily
of various ailments in the rural areas [1]. Ethnoveterin- dependent on livestock farming for their livelihood activ-
ary practices have achieved immense significance for the ities [5]. The Indigenous communities living in rural and
last decade owing to the discovery of some effective mountainous territories of developing world consider
livestock a vital source for economy, social security, and
food and is thought to be a symbol of prestige for a
* Correspondence: azizmhsd@gmail.com
1
Department of Botany, Kohat University of Science and Technology, Kohat
particular family [6].
26000, Pakistan
Full list of author information is available at the end of the article

© The Author(s). 2018 Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0
International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and
reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to
the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver
(http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated.
Aziz et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2018) 14:11 Page 2 of 18

Livestock being as a subsector contributes around 56% rugged Hindukush hills and other mountain passes known
of value addition in the agriculture sector and approxi- as Nawa Pass, Ghakhi Pass, and Letai Sar being the not-
mately 11% towards the gross domestic product (GDP). able ones. The agency borders on south with Mohmand
About 30 million people living in the rural areas of the agency, on east with Lower Dir District and the Panjkora
country are involved with the livestock subsector [7]. River, and on north with the watershed between Bajaur
Hence, livestock raring plays a significant role in poverty Agency and District Dir. Moreover, the agency is situated
reduction strategies. According to the report of economic at the extreme end of the Himalayan Range. The areas
survey of Pakistan [8], the national herd of Pakistan dominated by agricultural lands are receiving about
includes 53.8 million goats, 29.6 million cattle, 27.3 mil- 800 mm of average rain fall per annum. The two main
lion buffalos, 26.5 million sheep, and 0.9 million camels. tribes of Bajaur Agency known as Tarkani and Utman
People residing in the remote areas utilize medicinal Khel are mainly populated into seven Tehsils including
plants for livestock’s health. Particularly, the conventional Barang, Nawagai, Khar, Mamund, Salarzai, Utman Khel,
lifestyle of nomadic and pastoralists makes it difficult for and Chamarkand. By profession, mostly, the people are
them to reach veterinary extension services due to high farmers, teacher, drivers, and doing small scale businesses
costs and less availability of allopathic medicines [9]. and jobs inside/outside the country. Almost every house-
In South Asia, several ethnoveterinary studies have been hold has a herd of domestic animals for socioeconomic
conducted [10–18] including Pakistan [6, 9, 19–26]. How- gains. There are only three degree-level colleges and five
ever, scarce studies on ethnoveterinary medicines have higher secondary schools. Moreover, there are only two
been reported from the Federally Administrated Tribal government hospitals in the study area, while most people
Areas (FATA) of the country. The tribal areas mainly are deprived of modern health facilities, which justify their
comprised of mountainous territories where people use reliance on local herbalists (Hakims). The study area con-
medicinal plants to treat livestock’s diseases. Traditional sists of one veterinary hospital and 20 small dispensaries
ethnoveterinary knowledge is mainly transmitted orally to treat the domestic cattle. However, the local people still
from one generation to another generation in the form of rely on traditional recipes due to larger distances from the
folk remedies, drawing stories, poems, drawing stories, folk aforementioned health centers. The dominant vegetation
myths, songs, and proverbs. This transmission of Indigen- in the area is comprised of Ailanthus altissimo, Eucalyptus
ous knowledge through oral way faces critical threats of ex- camaldulensis, Ficus carica, Melia azedarach, Morus
tinction. Therefore, it is necessary to record, document, indica, Morus nigra, Olea ferruginea, Pinus roxburghii,
and encourage the ethnoveterinary medication and inte- Quercus baloot, and Rumex hastatus.
grate them into the existing animal health care services [5].
Bajaur agency is among one of the Federally Adminis- Ethnomedicinal data collection and ethnographic
trated Tribal Areas (FATA) of Pakistan having diversity composition
of medicinal plants being used for the livestock’s health- In the month of April, respondents were targeted based
care services. Due to remote nature and lack of quality on their strong reputation in the field of ethnomedicinal
education, the area has been little explored for the scien- knowledge while field survey was conducted from May
tific documentations of traditional knowledge. There is a to August 2016. Field visits were carried out prior to
dire need to explore the folk knowledge about the medicinal data collection in order to acknowledge the
utilization of herbal remedies for veterinary practices cooperation of the Indigenous communities. Mr. Amir
prior to being extinct. Hence, the current study was Hasan Khan, the local occupant of the area, visited
planned to investigate and document the traditional different sites with his volunteer team including a tax-
ethnoveterinary knowledge and practices and release it onomist and a pharmacist. He arranged several meetings
from the custody of knowledge bearers for sharing it with the local representatives known as Maliks, to whom
with other communities through publish literature. objectives of the study were presented.
A semistructured questionnaire was developed to gather
Methods knowledge on ethnoveterinary plants by following the
Study area method adopted by Martin [27]. Mostly, the folk knowledge
Bajaur (Khar: headquarter) is the smallest agency of the was gathered from nomads, farmers, and aged community
FATA having a total area of 1290 km2. It shares 52 km members. The interviews were conducted at various places
border with Afghanistan, which is of great importance to and in the local language called “Pashto.” Each informant
Pakistan and the region. The study area lays at an altitude was acknowledged by presenting the main theme of the
of 1126 m above the sea level and geographically exists study to them in order to gain their consent and trust,
between 34°–30° and 34°–58° latitudes and 71°–11° and which allowed the informants to talk more freely and
71°–30° longitudes. The Agency is surrounded to the west openly. The recorded information was once again redis-
by Kunar Valley of Afghanistan being separated by the played to the informants to avoid errors and falsification.
Aziz et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2018) 14:11 Page 3 of 18

Data was collected from different sites known as Pashat, Data analysis
Tali, Inayat Kali, Ghar Shamozai, Loe Sum, Barang, Mandal, For each of the specie, use reports (URs) (citations) were
Khar, Mamund, and Salarzai. Accordingly, the sites were counted. UR may be defined as the utilization of part of
categorized into foot hill villages and mountainous villages a plant species for a particular disease mentioned by an
(Fig. 1). A total of 80 key respondents were selected belong- informant. To determine the informant consensus factor
ing to different age groups, i.e., 68 males and 12 females (Fic), the reported species were arranged in various
(Table 1). The selection of respondent was based on their groups according to the ailment treated [11]. Ten ail-
high reputation with respect to traditional knowledge on ment categories were prepared from the data. To calcu-
ethnoveterinary plants. Continuous relationships were late the Fic, we used the formula, i.e., Fic = Nur − Nt/
maintained with the Indigenous communities throughout Nur − 1. Here, Nur indicates the number of citations in
the course of survey for the strong validation of traditional each use category and Nt represents the number of
knowledge. species cited.

Preservation and taxonomical verifications of plant species Results and discussion

Surveyed ethnoveterinary medicinal plants were col- Prospects and challenges to traditional ethnoveterinary
lected and identified by taxonomist at the Department knowledge
of Botany, Shaheed Benazir Bhuto University Sheringal, Indigenous communities play significant role in reporting
District Dir (Upper), Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. traditional uses of medicinal flora. Indigenous knowledge
Species botanical names and their family names were can be used as a tool to conserve and maintain the green
corrected and verified through the website www.ke- diversity, and could be further utilized for scientific
w.org/mpns. After collection, plants were pressed and validation [12]. During the 32nd session of United
dried under the shade, were poisoned (1% HgCl2 solu- Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
tion), and were mounted properly on the herbarium (UNESCO), traditional knowledge on ethnoveterinary
sheets for future reference. Each herbarium sheet was medicines was declared an important part of cultural
labeled with a voucher number and submitted to the heritage, which is required to be brought under study, sus-
aforementioned department [28, 29]. tenance, and protection [30].

Fig. 1 Map of the study area and area location in Pakistan

Aziz et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2018) 14:11 Page 4 of 18

Table 1 Indicating the number and details of informants being considered as an important part of traditional life-
Category Total % style. Most commonly, the male community member
Gender grazes herds of animal, while females take part in house-
Male 68 85
holds’ management. Figures 2 and 3 showed some of the
images of the grazed domestic animals, which are
Female 12 15
treated with medicinal plant in the area. Other studies
Age groups have explained this in a different way that men due to
35–50 27 34 close proximity tend to know more about the animal
> 50 53 66 behavior than women [31].
Occupation People of the study area use plants not only for medi-
House wives 12 15
cinal purposes to treat their domestic animals but also
as a fodder. Local community also prevents their animals
Herders 40 50
from such nutrition, which is not healthy in certain con-
Farmers 28 35 ditions and seasons. One may consider this prevention
to be a part of ethnoveterinary practices. Nutrition is
Indigenous communities at Bajaur Agency are dependent playing an important role in ethnoveterinary practices in
on livestock for supporting their livelihood. Medicinal both prevention and cure of domestic animals [35]. Live-
plants have a pivot role in the treatment of livestock’s ail- stock usually ingests some extra and non-important food
ments in the area. Usually, this treatment process depends substances in the green fodder, which could be termed
either on the traditional knowledge being orally transmit- as food medicines or medicinal food [36]. Studies have
ted to the current generation of local people from their highlighted the importance of “food as medicines” in the
ancestors or through personal experiences. Previous scien- context of local traditional knowledge; however, possible
tific literature has focused on the correlation of traditional health advantages of food in ethnoveterinary methods
medical expertise to ethnobotanical knowledge for the need further attention [37]. Testing the nutritional status
treatment of human ailments [31, 32], although the same of each traditional ethnoveterinary remedy is not necessary;
plants may be used to treat livestock [33, 34]. In our study, however, it is essential to evaluate the biological efficacy
we have observed that the herders, farmers, and older from the phytochemical, pharmacological, toxicological,
community members are more equipped with traditional and clinical perspectives for wider application. A consider-
knowledge and familiar with veterinary medications, diag- able proportion of the documented uses of plant taxa in
nosis process, and treatment. our study are in accordance with the established pharma-
Indigenous people of the study area are rich in trad- cological effects [36].
itional knowledge on veterinary medicines, which may The prevailing Indigenous ethnoveterinary knowledge
be due to their close observation on domestic animals in the study area is facing certain constrains leading it

Fig. 2 Images of some of the animals treated with medicinal plants

Aziz et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2018) 14:11 Page 5 of 18

Fig. 3 Images of some of the animals treated with medicinal plants

towards extinction. As an example, the nature of trad- Ethnoveterinary medications and their cross-cultural
itional knowledge is making it more difficult to learn analysis with nearby regions
and then transfer it in an accurate way. Furthermore, The use of plants for medical purpose to treat a wide
practicing traditional therapies are not being respected array of maladies emanates traces since the recorded
by the new generation. Other challenges include low lit- history and even before. In our study, 73 plant species
eracy rate in the study area, no proper documentation of belonging to 43 families were documented. Table 2 pre-
Indigenous knowledge, and introduction of modern allo- sents details on the documented medicinal plants in-
pathic medicines, rapid technological advancement, and cluding their botanical names, vernacular names, family
environmental degradation. Similar kinds of threats have names, specimen numbers, parts used, medicinal uses,
also been reported in other communities across the and use reports. Family Apiaceae (7 species) has the high
world [38–40]. Informants with little education were number of individual species used in ethnoveterinary
found less familiar to the traditional knowledge while practices followed by Fabaceae (5 species). Other studies
people having no formal education were more responsive have also reported Apiaceae as the dominant plant fam-
in this regard. Some studies have found that education ily being used in traditional medications [37, 46]. The
can be correlated with expertise either positively [41, 42] rationale of high use of Apiaceae species in the current
or negatively [43], while others found no relationship [44]. study, though based on traditional evidence, may be re-
Moreover, it is also ambiguous to determine the effect of ferred to their chemical constituents such as phenolics,
“modernity” on the loss of ethnomedicinal knowledge. poly phenolics, lectins, alkaloids, terpenoids, and essen-
Modernity has an established association with greater tial oils, which carry antimicrobial potential [47]. Due to
medicinal competence in Dominica [45] but appeared un- the predominance of sheep, goats, cows, and donkeys in
related to variation in expertise among Tsimane horticul- the study area, we have specifically recorded the ethno-
turalists in Bolivia [41]. Furthermore, it is also unclear veterinary practices used for the treatment of these four
whether correlation of expertise exists between ethnome- types of domestic animals. Key informants declared ex-
dicinal knowledge and ethnoveterinary approaches; how- tensive uses of Visnaga daucoides Gaertn. (49 URs),
ever, livestock keepers hold extensive knowledge related followed by Foeniculum vulgare Mill. (47 URs), Solanum
to disease prevention, diagnosis, and both traditional virginianum L. (43 URs), Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal
and novel biomedical treatments [26]. In summary, des- (38 URs), Glycyrrhiza glabra L. (33 URs), and Curcuma
pite maintaining knowledge on ethnoveterinary prac- longa L. (29 URs) (Table 2). Medicinal plants with high
tices by the locals, the tendency to utilize modern URs strengthen the concept that such species are more
pharmaceuticals is increasing day by day. Hence, the significant to the local population and useful in sharing
conservation of ethnomedicinal knowledge by the local the traditional knowledge with one another in the area.
communities is extremely important for the livestock’s In our study, V. daucoides is used to treat diarrhea, ab-
health in the remote areas. dominal pain, and retained placenta in domestic animals.
Aziz et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2018) 14:11 Page 6 of 18

Table 2 Medicinal uses of local flora for ethnoveterinary uses

Family Botanical name “voucher no.” Plant local Parts used URs Medicinal value
name
Amaranthaceae Beta vulgaris L. Choqandar Whole plant 6 A whole plant is subjected to powder
“SBBU-33” and is combined with flour and black
tea to treat digestive problems
especially in cow and buffalo.
Amaryllidaceae Allium cepa L. Piaz Bulb 14 Bulb of the herb is crushed and
“SBBU-32” added milk for orally given to animals
(6–8 days) for curing digestive complaints.
Allium sativum L. Oga Bulb 13 Bulb is crushed and mixed with way
“SBBU-16” to administered orally for several days
in order to rate of fertility in domestic
animals.
Narcissus tazetta L. Gul-E-Nargas Leaves 10 Along with gurr and flour, fresh
“SBBU-59” leaves (¼ kg) are boiled and orally
given to livestock for the retained
placental removal.
Apiaceae Carum carvi L. Zeera Fruit 14 Tea is prepared from its fruit (¼ kg),
“SBBU-24” and then, it is combined with flour
and given to cattle for 3 days in order
to treat gastric problems.
Cuminum cyminum L. Zankai Fruit 12 Half kilogram of fruit is boiled in black
“SBBU-63” tea and orally given for 15–20 days
on daily basis for the expulsion of
intestinal worms and treated gastric
problems.
Eryngium biehersteinianum Yakandaz Stem and leaves 23 Powder of its stem and leaves is
(M. Bieb.) Nevski and stem orally given for the treatment of
“SBBU-5” liver problems up to the duration
of 8–12 days.
Foeniculum vulgare Mill. Kagelani Fruit, leaves 47 Decoction is made from it fresh
“SBBU-61” leaves and fruit (150–200 g), and t
hen, it is combined with gurr,
given orally to livestock for
appetite and as sedative for
the duration of 5 to 6 days.
Heracleum candicans Skhwara Roots 13 Fresh root of the plant (200 g) is
Wall. ex DC. combined with wheat flour and
“SBBU-17” made to paste which is orally given
to goat, cow, and sheep as sexual
tonic and to enhance the rate of
fertility up to 3 days.
Trachyspermum ammi Ajwain Fruit 19 Seeds (¼ kg) of the plant, Allium cepa,
(L.) Sprague wheat flour, and Foeniculum vulgare
“SBBU-60” are thoroughly mixed. The resultant
blend is then orally given (15 days)
and is considered as good appetizer.
Visnaga daucoides Gaertn. Sparkai Fruit 49 Tea is made from its fruit and given
“SBBU-48” orally to sheep, goat, cow, and buffalo
while treating diarrhea, abdominal
pain, and retained placenta. The
remedy is constantly utilized for
the duration of 3 days.
Apocynaceae Calotropis procera Spalmai Leaves 21 Plants’ fresh leaves are taken and
(Aiton) Dryand. decoction is made, and after that, the
“SBBU-18” decoction is combined with “Ajuga
integrifolia” and is used for dermal
parasites for 3 to 5 days.
Nerium oleander L. Gandiaray Leaves 19 To relieve the external parasite, the
“SBBU-22” decoction of its leaves is used for
animal bathing especially goat and cow.
Aziz et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2018) 14:11 Page 7 of 18

Table 2 Medicinal uses of local flora for ethnoveterinary uses (Continued)

Family Botanical name “voucher no.” Plant local Parts used URs Medicinal value
name
Asteraceae Artemisia absinthium L. Spara Botay Whole plant 5 Whole is subjected to powder and
“SBBU-52” mixed with gurr and wheat and is
used as anthelmintic.
Artemisia scoparia Spara Botay Leaves 13 Decoction is made by taking ½ kg of
Waldst. & Kit. leaves which is mixed with gurr and
“SBBU-67” administered orally daily (for 2 to 3 days)
about 1 to 2 glasses for the treatment of
gastric complexities, blood purification,
and skin problems in goat, sheep, and
cow.
Launaea procumbens (Roxb.) Shodapai Whole plant 9 Fresh plant is fed to animals, i.e.,
Ramayya & Rajagopal goat, sheep, and cow as tonic and
“SBBU-44” galactagogue.
Berberidaceae Berberis lycium Royle Koowary Root 24 Decoction is made from its root
“SBBU-42” (about ¼ kg) and is orally administered
to cattle (10 days) for the treatment
digestive tract infections, mouth
infections, refrigerant, and healing.
Brassicaceae Brassica rapa L. Sharsham Oil 28 Mustard oil (75 ml) and whey are
“SBBU-39” mixed together and orally taken to
relieve abdominal pain. This is remedy
applied to cow and buffalo for the
duration of 3 days.
Cactaceae Opuntia littoralis Zoqam Whole plant 16 Powder is made from whole plant
(Engelm.) Cockerell and applied topically to all domestic
“SBBU-19” animals treat dermal problems, as
anti-inflammatory.
Cannabaceae Cannabis sativa L. Bang Leaves, stem 22 Leaves (½ kg) together with black tea
“SBBU-20” are boiled and then mixed with wheat
flour. This remedy is given to domestic
animals as refrigerant and also given to
the cattle suffering from genital prolapsed.
Celtis australis L. Tagha Bark 8 Plants powder, ghee, and gurr are
“SBBU-25” combined together and given to cattle
twice a day (up to 3 days) for treating
digestive disorders.
Chenopodiaceae Chenopodium album L. Sarmy Whole plant 17 About ½ kg leaves are taken and boiled
“SBBU-35” in mustard oil along with gurr, orally
taken by goat, sheep, cow, buffalo, and
donkey. This remedy is used as
stomachic.
Convolvulaceae Convolvulus arvensis L. Perawaty Whole plant 13 Fresh leaves (1 kg) and gurr are boiled
“SBBU-31” in combination with black tea. This
remedy is given orally (5–10 days) for
milk production.
Cupressaceae Chamaecyparis obtusa Saber Dana Fruit 9 Powder is made from its seeds and
(Siebold & Zucc.) Endl. makes black tea and then utilized to
“SBBU-40” heat the animals. This remedy is used
for buffalos and cows for 3 days.
Cuscutaceae Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. Mecha Whole plant 8 First make a paste of leaves and then
“SBBU-66” combine with wheat flour. This remedy
is then given to goats and sheep
(5–10 days) as antispasmodic.
Euphorbiaceae Ricinus communis L. Aranda Oil 15 Oil of its seed (½ cup) is administered
“SBBU-68” orally for the duration of 1 week. This
remedy is used as laxative and for the
treatment of diarrhea.
Aziz et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2018) 14:11 Page 8 of 18

Table 2 Medicinal uses of local flora for ethnoveterinary uses (Continued)

Family Botanical name “voucher no.” Plant local Parts used URs Medicinal value
name
Fabaceae Acacia modesta Wall. Palusa Bark 11 The decoction obtained from its bark
“SBBU-27” and is combined with butter which is
administered orally to all type of
domestic animals to treat skin
problems and as blood purifier.
Cassia fistula L. Amaltas Fruit 13 Fruit of the plant is subjected to
“SBBU-4” boiling along with milk and
administered orally up to 3 days to all
sort of domestic cattle to relieve fever
and gastric complexities.
Glycyrrhiza glabra L. Khwaga Waly Roots 33 Root (¼ kg) is subjected to paste
“SBBU-26” which is mixed with flour and oil and
then is given to goat, sheep, cow, and
buffalo to increase milk production
and enhance the rate of fertility. The
remedy is used for the duration of
5 to 7 days.
Lotus corniculatus L. FatiKhany Stem and leaves, 19 Stem and leaves are crushed in weight
“SBBU-72” of ¼ kg and orally given to cattle along
with bread or dough for 7 to 10 days as
sexual tonic and for urinary tract
infections (UTI).
Trigonella foenum-graecum L. Malkhoozi Seeds 9 Seeds (150 g) are crushed and given in
“SBBU-11” dough to animals (5–6 days) against
gastric disorders.
Fagaceae Quercus oblongata D. Don Tor batangar Fruit 22 Kernels of this plant are given to animal
“SBBU-7” for the entire cold season to keep the
animals energized. Skeletal problems
and internal infection are also treated by
utilizing the kernels.
Juglandaceae Juglans regia L. Ghuz Leaves 18 Fresh leaves powder (¼ kg) and gurr
“SBBU-55” are thoroughly mixed. This remedy is
orally taken and effective in gastric
disorders.
Lamiaceae Ajuga integrifolia Buch. Ham. Gutee Leaves 16 Decoction is made from the leaves
ex D. Don and then gurr is added. This remedy is
“SBBU-30” given orally to cattle for blood
purification and as vormifuge. The
water is applied topically to treat
skin ailments.
Mentha spicata L Podina Leaves and stem 22 Powder is made and decoction is
“SBBU-58” made and then mixed with gurr and
taken by animals to cure digestive
problems.
Ocimum basilicum L. Kashmaly Leaves seed 11 Plant leaves and seeds are subjected
“SBBU-9” to decoction and used topically for
skin problems.
Salvia moorcroftiana Wall. Kharghwag Leaves 9 Decoction of its leaves is given orally
ex Benth. daily for the treatment of digestive
“SBBU-13” problems.
Malvaceae Gossypium arboreum L. Pomba Kal 11 About ¼ kg of its powder is mixed
“SBBU-43” with gurr and used for 10 to 12 days.
This remedy is administered orally on
daily basis as galactagogue.
Grewia optiva J.R.Drumm. Pastawony Whole plant 6 Dried plant powder is subjected to oil
ex Burret (250 ml), administered orally and
“SBBU-62” topically twice a day for 5 to 7 days
for wound healing process.
Aziz et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2018) 14:11 Page 9 of 18

Table 2 Medicinal uses of local flora for ethnoveterinary uses (Continued)

Family Botanical name “voucher no.” Plant local Parts used URs Medicinal value
name
Meliaceae Melia azedarach L. Tora Bokana Leaves 15 Plant leaves (200 g) are powdered and
“SBBU-54” then combined with sugar. This remedy
is orally given to cattle (2–3 days) against
gastric disorders. Diarrhea is also treated
by mixing the powder with flour cakes
of maize.
Moraceae Ficus carica L. Inzar Fruit and leaves, fruit 16 Fresh leaves (about ½ kg) are fed to
“SBBU-73” animals for digestive ailments and
disturbances. Fruit (¼ kg) is given two
times per day for placental removal.
Streblus asper Lour. Tor tooth Fruit 12 Fruits (2 kg) are crushed by addition
“SBBU-14” of little quantity of water. This remedy
is given orally to livestock for
producing cooling effect.
Myrtaceae Eucalyptus canaldulensis Lachi Leaves 17 Leaves decoction and gurr are
Dehnh. thoroughly mixed and orally given
“SBBU-41” to cattle (6–8 days) against digestive
disorders and as appetizer.
Myrtus communis L. Mano Leaves 18 Powder is made from it, and then, the
“SBBU-23” ground leaves are mixed with whey or
milk to treat digestive tract problems.
Nyctaginaceae Boerhavia erecta L. Insut Whole plant 7 Gurr is mixed with the powder of the
“SBBU-36” plant which is locally known as “Paa”
and is topically applied to skin infections.
Oleaceae Olea europaea L. Zytoon Oil 18 Oil is applied externally and emulsified
“SBBU-46” to inflamed areas and broken bones.
The oil is orally given for general body
improvement.
Paeoniaceae Paeonia emodi Royle Mamekh Fruit and rhizome 18 Powder is made and combined with
“SBBU-69” flour which is used as tonic and for
the treatment of cough in goat and cow.
Papaveraceae Papaver somniferum L. Koknar Latex 8 Latex is dried (10 g) and boiled in
“SBBU-15” black tea, which is an effective
analgesic remedy. Little dried latex
is combined with saliva and placed
on wound for blood clotting.
Pedaliaceae Sesamum indicum L. Konzaly Oil 8 Oil of the plant is combined with
“SBBU-65” whey or milk and then given to
buffalo and cow for vaginal thrush.
Pinaceae Cedrus deodara Nanzra Oil 19 10–15 plant oil drops are water mixed
(Roxb. ex D. Don) G. Don for oral administration to goats, cows,
“SBBU-45” buffaloes, and sheep. This is the best
remedy for the removal of bad smell
of milk. The same recipe is also utilized
for gastric complexities and as cooling
agent. To depress the sexual ability of
the animals, oil in large quantity is
combined with water.
Pinus roxburghii Sarg. Nakhtar Latex 13 Gums are water mixed and given to
“SBBU-53” buffaloes, cows, and sheep against
skin infections/allergies.
Platanaceae Platanus orientalis L. Chinar Bark 14 Bark’s powder, ghee, and milk are
“SBBU-10” mixed together and boiled. This
remedy is orally given to cattle against
gastric infections.
Poaceae Oryza sativa L. Chawal Seed 17 Seeds (1 kg) are water boiled with
“SBBU-28” yoghurt. The remedy is orally given to
cattle (20–25 days) as galactagogue.
Aziz et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2018) 14:11 Page 10 of 18

Table 2 Medicinal uses of local flora for ethnoveterinary uses (Continued)

Family Botanical name “voucher no.” Plant local Parts used URs Medicinal value
name
Triticum aestivum L. Ghanam Seeds 13 Gurr is boiled with flour (¼ kg) and
“SBBU-51” then given to animals to enhance rate
of fertility (10–12 days).
Polygonaceae Rumex hastatus D. Don Tarukay Whole plant 17 Root (1 kg) are taken and mixed with
“SBBU-21” the powder of bark of Quercus incana
and then boiled along with sugar and
flour which is traditionally recommended
for the treatment of UTI, digestive
problems, and wound healing. This
remedy is used for the duration of 10 to
15 days.
Primulaceae Primula denticulata Sm. Mamera Stem 7 Stems’ decoction is topically used
“SBBU-37” against eye infections.
Ranunculaceae Nigella sativa L. Kalonji Seed 16 Decoction is made from its seeds
“SBBU-34” (100 g) and given to cattle and
buffaloes as sexual tonic and general
body tonic.
Rhamnaceae Zizyphus jujuba Mill. Baira Fruit and leaves, 17 Fresh leaves (100 g) decoction is orally
“SBBU-6” given (2–3 days) for the removal
worms. It is also used for gastric
troubles and as diuretic.
Ziziphus oxyphylla Edgew. Elanai Root 15 Decoction (fresh roots) is useful against
“SBBU-8” liver infections in all types of
domesticated animals.
Rosaceae Prunus armeniaca L. Khobanaiy Gum 9 Gums are boiled with ghee and then
“SBBU-2” powdered upon drying. Later on milk
is added for oral administration to cattle
for treating abdominal pain, for flatulence,
and as appetizer.
Rosa moschata Herrm. Gulab Flower 12 Flowers (100 g) are taken in water, and
“SBBU-57” later, sugar milk are mixed into it. This
remedy is orally given to livestock to
produce anti-inflammation and anti-
congestion effect.
Rutaceae Zanthoxylum armatum DC. Dambara Fruit 19 Fruits powder and wheat flour are
“SBBU-29” mixed and are used as antipyretic and
killing mouth germs. Fruits are also
considered as a good tonic for animals.
This plant is also feed to the animals
being suffered due to cold fever “local
name Charmakh.”
Salicaceae Salix tetrasperma Roxb. Wala Bark 16 Bark is crushed and cooked in ghee
“SBBU-47” then mixing it with flour of maize
which is given to all type of cattle to
treat cough and internal body infections.
Simaroubaceae Ailanthus altissima Speena Bokana Leaves 13 The leaves of the plant are used as
(Mill.) Swingle galactagogue.
“SBBU-50”
Solanaceae Nicotiana tabacum L. Tambacoo Leaves 20 Decoction is made from its leaves, and
“SBBU-70” then, it applied externally on animal’s
body and then rubbed for external
parasites. Infusion of its leaves is
drenched via nostrils against leech
infestation in cows.
Solanum virginianum L. Maraghuny Roots, leaves, fruit 43 Various parts of the plant are taken (½ kg),
“SBBU-64” and then, decoction is made by adding
salt and yoghurt. This remedy is orally
given to cattle (15–20 days) against
cough, fever, and pain and for milk
production.
Aziz et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2018) 14:11 Page 11 of 18

Table 2 Medicinal uses of local flora for ethnoveterinary uses (Continued)

Family Botanical name “voucher no.” Plant local Parts used URs Medicinal value
name
Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal Kotilal Leaves 38 Roots and leaves are cooked in ghee
“SBBU-38” with gurr and then the resultant is
given to sheep, cow, and buffalo for
milk production. Also, it is used as
antipyretic and sexual tonic.
Thymelaeaceae Daphne oleoides Schreb. Laighona Leaves and flower 6 Fresh leaves and flowers are taken and
“SBBU-3” are shaded dried for 15 days and
subjected to powder which is then
mixed with gurr and flour and given
to for the expulsion of worms to cattle
and buffalo.
Zingiberaceae Curcuma longa L. Korkaman Rhizome 29 Rhizome is subjected to powder and
“SBBU-1” boiled in ghee. It is orally and topically
used 2 times per days (5–10 days) to
relieve external and internal parasite.
This is also used to treat genital infection
and problems.
Zingiber officinale Roscoe Adrak Root 11 Rhizome (80 g) is grinded and combined
“SBBU-12” with gurr of 500 g. This mixture is then
boiled in 2 l of milk. This remedy is
traditionally considered useful for goats,
cows, and sheep (taken up to 10 days)
against digestive disorders, for flatulence
and as appetizer.
Zygophyllaceae Peganum harmala L. Spalany Seed, whole plant 21 Fresh leaves (about ½ kg) are burned,
“SBBU-49” and then with this smoke, animals are
fumigated to relieve external parasites.
Tribulus terrestris L. Azghakay Leaves 17 Leaves (200 g) of the plant are dried
“SBBU-56” and made powder of it and then mix
with the powder of Foeniculum vulgare
and administered orally to domestic
animals up to 15 days to treat digestive
problems.

The usage mode of ethnoveterinary plant species by one for milk production and used as antipyretic and sexual
ethnic community is different from other communities tonic. Indigenous populations comprising of various cul-
due to difference in traditional knowledge [10, 15]. Previ- tures residing in Lesser Himalayas (Pakistan) use W. som-
ous literature has shown that decoction of the fruit of V. nifera for bovine mastitis [6], while in Ethiopia, this plant
daucoides is used during abdominal pain, which is used to is being used to protect animals from bad evils [50]. The
enhance body temperature in the study area [21, 48]. In plant has carminative effects and is used to remove the
the same way, the F. vulgare is considered as a strong ap- flatulence [25]. Additionally, this plant is used as refriger-
petite and sedative. In other cultures across the globe, F. ant and for abdominal pain, digestion, jaundice, skeleton-
vulgare is used for various livestock problems. For in- muscular ailments, and wound healing against sunstroke
stance, this plant is effective in digestion and diarrhea, [26]; for treating diarrhea [22]; for trypanosomiasis [9];
when mixed with Camellia sinensis, Trachyspermum and for anorexia [50]. Informant reported G. glabra as gal-
ammi, ghee, and sugar [6, 21]. Pneumonia is also being actagogue and enhances the rate of fertility. Mussarat et
treated by giving its seeds to the animals [24], while other al. [22] reported that this plant is culturally used for the
uses include galactagogue and ruminative [49]. Various treatment of cough by the Indigenous communities resid-
parts of S. virginianum are taken for the treatment of ing near the Indus River, Pakistan. However, from the lit-
cough, fever, milk production, and pain. There is scarce erature, no conclusive evidence was found on the reported
literature on the use of S. virginianum as galactagogue, uses of G. glabra in our study. Such evidence-based obser-
which shows the unique use of this plant species in the vations could justify the idea of cultural diversity across
study area and familiarity of local population through the regional level in plant remedies. Previous studies
longtime experiences. Published literature has indicated related to the human’s uses of G. glabra have demon-
that the plant is also used for wound healing process [20] strates its effectiveness in the treatment of sex hormone
fever, cough, and intestinal infections [20]. Roots and imbalances and menopausal symptoms in women [51]. In
leaves of W. somnifera are given to sheep, cow, and buffalo the current investigation, rhizome of C. longa is used as
Aziz et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2018) 14:11 Page 12 of 18

antiparasitic and treating genital infection and problems. side, the residents of Bajaur Agency used the latex against
In other cultures, across the country, the dried rhizome of skin problems. C. album is used for wound healing and
C. longa is mixed with eggs and given for mastitis [22], flatulence at Waziristan while as stomachic at Bajaur
jaundice, and skeleton muscular ailments [26]. Decoction Agency. J. regia is given for the retention of placenta at
of its leaves is mixed sugar, which is used as wound heal- Waziristan while gastric problems in Bajaur. P. harmala is
ing agent [6, 19]. A root of C. longa is used for hoof prob- extensively used for gastrointestinal problems, as antipara-
lems and sore joints [52]. In our study, the mustard oil is sitic, and for skin diseases by Waziristanian communities,
mixed with whey and is taken orally to relieve abdominal while it is used only for the riddance of external parasites
pain. The cultural ethnoveterinary uses from the Lesser in Bajaur. The possible reason for low consensus of the
Himalayas (Pakistan) include that the oil extracted from two regions in ethnoveterinary medicinal plants may be
B. rapa seeds is utilized for stomach disorders, eye infec- due to unique vegetation and distinct socio-cultural values.
tion, and skin diseases [6]. Furthermore, Brassica rapa L. According to a survey, out of 122 plant-derived pure
seeds are used for the retention of fetal membrane, while compounds, 80% (94 plant species) were having the
its oil is effective in treating genital prolepses and sores same potential as indicated in traditional medications
[53]. This plant is also used in placental retention and [54]. As an example, galegine is obtained from Galega
mastitis and as antiparasitic [19]; myiasis, mange, and officinalis L. and is used in the production of metformin
helminthiasis [20]; and flatulence [49]. All these research- and other bisguanidine-type anti-diabetic drugs [55]; khel-
based findings showed that the same medicinal plants are lin, extracted from V. daucoides., led to the development
being used in different parts of the country; however, their of cromolyn in the form of sodium cromoglycate, which is
uses differ from area to area and from culture to culture used as a bronchodilator; and papaverine isolated from
[48]. The ethnoveterinary plants use by one ethnic com- Papaver somniferum forms the baseline for verapamil,
munity is almost different from other communities due to which is generally utilized for hypertension [55]. Survey
several reasons. To make a comprehensive comparative participants did not describe the standardized dosage and
cultural diversity analysis of plant utilization in ethnove- recovery time like other previous ethnoveterinary docu-
terinary practices, we have selected a study conducted by mentations. The main problem highlighted in other stud-
Aziz et al. [48] in the FATA region of Pakistan. In com- ies is the lack of accuracy in such ethnoveterinary
parison, we have found that most widely used medicinal practices, which also push the locals towards modern allo-
plant species in our study are V. daucoides, F. vulgare, S. pathic drugs for livestock health maintenance [20, 56].
virginianum, W. somnifera, G. glabra, and C. longa. While The main reason that veterinarian has always complained
according to Aziz et al. [48], the ethnic communities in is the non-standardized dosage in traditional medicines.
South Waziristan Agency are widely utilizing plant species Though this is an accusation, one ethnomedicine does not
such as B. rapa, Punica granatum, Capparis decidua, mean that they lack efficacy but require standardization,
Mentha longifolia, Withania coagulans, and C. longa, dur- which could benefit the traditional system by minimizing
ing comparative analysis, it was found that only 15 medi- risks and toxicities. According to Kearns [57], ethnoveter-
cinal plants were commonly used in both regions for inary medicines are facing a great intellectual challenge
ethnoveterinary practices, which include Acacia modesta from social theory and postmodernism, and this challenge
Wall, Allium cepa L., Allium sativum L., B. rapa, Calotro- was focused while detecting variations in animal health
pis procera (Aiton) Dryand., Cannabis sativa L., Chenopo- practices, beliefs, and experiences of various social groups.
dium album L. C. longa, F. vulgare, Juglans regia L., Generally, it is not possible for all ethnoveterinary prac-
Nicotiana tabacum L., Peganum harmala L., Quercus tices to be effective and, at the same time, they have cer-
oblongata D. Don, Trachyspermum ammi (L.) Sprague, tain weakness in terms of their efficacy as compared to
and V. daucoides. Certain variations in the utilization of modern medications [58]. Though it is convincing that
these plants and their parts were observed in both areas. most of the traditional veterinary medications have clear
For instance, the bulb of A. cepa is used as galactagogue and sound health effects, many modern allopathic drugs
by Waziristanian communities while in Bajaur, it is used are based on these medicines [59].
to treat digestive problems. A. sativum is utilized for geni- Certain plants in our study were used in single form
tal prolapsed while the same plant is used as sexual tonic for more than one disease. For example, Cedrus deodara
for animals in Bajaur Agency. The seeds of B. rapa are (Roxb. ex D. Don) G. Don is used in a condition, in
widely used as appetizer and tonic and for cough, seasonal which milk obtained from the cattle gives bad smell,
allergies, stomach disorders, and skin infections in South then the oil is given orally to the cattle. It is also used as
Waziristan Agency, while in the other region, it is used a cooling agent and in treating digestive problems. In
only against gastro-intestinal disorders. The Indigenous large quantity, the oil have the potential to depress the
communities at South Waziristan Agency consider the sexual power of male animals [49]. Monteiro et al. [60]
leaves of C. procera useful in joint pain while on the other also reported similar findings from Pakistan and Brazil,
Aziz et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2018) 14:11 Page 13 of 18

respectively, where they described multiple uses of a sin- indicate the highest consent among the local people on
gle medicinal plant. Utilization of certain plant species traditional herbal therapies. Previous research studies
for multiple diseases is a widespread practice in ethnove- conducted in other areas also agreed to high consent of
terinary medications. In contrast, some ethnoveterinary local people on traditional animal therapies. For in-
remedies (polyherbal formulations) are being made by stance, the reported Fic values for dermatological prob-
combing two or more plants and additives such as whey, lems were 0.93, 0.93, and 0.82 [26, 64, 65]; for
ghee, and sugar. This addition is generally followed in reproductive disorders, 1.00 and 0.89 [65, 66]; for gastric
remedies to counteract the astringent taste, dilute, and problems, 0.90, 0.70, 0.92, 0.95, and 0.94 [26, 64–66]; for
reduce the relative potency of the remedy [61]. galactagogue, 0.83 and 0.50 [6, 65]; and for wound heal-
ing, 0.40 and 0.45 [6, 67]. Heinrich et al. [68] has sub-
Ethnoveterinary disease category mitted the idea that high Fic values can be used as a tool
In the study area, a total of 32 plants were reported for to target the plants for the isolation of biologically active
gastrointestinal problems with maximum use reports of components. In our study, most livestock’s ailments were
433 (Table 3), which is regarded as the most common mentioned to be seasonal and epidemic due to change in
disease category in domestic animals being represented fodder. Furthermore, the concept of hot and cold food is
by abdominal pain, diarrhea, and digestive problems. also famous in order to prevent animals from diseases.
These health issues can be easily detected by the respon- The local residents change the relative fodder in differ-
dents and may explain the fact that why the gastric ent seasons in order to minimize the chances of various
problem category is high in ours as well as in others health problems in cattle. As an example, the seeds of
studies. Different ailments were categorized into 10 the Nigella sativa L. and kernels of Q. oblongata are
groups such as dermatological, gastrointestinal, galacta- given to the cattle to energize them during the cold
gogue, reproductive, respiratory disorders, tonic, wound season. Similarly, the fruits of the Streblus asper Lour.
healing fever, and miscellaneous. Those medical condi- produce cooling effects and considered to be a better
tions, which were not fully described by the inter- remedy during hot summer season. In the same manner,
viewees, were placed into the miscellaneous category. local communities tend to give the infusion of Canna-
These include eye problems, weakness, and abnormal bis sativa L to their livestock in the summer season.
conditions related to various organ systems of animal Quinlan [69] and Raziq et al. [9] has also mentioned
bodies. Highest Fic values were recorded for dermato- the concept of hot and cold food in traditional veterin-
logical problems (0.97) followed by reproductive ail- ary medications.
ments (0.93) and gastric disorders (0.92) (Table 3). Fic
value is an indicator of showing the consent of the local Pharmacological evidences
people on a specific plant species and efficacy of a Drugs derived from plants or their extracts have certain
certain taxa [62]. Sharma et al. [63] declared that when therapeutic properties. To replace antibiotics by suitable
Fic becomes 1, it means that the local population is therapeutic agents, plants can play an important role in
exchanging their view, ideas, and information about combating with bacterial pathogens. There are several
traditional medications, while on the other side, if the essential oils, which can be used as alternate of antibi-
Fic value is 0, then it is vice versa. Fic value in the otics. These oils can be easily isolated, having low tox-
current study was recorded in between 0.85 and 0.97 for icity on mammalian cells, and can be easily degraded in
various livestock ailments (Table 3). These findings soil and water [70]. In this section, we will analyze the
pharmacological evidences of the most utilized studied
Table 3 Category wise informant consensus factor (Fic) medicinal plant species in order to check their thera-
(Bajaur Agency) peutic efficacy.
Medical categories Number of species Citations Fic In F. vulgare, phenols, phenolic glycosides, and volatile
Tonic 5 38 0.89 aroma compounds such as transanethole, estragole, and
Dermatological 4 120 0.97
fenchone are reportedly the key phytoconstituents and
responsible for its antioxidant activity. F. vulgare is
Gastrointestinal 32 433 0.92
pharmacologically validated (in vitro and in vivo) in
Galactagogue 8 86 0.91 demonstrating activities such as antibacterial, antifungal,
Reproductive 11 155 0.93 antioxidant, antithrombotic, and hepatoprotective [71].
Miscellaneous 22 201 0.89 By investigation, it was found that the leaf extracts of S.
Respiratory disorders 4 37 0.91 virginianum is more active against Candida albicans,
Fever 5 41 0.90
Salmonella typhi, Staphylococcus aureus, and nematodes
[72, 73]. For various extracts obtained in alcohol and
Wound healing 7 41 0.85
water, it was found that W. somnifera has antibacterial
Aziz et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2018) 14:11 Page 14 of 18

potential, antihypercholesterolemic activities as well as dermatological, reproductive, and gastric problems. The
diuretic potential [72, 74]. dominance of these diseases not only poses threats to the
It has been reported that alcoholic and aqueous ex- domestic animals but also increases the chances of zoo-
tracts of C. longa have shown antibacterial activity [74] noses. Local population uses various animal products;
while its ethanol, petroleum, water, and chloroform ex- hence, there are maximum chances of the migration of in-
tracts are effective against certain strains of viruses, bac- fectious diseases from these animals to humans. Linkage
teria, and fungi and also have shown anti-inflammatory of the ethnoveterinary studies with the researches of other
effects [75]. Researchers have claimed that plant-derived disciplines may form an interdisciplinary approach to
medicines used in traditional systems across the globe combat several types of health issues in both animals and
can be used as an indicator to consider them more plants. This approach mainly led to the concept of one
effective than modern drugs [6]. Livestock keepers are health, which contributes towards understanding the com-
using several plant-derived remedies for various acute as plexities in health problems of living beings [81]. A recent
well as chronic disorders of cattle. Plant-derived medi- surge in emerging infectious diseases and their putative
cines have been used by physicians for hundreds of years associated costs to society have reignited interest in the
in traditional systems, and most of the world population drive of disease emergence. A number of pathogens have
rely on these products for health care systems [76]. emerged in the last 20 years, including the severe acute
There are several thousand plants across the globe being respiratory syndrome virus, Hendra virus, and Nipah
utilized for various therapeutic purposes both animals virus. However, there is a growing concern about the
and humans [49]. Out of these medicinal plants, very H5N1 influenza virus, which fuelled much of the recent
low proportion has been investigated and proved scien- debate around emerging infectious diseases (EIDs) [82].
tifically for their Indigenous uses [77]. The essential oils One of the benefits that accrued from the attention on
in medicinal plants are having strong antimicrobial po- EIDs has been an increased recognition across a range of
tential. As an example, essential oils of cinnamon, disciplines that the health of animals (including humans)
thyme, and oregano are therapeutically effective [78]. and the health of the broader ecosystem are inextricably
Antibiotic resistance is an emerging global concern re- linked, which certainly given momentum to One Health
lated to veterinary and human medications [79]. Hence, it movement. One Health is not all about EIDs, but it also
is necessary to search for new compounds to combat anti- covers important issues of food security and food safety
biotic resistant bacteria. Improper therapeutic utilization of [83]. There is a strong consensus that the climate is chan-
antimicrobial medicines in fishery, poultry, agriculture, and ging now and that human activities are the primary cause
animal farming facilitates the emergence and production of [84]. However, it is clear that climate change will alter the
drug resistant strains. Additionally, poor prevention and distribution and incidence of a wide range of diseases
control of unhygienic practices contribute in resistance either directly or indirectly (e.g., diseases with a develop-
emergence. The World Health Organization, Food and ment stage outside the host) [85, 86]. The pathways by
Agriculture Organization, and World Organization for which climate change can affect host pathogen vector
Animal Health are stressing to promote best practices to interactions have recently been well described by Gallana
avoid the emergence and spread of antibacterial resistance. et al et al. [86].
Continuous attempts are in progress to promote the One Health Initiative Task Force (OHITF) [87] de-
moderate use of antibiotics in human as well as in animals fines one health as “the promotion, improvement, and
to tackle the problem of antimicrobial drug resistance [80]. defense for the health and well being of all species by
In general, plants should be used as an alternative to syn- enhancing cooperation and collaboration between
thetic drugs and investigated for their therapeutic efficacy. physicians, veterinarians, and other scientific health
Certain plants in our study including Boerhavia erecta L., professionals and by promoting strengths in leadership
Celtis australis L., Chamaecyparis obtusa (Siebold & Zucc.) and management to achieve these goals”. The one
Endl., Eryngium biehersteinianum (M. Bieb.), Gossypium health approach plays a significant role in the preven-
arboreum L., H. candicans Wall. ex DC., Narcissus tazetta tion and control of zoonoses. Approximately 75% of
L., Opuntia littoralis (Engelm.) Cockerell, and S. asper need new emerging human infectious diseases are defined
comprehensive phytochemical, pharmacological, and toxi- as zoonotic [79, 88]. Of the 1461 infectious diseases,
cological investigations. approximately 60% are caused by multi-host patho-
gens, characterized by their movement across various
Current study, one health concept, and changing species [89]. This gives significant credence to the
environment importance of examining health effects across species,
Current study reports that there are several ailments in order to fully understand the public health and eco-
being treated with medicinal plants by the Indigenous nomic impact of such diseases and to help implement
populations. Most prevalent disease categories were treatment and preventive programs.
Aziz et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2018) 14:11 Page 15 of 18

The application of one health approach has been rec- management steps should be taken with the active par-
ognized as a critical need by international organizations ticipation from the Indigenous communities to conserve
as well as the preferred approach to address global this precious flora. It is also important to aware the local
health issues. It is also noted that knowledge in veterin- people about the market value and sustainable harvesting
ary medicine and animal nutrition and husbandry could of medicinal plants. Rapid modernization and urbanization
provide insights into human nutrition and growth. is not only a threat for plant species’ degradation but also a
threat for the associated folk knowledge. That is why that
Biodiversity concerns the disappearance of folk knowledge has been declared
It is a widespread phenomenon that natural resources more in danger than the natural resources themselves [94].
including plants are always prone to threats in their nat- Therefore, we present a strong recommendation that
ural habitat due to rapid human intervention and ethnobotany as a subject should be included into the cur-
destructions of natural resources. The collection process riculum to help students in recognizing the endangered
of medicinal plants for ethnic practices and other an- and medicinally important species of their respective
thropogenic practices is not only destructing the Indi- regions. In addition, incentives may be given to farmers for
genous flora but also posing a threat to the traditional the cultivation of medicinal plants on marginal lands and
knowledge. UNESCO has emphasized on the documen- home gardens.
tation and preservation of traditional knowledge in
South Asia generally and Pakistan and India particularly. Conclusions
However, efforts are going on but they are not sufficient Indigenous communities at Bajaur Agency are dependent
for the conservation of traditional knowledge persistent on medicinal plants for ethnoveterinary practices. Know-
since several centuries, which can lead to valuable dis- ledge about the traditional medicinal system is restricted
coveries in modern healthcare system. The local percep- to the herders, farmers, and elder community members.
tion of Indigenous communities regarding the threats The younger generation is unaware of this traditional
being faced to the ecological resources especially the treasure and takes no interest due to modernization.
medicinal plants was examined in the current study. The Hence, this study is an attempt towards the preservation
lack of awareness has been observed as a major threat to of traditional ethnoveterinary knowledge from being ex-
the conservation of plant resources. It was also observed tinct. There are several medicinal plants, which are being
that different factors including time of collection, pro- used in traditional herbal system of veterinary disorders.
cessing, storage, and herbal preparations are important Some of the important are V. daucoides, F. vulgare, S. vir-
and necessary steps to be considered for both economic ginianum, W. somnifera, G. glabra, and C. longa. New
returns and conservation. Mainly, the local healers are ethnoveterinary uses used at the study area were found for
involved in the collection of medicinal plants. A study in H. candicans and G. glabra. Apiaceae is utmost plant fam-
the Swat region of Pakistan has shown that higher eco- ily being in use for various livestock ailments. Thorough
nomic outcomes can be obtained from proper harvesting phytochemical and pharmacological investigations are re-
of wild medicinal plants as compared to the standard quired by isolating the active compounds and testing the
cash crop [90]. Other studies are supporting our results in vitro or in vivo efficacy of the abovementioned plants
by showing an enormous potential in improving the har- against the targeted veterinary diseases. Furthermore, crit-
vesting, storage, use, preparation, and marketing of the ical toxicological investigations are also required to ensure
herbal product as a source of income [91]. In the remote the safe and secure use of documented ethnomedicines. In
areas of the study region, local inhabitants obtained sig- order to share and further maintain this knowledge, it is
nificant economic advantages from forest products. Simi- direly needed to aware the rural population about the
lar advantages have been reported for other mountainous significance of traditional ethnoveterinary knowledge and
communities in the northern parts of Pakistan [26]. to motivate them on the conservation of natural flora.
There are certain other threats to the medicinal plant
resources of the study area, which include deforestation, Abbreviations
heavy grazing pressure, uncontrolled collection of fod- EIDs: Emerging infectious diseases; FATA: Federally administrated tribal areas;
Fic: Informant consensus factor; GDP: Gross domestic product; OHITF: One
der, and other non-timber forest products by the local Health Initiative Task Force; UNESCO: United Nations Educational, Scientific
people and traders. Several studies have reported a and Cultural Organization; URs: Use reports
decrease in the number of medicinal plants due to over
exploitation and environmental degradation [92, 93]. It Acknowledgements
is therefore a dire need to manage and design the overall The authors extend their high appreciation and acknowledgment towards
the local communities by providing moral support to the authors.
grazing system to encourage the sustainable regeneration
and protection of medicinal plants. Keeping the observa- Funding
tion and findings of the current investigation, proper This research study did not receive any grant from any organization.
Aziz et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2018) 14:11 Page 16 of 18

Availability of data and materials 17. Maiti S, Chakravarty P, Garai S, Bandyopadhyay S, Chouhan VS. Ethno-veterinary
Data gathered during the course of the study has been included in the article. practices for ephemeral fever of Yak. A participatory assessment by the Monpa
tribe of Arunachal Pradesh. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2013;12:36–9.
Authors’ contributions 18. Selvaraju A, Ayyanar M, Rathinakumar SS, Sekar T. Plants used in
AHK and HU conducted the field work. MAA wrote the draft manuscript. ethnoveterinary medicine by malayalitribals in Salem district of Tamil Nadu,
AHK and HU helped in the compilation of data. MA gave technical India. Medicinal Plants. 2011;3:209–15.
comments on the draft and indicated the language and grammatical 19. Tariq A, Mussarat S, Adnan M, Naser M, AbdElsalam Ullah R, Khan AL.
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approved the manuscript. Range. Scientific World J. 2014:Article ID 127526. 10 pages https://doi.
org/10.1155/2014/127526.
Ethics approval and consent to participate 20. Farooq Z, Iqbal Z, Mushtaq S, Muhammad G, Iqbal MZ, Arshad M. Ethno
Not applicable veterinary practices for the treatment of parasitic diseases in livestock in
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Consent for publication 21. Ul Hassan H, Murad W, Tariq A, Ahmad A. Ethnoveterinary study of
Not applicable medicinal plants in Malakand Valley, District Dir (Lower), Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. Ir Vet J. 2014;67:6.
Competing interests 22. Mussarat S, Amber R, Tariq A, Adnan M, AbdElsalam NM, Ullah R, Bibi R.
The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Ethnopharmacological assessment of medicinal plants used against
livestock infections by the people living around Indus river. Biomed Res Int.
2014;2014:1–14.
Publisher’s Note 23. Khan MA, Khan MA, Hussain H. Ethnoveterinary medicinal uses of plants of
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in
Poonch valley Azad Kashmir. Pak J Weed Sci Res. 2012;18:495–507.
published maps and institutional affiliations.
24. Sindhu ZUD, Iqbal Z, Khan MN, Jonsson NN, Siddique M. Documentation of
ethnoveterinary practices used for treatment of different ailments in a
Author details
1 selected hilly area of Pakistan. Int J Agri Bio. 2010;12:353–8.
Department of Botany, Kohat University of Science and Technology, Kohat
25. Khattak NS, Nouroz F, Rahman NU, Noreen S. Ethno veterinary uses of
26000, Pakistan. 2Department of Botany, Shaheed Benazir Bhuto University
medicinal plants of district Karak, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;171:273–9.
Sheringal, District Dir (Upper) 18000, Pakistan. 3Department of Zoology,
Abdul Wali Khan University, Mardan 23200, Pakistan. 26. Ahmad K, Ahmad M, Weckerle C. Ethnoveterinary medicinal plant
knowledge and practice among the tribal communities of Thakht-e-
Received: 16 July 2017 Accepted: 16 January 2018 Sulaiman Hills, West Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;170:275–83.
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