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MANUFACTURE OF UREA
A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT
OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF

Bachelor of technology
in
Chemical Engineering

By

KUMAR BHASKAR & PRATAP CHANDRA DAS

Department of Chemical Engineering

National Institute of Technology

Rourkela

2007
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MANUFACTURE OF UREA
A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT
OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF

Bachelor of technology
in
Chemical Engineering

By

KUMAR BHASKAR & PRATAP CHANDRA DAS

Under the Guidance of

Prof. S K Agarwal

Department of Chemical Engineering

National Institute of Technology

Rourkela

2007
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National Institute of Technology

Rourkela

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the thesis entitled, “MANUFACTURE OF UREA” submitted by Sri
KUMAR BHASKAR & PRATAP CHANDRA DAS in partial fulfillments for the
requirements for the award of Bachelor of Technology Degree in Chemical Engineering
at National Institute of Technology, Rourkela (Deemed University) is an authentic work
carried out by them under my supervision and guidance.
To the best of my knowledge, the matter embodied in the thesis has not been
submitted to any other University / Institute for the award of any Degree or Diploma.

Date: Prof S K AGARWAL

Department of Chemical Engg.
NIT,Rourkela
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We wish to express our deep sense of gratitude and indebtedness to Prof. S K

Agarwal, Department of Chemical Engineering, N.I.T Rourkela for introducing the
present topic and for his inspiring guidance, constructive criticism and valuable
suggestion throughout this project work.
We would like to express our gratitude to Prof P Rath (Head of the Department)
& Prof R K Singh for his constant support and encouragement. We are also thankful to
all staff members of Department of Chemical Engineering NIT Rourkela.

3rd May 2007 Kumar Bhaskar

Roll: 10300029
Pratap Chandra Das
Roll: 10300028
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CONTENTS

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE No.

Abstract
1 Introduction
1.1 Manufacture of urea 1
1.2 Properties of urea 2
1.3 Uses of urea 2
1.4 Process technology 3
1.5 Process in general 3
1.6 Major engineering problems 7

2 Various methods of manufacture of urea

2.1 Various processes for the manufacture of urea 9
2.2 Selection of the process 17

3 Selected process :Snamprogetti ammonia stripping

process
3.1 Manufacturing process 21
3.2 Effect of various parameters 22
3.3 Snamprogetti stripping process 23
3.4 Process description 24

4 Material balance
4.1 Around reactor 33
4.2 Around stripper 34
4.3 Around medium pressure separator 35
4.4 Around low pressure separator 36
4.5 Around Vacuum evaporator 37
4.6 Around Prilling tower 38

5 Energy balance
5.1 Around reactor 41
5.2 Around stripper 43
5.3 Around carbamate condenser 45
5.4 Around medium pressure separator 46
5.5 Around low pressure separator 48
5.6 Around vacuum evaporator 50
5.7 Around prilling tower 52
6 Equipment design
6.1 Reactor design 55
6.1.1 Thickness of shell 59
6.1.2 Head design 60
6.1.3 Diameter of pipes 61
6.1.4 Skirt support for reactor 62
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6.2 Evaporator design 64

6.2.1 Design 68
6.2.2 Wall thickness calculation 68
6.2.3 Separator 71
6.2.4 Bottom head design 72

Result & discussion 75

References 76
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ABSTRACT

Urea is in many ways the most convenient form for fixed nitrogen. It has the highest
nitrogen content available in a solid fertilizer (46 %).It is easy to produce as prills or
granules and easily transported in bulk or bags with no explosive hazard. It leaves no salt
residue after use on crops. Its specific gravity is 1.335, decomposes on boiling and is
fairly soluble in water.
The principal raw materials required for this purpose are NH3 & CO2.Two reactions are
involved in the manufacture of urea. First, ammonium carbamate is formed under
pressure by reaction between CO2 & NH3.

CO2 + 2NH3 → NH2COONH4 ∆H= -37.4 Kcal

This highly exothermic reaction is followed by an endothermic decomposition of the

ammonium carbamate.

NH2COONH4 ↔ NH2CONH2 + H2O ∆H= + 6.3 Kcal

Various processes for the manufacture of urea are:

1) Snamprogetti ammonia stripping process
2) Stamicarbon CO2 stripping process
3) Once through urea process
4) Mitsui Toatsu total recycle urea process

We selected the Snamprogetti ammonia stripping process for the manufacture of urea.
In this process ammonia & CO2 are compressed & fed to the reactor. The unconverted
carbamate is stripped and recovered from the urea synthesis reactor effluent solution at
reactor pressure, condensed to an aqueous solution in a steam producing high pressure
condenser & recycled back to the reactor by gravity. Part of the liquid NH3 reactor feed,
vapourized in a steam heated exchanger, is used as inert gas to decompose & strip
ammonium carbamate in the steam heated high pressure stripper.
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Energy balance & material balance of the plant is done. The selected capacity of the
plant is 4,50,000 tons/year of urea producing 62,500 kg/hr of urea with 98 % purity. Urea
reactor & vacuum evaporator are designed. The volume of reactor is calculated & found
to be 195 m3. The length & diameter of the reactor are 40 m & 2.5 m respectively. The
evaporator used is of climbing-film long- tube type.

Snamprogetti ammonia-stripping urea process is selected because it involves a high NH3

to CO2 ratio in the reactor, ensuring the high conversion of carbamate to urea . The highly
efficient ammonia stripping operation drastically reduces the recycling of carbamate and
the size of equipment in the carbamate decomposition . Snamprogetti technology differs
from competitors in being based on the use of excess ammonia to avoid corrosion as well
as promote the decomposition of unconverted carbamate into urea.

Uses of Urea:
• About 56 % of Urea manufactured is used in solid fertilizer.
• About 31 % of Urea manufactured is used in liquid fertilizer.
• Urea-formaldehyde resins have large use as a plywood adhesive.
• Melamine-formaldehyde resins are used as dinnerware & for making extra hard
surfaces.
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Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION
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1.1 MANUFACTURE OF UREA [1]

Urea is an important nitrogenous fertilizer. Its utilization is increasing steadily, it being

the preferred nitrogen fertilizer worldwide. It is used in solid fertilizer, liquid fertilizer,
formaldehyde resins and adhesives.
Rouelle first discovered urea in urine in 1773. His discovery was followed by the
synthesis of urea from ammonia and cyanic acid by Woehler in 1828. This is considered
to be the first synthesis of an organic compound from an inorganic compound. In 1870,
Bassarow produced urea by heating ammonium carbamate in a sealed tube in what was
the first synthesis of urea by dehydration.The chemical formula of, NH2CONH2, indicates
that urea can be considered to be the amide of carbamic acid NH2COOH, or the diamide
of carbonic acid CO(OH)2.
Fertilizer is generally defined as “ any material, organic or inorganic, natural or synthetic,
which supplies one or more of the chemical elements required for the plant growth”. The
main aim of the fertilizer industry is to provide the primary and secondary nutrients
which are required in macro quantities. Primary nutrients are normally supplied through
chemical fertilizers. They are chemical compounds containing one or more of the primary
nutrients and are generally produced by chemical reactions. Whatever may be the
chemical compounds, its most important ingredient for plant growth is the nutrient
content. The primary nutrients are Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium. However, their
concentration in a chemical fertilizer is expressed as a percentage of total nitrogen (N),
available phosphate (P2O5) and soluble K2O. The grade of a fertilizer is expressed as a set
of three numbers in the order of percent N, P2O5 and K2O. If a nutrient is missing in a
fertilizer, it is represented by a zero. Thus ammonium sulphate is represented by 20.6-0-
0.
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1.2 PROPERTIES OF UREA :

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF UREA
Urea is a white, odorless, hygroscopic solid. It is non-corrosive.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF UREA
Molecular weight 60.05
Relative humidity 60 %
Maximum Nitrogen content 46.6 %
Specific gravity 1.335
Heat of fusion 60 Cal/gm (endothermic)
Heat of solution, in water 58 Cal/gm (endothermic)
Bulk density 0.74 gm/cc

Table-1.1 SPECIFIC HEAT OF UREA

Temperature, oC Specific heat, Kj/kg oC
0 1.398
50 1.66
100 1.89
150 2.11

1.3 USES OF UREA

• About 56 % of Urea manufactured is used in solid fertilizer.
• About 31 % of Urea manufactured is used in liquid fertilizer.
• Urea-formaldehyde resins have large use as a plywood adhesive.
• Melamine-formaldehyde resins are used as dinnerware & for making extra hard
surfaces.
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1.4 PROCESS TECHNOLOGY

Although there are several processes currently used for the manufacture of urea, the
underlying principle for all the processes is same. The two main reactions involved are:

1) CO2 + 2NH3 ↔ NH2COONH4 ∆H= -37.4 Kcal/gm mol

2) NH2COONH4 ↔ NH2CONH2 + H2O ∆H= + 6.3 Kcal/gm mol
Undesirable side reaction taking place is:
3) 2NH2CONH2 ↔ NH2CONHCONH2 + NH3
(Biuret)
Both 1st & 2nd reactions are equilibrium reactions. The 1st reaction almost goes to
completion at 185-190 oC & 180-200 atms. The 2nd reaction (decomposition reaction) is
slow and determines the rate of the reaction. Unconverted CO2 & NH3, along with
undecomposed carbamate, must be recovered and re-used. This is a troublesome step.
The synthesis is further complicated by the formation of a dimer called biuret,
NH2CONHCONH2, which must be kept low because it adversely affects the growth of
some plants.
1.5 PROCESS IN GENERAL. [2]
Ammonia & CO2 are compressed separately and fed to the high pressure (180 atms)
autoclave as shown in fig-1.1 which must be water cooled due to the highly exothermic
nature of the reaction. A mixture of urea, ammonium carbamate, H2O and unreacted (
NH3+CO2) is produced.
This liquid effluent is let down to 27 atms and fed to a special flash-evaporator
containing a gas-liquid separator and condenser. Unreacted NH3, CO2 & H2O are thus
removed & recycled. An aqueous solution of carbamate-urea is passed to the atmospheric
flash drum where further decomposition of carbamate takes place. The off gases from this
step can either be recycled or sent to NH3 processes for making chemical fertilizer.
The 80 % aqueous urea solution can be used as it is, or sent to a vacuum evaporator to
obtain molten urea containing less than 1 % water. The molten mass is then sprayed into
a prilling tower. To avoid formation of biuret and keep it less than 1 %, the temperature
must be kept just above the melting point for processing times of 1-2 seconds in this
phase of the operation.
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THE VARIABLES THAT AFFECT THE AUTOCLAVE REACTIONS ARE [2]:

1) Temperature [Fig-1.2]:
Process temperature (185 oC) favours equilibrium yield at a given pressure (180
atm). The conversion of ammonium carbamate to urea gradually increases as the
temperature increases. However, after a particular temperature, depending upon
the pressure, the conversion suddenly drops with further increase in temperature.
The pressure corresponding to this temperature which is usually in the range of
175-185oC, is known as the decomposition pressure which is about 180 atm.
2) Pressure [Fig-1.3]:
The main reaction is sufficiently slow at atmospheric pressure. However, it starts
almost instantaneously at pressure of the order of 100 atm and temperature of 150
o
C. There is reduction in volume in the overall reaction and so high pressure
favors the forward reaction. This pressure is selected according to the temperature
to be maintained & NH3:CO2 ratio.
3) Concentration:
Higher the concentration of the reactants, higher will be the forward reaction
according to the law of mass action. CO2 being the limitimg reagent higher
NH3:CO2 ratio favors conversion. Since, dehydration of carbamate results in urea
production, lesser H2O:CO2 ratio favors conversion. Water intake to the reactor
should therefore be minimum.
4) Residence time:
Since, urea reaction is slow and takes about 20 mins to attain equilibrium,
sufficient time is to be provided to get higher conversion. Reactor is designed to
accommodate this with respect to the other parameters of temperature, pressure
and concentration.
5) Biuret formation:
A problem faced during manufacture of urea is the formation of biuret during the
production of urea. It is not a desirable substance because it adversely affects the growth
of some plants. Its content in urea should not be more than 1.5 % by weight.
2NH2CONH2 ↔ NH2CONHCONH2 + NH3
(Biuret)
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Fig 1.1 Percentage conversion Vs temperature graph for the yield of urea
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Fig 1.2 Percentage conversion Vs pressure graph for the yield of urea
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Although the production of urea is high at high pressure and high temperature, the
reaction is not operated at maximum temperature and pressure because:
1) Increased pressure increases capital & operating costs of compression and
reaction equipment.
2) Increased temperature accelerates decomposition of urea to biuret, a compound
that adversely affects the growth of some plants.
3) The above stipulated conditions produce intolerable corrosion rates, and a
compromise design must be chosen.

1.6 MAJOR ENGINEERING PROBLEMS

1) Carbamate decomposition and recycle:
There are many processes that can be used for the manufacture of urea. Main
difference in competing processes is in the recycle design. Since, conversion is
only 40-50 % per pass, the unreacted off gases must be recirculated or used
economically elsewhere. Recompression of off gases is virtually impossible
because of corrosion and formation of solid carbamate in compressors.
2) Production of granular urea:
Biuret formation is another problem. Vacuum evaporation of urea from 80% to
about 99% ,spraying to air cool and solidification must be done just above the
melting point of urea and with a minimum residence time in the range of several
seconds.
3) Heat dissipation in the autoclave:
The exothermic heat of reaction can be removed by coils or wall cooling.
4) Corrosion:
This has been the major reason why the NH3-CO2 process was slow to develop.
High cost silver or tantalum liners are used in the autoclaves with hastealloy C,
titanium, stainless steel (321 SS), and aluminium alloys used in other parts of the
plant. Minimum pressure and temperature conditions with excess NH3 are
desirable to reduce the severe corrosion rates. Under these conditions, stainless
steel can be used in the autoclave.
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Chapter 2

Various methods of manufacture

of urea along with flow sheets.
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2.1 VARIOUS PROCESSES FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF

UREA [3]
The urea synthesis reactor always contains unreacted carbamate & more or less excess
ammonia, depending upon the composition of the feeds. This poses the practical problem
of separating the unreacted material from the urea solution & of reutilizing this unreacted
material. Depending upon the method of reutilization of the unreacted material, the
commercial urea synthesis processes are divided into the following main categories:
1) Once-through urea process:
The unconverted carbamate is decomposed to NH3 & CO2 gas by heating the
urea synthesis reactor effluent mixture at low pressure. The NH3 & CO2 gas is
separated from the urea solution and utilized to produce ammonium salts by
absorbing NH3, either in sulfuric or nitric acid.
Once through urea process [Fig-2.1]:
In this process liquid NH3 is pumped through a high pressure plunger pump
and gaseous CO2 is compressed through a compressor up to the urea synthesis
reactor pressure at an NH3 to CO2 feed mole ratio of 2/1 or 3/1. The reactor
usually operates in a temperature range from 175 to 190 oC. The reactor effluent
is let down in pressure to about 2 atm and the carbamate decomposed and stripped
from the urea-product solution in a steam heated shell & tube heat exchanger. The
moist gas, separated from the 85-90 % urea product solution, & containing about
0.6 tons of gaseous NH3 per ton of urea produced is usually sent to an adjacent
ammonium nitrate or ammonium sulfate producing plant for recovery. An average
conversion of carbamate to urea of about 60 % is attained. Excess heat is removed
from the reactor by means of a low-pressure steam-producing coil in an amount of
about 280,000 cal/Kg urea produced.
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Fig 2.1 Once through urea process

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2) Solution recycle urea process:

The NH3 & CO2 gas recovered from the reactor effluent mixture either in one or
in several pressure staged decomposition sections is absorbed in water and
recycled back to the reactor in the form of an ammoniacal aqueous solution of
ammonium carbamate.
3) Internal carbamate recycle urea process:
The unreacted carbamate & the excess ammonia are stripped from the urea
synthesis reactor effluent by means of gaseous hot CO2 or NH3 at the reactor
pressure, instead of letting the reactor effluent down to a much lower pressure.
The NH3 & CO2 gas, thus recovered at reactor pressure, is condensed and
returned to the reactor by gravity flow for recovery.
a) Snam Progetti (Italy) [Fig-2.2]
This process is based on the principle of the internal carbamate recycle
technique and is commonly called the Snam NH3 stripping process. The basic
difference between the Snam process & the conventional carbamate solution
recycle urea processes is the fact that in this case the unconverted carbamate is
stripped and recovered from the urea synthesis reactor effluent solution at reactor
pressure, condensed to an aqueous solution in a steam producing high pressure
condenser, & recycle back to the reactor by gravity. Part of the liquid NH3 reactor
feed, vaporized in a steam heated exchanger, is used as inert gas to decompose &
strip ammonium carbamate in the steam heated high pressure stripper.
o
The reactor operates at about 130 atm & 180-190 C. The stripper operates at
about 130 atm & 190 o C. The stripper off-gas is condensed in a vertical shell &
tube condenser, operating at about 130 atm & 148-160 o C. Low pressure steam is
produced in the high pressure carbamate condenser. The urea product solution,
leaving the stripper & still containing 2-3 % of residual unreacted carbamate, is
further degassed in a low pressure decomposition-absorption system. The
recovered ammoniacal solution of ammonium carbamate is pumped back to the
reactor.
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Fig 2.2 Snamprogetti process

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b) Stamicarbon (Holland) [Fig-2.3]

The novelty of the CO2 stripping process consists of the fact that the
reactor effluent is not let down to a lower pressure as in the conventional liquid
recycle urea process, but is stripped at synthesis pressure by the gaseous CO2
reactor feed stream in a steam heated vertical heat exchanger.
The high pressure stripper operates at about 140 atm & 190 o C. The stripped urea
solution still contains about 15 % of the unconverted carbamate, & it is let down
to about 3 atm for further degassing in the steam heated low pressure decomposer
at about 120 o C. The off gas recovered is condensed with cooling water in the low
pressure condenser, operating at about 65 o C & 3 atm. The solution thus obtained
is pumped to the high pressure condenser by means of high pressure carbamate
pump. The off gas recovered from the high pressure stripper is condensed in the
high pressure condenser, which operates at about 170 o C & 140 atm. The heat of
condensation is removed on the shell side of the condenser by vaporizing the
equivalent amount of condensate. The 3.4 atm steam thus produced can be reused
in another section of the plant.
The mixture of gas & liquid issuing from the high pressure condenser is fed to the
reactor for total CO2 condensation to carbamate & subsequent conversion to urea.
The inerts are vented from the reactor through a water cooled vent condenser. The
reactor effluent, at about 185 o C & 140 atm, is fed to the high pressure stripper as
described above.
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Fig 2.3 Stamicarbon process

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c) Mitsui Toatsu or Toyo Koatsu process (Japan) [Fig-2.4]

This total recycle urea process is a conventional carbamate solution recycle
process with three pressure-staged carbamate decomposition & recovery systems.
The reactor is operated at about 195 o C, 240 atm, & with a NH3 to CO2 molar
ratio of about 4.3. About 67 % of the total ammonium carbamate present in the
reactor is converted to urea.
The unconverted carabamate is decomposed and stripped from the urea solution
together with excess NH3 in a series of three pressure-stage decomposers,
operating respectively at about 18 atm & 150 oC, 3.06 atm & 130 oC, &
atmospheric pressure & 120 o C. The main feature of the Mitsui Toatsu process is
the fact that the gaseous phase in each decomposition stage is contacted in counter
current flow with the urea product solution issuing from the preceding
decomposition stage. Either a packed section or a sieve tray section is used for
this purpose. The effect is that the NH3 & CO2 gaseous mixture obtained from the
decomposition of carbamate is considerably reduced in vapor content. Thus the
amount of water recycled to the reactor is maintained at a relatively low level and
a relatively high conversion in the reactor is attained. The off-gas from each
decomposition stage is condensed to solution in its respective water cooled
condenser and the solution thus obtained is pumped to the next high pressure
staged condenser.
Excess NH3 is separated from the aqueous solution of carbamate & scrubbed from
the last traces of CO2 in counter current flow with reflux liquid, NH3, fed to the
top of the high pressure absorber. The pure excess NH3 thus obtained is
condensed to liquid with cooling water & recycled to the reactor. The carbamate
solution is recycled back to the reactor for total recovery.
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Fig 2.4 Mitsui toatsu total recycle urea process

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2.2 SELECTION OF THE PROCESS [Fig 2.5]

Snamprogetti ammonia-stripping urea process is selected because it involves a high NH3
to CO2 ratio in the reactor, ensuring the high conversion of carbamate to urea . The highly
efficient ammonia stripping operation drastically reduces the recycling of carbamate and
the size of equipment in the carbamate decomposition . Snamprogetti technology differs
from competitors in being based on the use of excess ammonia to avoid corrosion as well
as promote the decomposition of unconverted carbamate into urea.
Formation of urea from ammonia & carbon di oxide takes place through reversible
reactions with formation of ammonium Carbamate as intermediate product . Now,
success of any urea mfg process depends on how economically we can recycle carbamate
to the reactor. Snamprogetti process of urea mnufacturing accomplishes the above task by
stripping process.

NH2COONH4 (s) ===== 2NH3 (g) + CO2 (g) ∆ H = + 37.4 Kcal/gm-mole

This reaction involves increase in volume & absorption of heat . Thus this reaction will
be favored by decrease in pressure & increase in temp . Moreover decreasing the partial
pressure of either of the products will also favor the forward reaction . Process based on
first principle of decrease in pressure & decrease in temp is called conventional process ,
whereas process based on increase/decrease of partial pressures of NH3 or CO2 is called
stripping process. According to above equation we have :
K = (pNH3)2*(pCO2) [where, K =equilibrium constant]
The stripping is effected at synthesis pressure itself using CO2 or NH3 as stripping agent .
If CO2 is selected , it is to be supplied to the decomposers/stripper as in Stamicarbon CO2
stripping process. While if NH3 is selected , it is to be obtained from the system itself
because excess NH3 is present in the reactor as in Snam’s process. CO2 stripping is
advantageous because introducing CO2 increases pCO2. So pNH3 will be reduced to
maintain P constant as P = pCO2 + pNH3.
At a particular temp K is constant so when pNH3 is reduced to keep K constant ,
carbamate will be reduced much faster by decomposition as pNH3 appears in the
equilibrium equation with a power of two. Selection of 1st stage decomposition should be
in such a way that min water evaporates because the recovered gases go alongwith the
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carbamate to reactor again & if water enters reactor production will be affected adversely
due to hydrolysis of urea . So , stagewise decomposition of carbamate is done . Second
consideration in favor of isobaric stripping is that higher carbamate recycle pressure
results in condensation at higher temp & that recovery in the form of low pressure steam.
This is why stagewise reduction in pressure is pactised
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Fig 2.5 Snamprogetti process for manufacture of urea

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Chapter 3

Selected process : Snamprogetti

ammonia stripping process
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SNAMPROGETTI AMMONIA STRIPPING PROCESS

3.1 MANUFACTURING PROCESS [4]

In the reactor, when liquid ammonia reacts with compressed CO2 ( at 162 ata) at high
temperature & pressure gives urea according to the following reactions:

2NH3 + CO2 ======= NH2COONH4 exothermic

NH2COONH4 ======= NH2CONH2 + H2O endothermic

As the reactions are reversible in nature only partial conversion occurs in the reactor.
Urea solution consisting of Urea ,Carbamate,Water & unconverted CO2 & NH3 are fed
into the stripper where stripping action of NH3 favours decomposition of carbamate,and
hence 80% of carbamate is decomposed here. Pressure in the stripper is same as that of
the reactor.
Urea solution from the stripper is sent to Medium pressure decomposer where Urea
purification takes place by the dehydration of the Carbamate.Urea solution is further
purified in Low pressure decomposer. Off gases from the M P decomposer & L P
decomposer are sent to the Medium pressure condenser & Medium pressure absorber for
the recovery of unconverted Ammonia. In this way 71.12% of Urea solution resulting
from L P decomposer is sent to Vacuum concentrators operating in two stages:
1) 1st Vacuum evaporator.
2) 2nd Vacuum evaporator

Finally, 98 % molten urea is sent to the Prilling Towers where Urea prills are
formed by passing a current of cold air in the tower from the bottom. Proper size Urea
prills are sent to bagging section through belt conveyors. In bagging section , coating of
Urea prills may be done if required. Oversized Urea prills or lumps are sent to lump
dissolving tank.
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UREA SYNTHESIS

NH3 & CO2 react under specific concentration , temperature & pressure conditions to
form Urea as per the following reactions:
1) CO2 (g) + 2NH3 ( g) ===== NH2COONH4 (s) ; H = -37.64 kcal/gm mol
2) NH2COONH4 (s) ===== NH2CONH2 (s) + H2O (l) ; H=6.32 kcal/gm mol
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CO2 (g) + 2NH3 (g) ===== NH2CONH2 (s) + H2O (l); H = -31.32 kcal/gm mol

So, overall urea synthesis is exothermic, releasing heat of 31.32 kcal/gm mol at standard
conditions of 1 atm pressure & 25°C. But actual heat available in an urea synthesis
reaction will be only 5.74 kcal/gm mol because of the heat lost in evaporation of liquid
NH3, evaporation of water & melting of urea. This is based on the actual plant data.
Further energy is consumed in feeding CO2 & NH3 at high temperature &
pressure , in recycling of carbamate , in vacuum concentration of urea , for operating
different pumps & compressors etc. which altogether makes the urea production energy
consuming.

3.2 EFFECT OF VARIOUS PARAMETERS

TEMPERATURE [Fig-1.2]
In above reactions 1st reaction is exothermic & 2nd one is endothermic. So, according to
Le chatelier’s Principle 1st reaction is favoured at low temp & 2nd one at high temp.
Further , reaction no. 1 is fast & reaches to completion but reaction no. 2 is slow &
determines the overall rate of urea production. For sufficient completion of reaction no.2
optimum temp is maintained. It is observed that max equilibrium conversion occurs
between 190 to 200°C. If temp is increased beyond 200°C corrosion rate increases.

NH2COONH4 (s) ===== 2NH3 (g) + CO2 (g) ; H= -ve (K1)

NH2COONH4 (s) ===== NH2CONH2 (s) + H2O (l) ; H = -ve (K2)
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Both the reactions are favored at high temp but our objective is to maximize 2nd reaction
as 1st reaction is undesirable in the reactor. So , our operating zone should be in the
region where K2 > K1.

PRESSURE [Fig-1.3]:
Overall urea synthesis reaction is given below:
CO2 (g) + 2NH3 (g) ====== NH2CONH2 (s) + H2O (l)
There is reduction in volume in the overall reaction & so high pressure favours the
forward reaction. This pressure is selected according to the temp to be maintained &
NH3:CO2 ratio.

CONCENTRATION:

Higher the concentration of the reactants , higher will be the forward reaction according
to the law of mass action. CO2 being limiting reagent higher NH3:CO2 ratio favors
conversion . Since , dehydration of carbamate results in urea production , lesser H2O:CO2
ratio favors conversion , water intake to the reactor should be therefore min.

RESIDENCE TIME:

Since, urea conversion reaction is slow , sufficient time is to be provided to get higher
conversion . Reactor is designed to accommodate this with respect to the other
parameters of temperature , pressure & concentration.

3.3 SNAMPROGETTI STRIPPING PROCESS [4]

Formation of urea from ammonia & carbon-di-oxide takes place through reversible
reactions with formation of ammonium carbamate as intermediate product . Now, success
of any urea manufacturing process depends on how economically we can recycle
carbamate to the reactor. Snamprogetti process of urea manufacturing accomplishes the
above task by stripping process.

NH2COONH4 (s) ====== 2NH3 (g) + CO2 (g) ∆ H = + 37.4 Kcal/gm-mole

This reaction involves increase in volume & absorption of heat . Thus this reaction will
be favored by decrease in pressure & increase in temp . Moreover decreasing the partial
pressure of either of the products will also favor the forward reaction . Process based on
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first principle of decrease in pressure & decrease in temp is called conventional process ,
whereas process based on increase/decrease of partial pressures of NH3 or CO2 is called
stripping process. According to above equation we have :
K = (pNH3)2*(pCO2) [where,K= equilibrium constant]
The stripping is effected at synthesis pressure itself using CO2 or NH3 as stripping agent .
If CO2 is selected , it is to be supplied to the decomposers/stripper as in Stamicarbon CO2
stripping process. While if NH3 is selected , it is to be obtained from the system itself
because excess NH3 is present in the reactor as in Snam’s process. CO2 stripping is
advantageous because introducing CO2 increase pCO2. So pNH3 will be reduced to
maintain P constant as P = pCO2 + pNH3.
At a particular temp K is constant so when pNH3 is reduced to keep K constant ,
carbamate will be reduced much faster by decomposition as pNH3 appears in the
equilibrium equation with a power of two. Selection of 1st stage decomposition should be
in such a way that min water evaporates because the recovered gases go alongwith the
carbamate to reactor again & if water enters reactor, production will be affected adversely
due to hydrolysis of urea . So , stagewise decomposition of carbamate is done . Second
consideration in favor of isobaric stripping is that higher carbamate recycle pressure
results in condensation at higher temp & that recovery in the form of low pressure steam.
This is why stagewise reduction in pressure is practised.
3.4 PROCESS DESCRIPTION
The urea production process takes place through the following main operations :
1) Urea synthesis & high pressure recovery.
2) Urea purification & low pressure recovery.
3) Urea concentration.
4) Urea prilling.
UREA SYNTHESIS & HIGH PRESSURE RECOVERY
Urea is synthesized from liquid ammonia & gaseous carbon-di-oxide. . The carbon di
oxide drawn from battery limits at about 1.6 ata pressure & about 40°C temp is
compressed in a centrifugal compressor upto 162 ata . A small quantity of air is added to
the CO2 compressor suction in order to passivate the stainless steel surfaces . Thus
protecting them from corrosion due both to the reagent & the reaction product .
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The liquid ammonia coming directly from battery limits is collected in the
ammonia receiver tank from where it is drawn to & compessed at about 23 ata pressure
by means of centrifugal pump. Part of this ammonia is sent to medium pressure absorber
& remaining part enters the high pressure synthesis loop . The NH3 of this synthesis loop
is compressed to a pressure of about 240 ata . Before entering the reactor it is used as a
driving fluid in the carbamate ejector, where the carbamate coming from carbamate
separator is compressed upto synthesis pressure . The liquid mixture of ammonia &
carbamate enters the reactor where it reacts with compressed CO2 .
In the reactor the NH3 & gaseous CO2 react to form amm. Carbamate , a portion
of which dehydrates to form urea & water . The fraction of carbamate that dehydrates is
determined by the ratios of various reactants , operating temp , the residence time in the
reactor & reaction pressure . The mole ratio of NH3 / CO2 is around 2:1 , the mole ratio of
water to CO2 is around 0.67 : 1 .

2NH3 (g) + CO2 (g) ===== NH2COONH4 (s) ; exothermic

NH2COONH4 ( s) ===== NH2CONH2 (s) + H2O (l) ; endothermic

In the synthesis conditions ( T= 190°C , P= 154 atm) , the 1st reaction occurs rapidly & is
completed . The 2nd reaction occurs slowly & determines the reactor volume .
Urea reactor is a plug flow type with 10 no.s of sieve trays to avoid back mixing &
to avoid escape of gaseous CO2 which must react in the lower part of the reactor .
Stagewise decomposition is carried out to reduce water carry over to the reactor
which could adversely affect conversion .
Urea solution containing urea , carbamate , H2O & unconverted CO2 & NH3 enters
the high pressure stripper where the pressure is same as that of the reactor . The mixture
is heated as it flows down the falling film exchangers . The CO2 content of the solution is
reduced by the stripping action of NH3 as it boils out of the solution . The carbamate
decomposition heat is supplied by 24 ata steam . The overhead gases from stripper and
the recovered solution from the MP absorber, all flow to the high pressure carbamte
condenser through mixer, where total mixture , except for a few inerts is condensed &
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recycled to the reactor by means of carbamate ejector . Condensing the gases at high
temp & pressure permits the recovery of condensation heat in the production of steam at
4.5 ata in the high pressure carbamate condenser.
From the top of the carbamate separator the incondensable gases come out
consisting of inerts & a little quantity of NH3 & CO2 unreacted in the condenser . These
are sent to the bottom of MP decomposer.
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Fig 3.1 Snamprogetti urea process

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UREA PURIFICATION & LOW PRESSURE RECOVERY

Urea purification takes place in two stages at decreasing pressure as follows :

1st stage at 18 ata pressure, i.e, MP decomposer
2nd stage at 4.5 ata pressure ,i.e, LP decomposer
1st stage purification & recovery stage at 18 ata:
It is falling film type MP decomposer . It is divided into 2 parts : Top separator, where
the released flash gases , the solution enters the tube bundle & decomposition section
where the residual carbamate is decomposed & required heat is supplied by means of 24
ata steam condensate flowing out of the stripper .
2nd purification & recovery stage at 4.5 ata:
The solution leaving the bottom of MP decomposer is expanded at 4.5 ata pressure&
enters the LP decomposer (falling film type). This is again divided in to two parts :top
separator where the released flash gases are removed before the solution enters the tube
bundle . Decomposition section where the last residual carbamate is decomposed & the
required heat is supplied by means of steam saturated at 4.5 ata.
UREA CONCENTRATION
Next section is urea concentration & objective is to reduce water content of urea to as low
as 1 % . For the purpose a vacuum concentrator in two stages is provided . The solution
leaving the LP decomposer bottom with about 72% urea is sent to the 1st vacuum
concentrator operating at a pressure of 0.23 ata .The mixed phase coming out enters the
gas liquid separator, wherefrom the vapours are extracted by the 1st vacuum system,
while the solution enters the 2nd vacuum concentrator operating at a pressure of 0.03 ata .
The two concentrators are fed by saturated steam at 4.5 ata . The mixed phase coming out
enters the gas liquid separator , wherefrom the vapours are extracted by the 2nd vacuum
system .
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UREA PRILLING
The molten urea leaving the 2nd vacuum separator is sent to the prilling bucket by means
of a centrifugal pump . The urea coming out of the bucket in the form of drops fall along
the prilling tower & encounters a cold air flow which causes its solidification . The solid
prills falling to the bottom of the prilling tower are sent through the screeners to retain
lumps only , & then to belt conveyor which carries the product to the automatic weighing
machine & to the urea storage sections . Urea lumps by the means of belt conveyor are
recycled to the underground tank, where they are dissolved .
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Chapter 4

Material balance
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MATERIAL BALANCE

Selected capacity : 4,50,000 tons/year

No. of working days: 300
Daily production : 4,50,000/300 = 1500 tons/day
Urea 62,500 Kg/hr of 98 % purity

Composition of the final product :

Urea : 98 % (61,250 Kg/hr)
Biuret : 1% (625 Kg/hr)
Water : 1% (625 Kg/hr)

Assumption : Overall conversion to urea is assumed to be 95 %.

MAIN REACTIONS:

1) CO2 + 2NH3 ==== NH2COONH4

(44) (17) (78)
2) NH2COONH4 ==== NH2CONH2 + H2O
(60) (18)
3)CO2 + 2NH3 ==== NH2CONH2 + H2O (Overall reaction)

Side reaction:
4)2NH2CONH2 ==== NH2CONHCONH2 + NH3
(103)
625 Kg/hr of Biuret produced by = (120/103)*625 = 728 Kg/hr of urea (reaction 4)
So, urea produced by reaction (2) = 61250 + 728 = 61978 Kg/hr
61978 Kg/hr of urea produced by = (34/60)*61978 = 35,120 Kg/hr NH3
Similarly, CO2 reacted in reaction (1) = (44/60)*61978 = 45,450 Kg/hr
Assuming 95 % conversion we get
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NH3 actually required = 35120/0.95 = 36,968 Kg/hr

CO2 actually required = 45450/0.95 = 47,842Kg/hr
Now, considering reaction (4) :
If reaction (3) is 100 % complete then,
Urea produced = (60/44)*47842 = 65,239 Kg/hr
But, for 95 % conversion
Urea produced = 0.95*65,239 = 61,977 Kg/hr
Therefore, Urea converted to Biuret & NH3 = 61,977 – 61,250 = 727 Kg/hr
So, from reaction (4)
Biuret produced = (103/120)*727 = 624 Kg/hr
Water produced in reaction (2) = (18/60)*61978 = 18,593 Kg/hr
At reactor’s exit (Urea = 34 %)
Flow rate of stream = 61,250/0.34 = 1,80,147 Kg/hr
NH3 reacted in reaction (1) = (34/60)*61977 = 35,120 Kg/hr
NH3 produced in reaction (4) = (17/120)*727 = 103 Kg/hr
So, NH3 unreacted = 36968 – 35120 + 103 = 1951 Kg/hr
CO2 reacted in reaction (1) = (44/60)*61977 = 45450 Kg/hr
Therefore, CO2 unreacted = 47842 – 45450 = 2392 Kg/hr
Now,
Flow rate of stream at reactor’s exit – (flow rate of urea+CO2+NH3+water+biuret) =
Flow rate of carbamate
1,80,147- (61,250 + 2392 + 1951 +18,593 + 624) = 95,337 Kg/hr
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4.1REACTOR

Fig 4.1 Flow of material across reactor

Table 4.1 Flow of material across reactor
INPUT OUTPUT

MATERIAL FLOW RATE (Kg/hr) % MATERIAL FLOW RATE (Kg/hr) %

Feed Unreacted
NH3 (liq) 36968 43.59 NH3 (liq) 1951 1.08

CO2 (gas) 47842 56.41 CO2 (gas) 2392 1.32

Total 84810 100

Recycle
CARBAMATE 95337 100 Products
UREA 61250 34
WATER 18593 10.32
BIURET 624 0.36
CARBAMATE 95,337 52.92

TOTAL 180147 100 180147 100

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4.2 STRIPPER

Fig 4.2 Flow of material across stripper

Since, no reaction takes place in the stripper & only carbamate gets recycled back to the
reactor. Therefore, the amount of ammonia ,carbon-di-oxide ,water & biuret in the outlet
stream of stripper will be same as it was in the inlet stream.
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Table 4.2 Flow of material across stripper

INPUT OUTPUT

MATERIAL FLOW RATE (Kg/hr) % MATERIAL FLOW RATE (Kg/hr) %

Bottom product
NH3 1951 1.08 NH3 1951 2.30

CO2 2392 1.32 CO2 2392 2.82

CARBAMATE 95337 52.92 UREA 61250 72.22

UREA 61250 34 WATER 18593 21.9
WATER 18593 10.32 BIURET 624 0.76

BIURET 624 0.36 Total 84810 100

Top product
Ammonium 95337 100
carbamate

TOTAL 180147 100

4.3 MEDIUM PRESSURE SEPARATOR

Fig 4.3 Flow of material across medium pressure separator

The amount of ammonia ,carbon-di-oxide ,water & biuret will remain constant as no
reaction is taking place.
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50 % of ammonia & carbon-di-oxide are assumed to escape from the top of the separator
& rest goes with the bottom product. Amount of water & biuret remains constant as no
reaction takes place.
Table 4.3 Flow of material across medium pressure separator
INPUT OUTPUT

MATERIAL FLOW RATE (Kg/hr) % MATERIAL FLOW RATE (Kg/hr) %

NH3 1951 2.3 NH3 976 1.18

CO2 2392 2.82 CO2 1196 1.44

UREA 61250 72.22 UREA 61250 74.11
WATER 18593 21.9 WATER 18593 22.49
BIURET 624 0.76 BIURET 624 0.78

Total 82,639 100

Losses
NH3 975 44.91
CO2 1196 55.09

TOTAL 84812 100 2171 100

4.4 LOW PRESSURE SEPARATOR

Fig 4.4 Flow of material across low pressure separator

Remaining ammonia & carbon-di-oxide are assumed to escape from the top.
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Table 4.4 Flow of material across low pressure separator

INPUT OUTPUT

MATERIAL FLOW RATE (Kg/hr) % MATERIAL FLOW RATE (Kg/hr) %

NH3 976 1.18

CO2 1196 1.44
UREA 61250 74.11 UREA 61250 76.11
WATER 18593 22.49 WATER 18593 23
BIURET 624 0.78 BIURET 624 0.79

Total 80467 100

Losses
NH3 975 44.91
CO2 1196 55.09

TOTAL 82639 100 2171 100

4.5 VACUUM EVAPORATOR

Fig 4.5 Flow of material across vacuum evaporator

Let x & y be the mass fractions of Urea in feed (F) & product (P) resp.
x= 0.7611 (76.11 %)
y= 0.9788 (97.88 % )
Making urea balance:
F.x = P.y
80467*0.7611 = P*0.9788
P = 62574 Kg/hr
Overall material balance gives:
F=P+E
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80467 = 62574 + E
E = 17893 Kg/hr
Table 4.5 Flow of material across vacuum evaporator
INPUT OUTPUT

MATERIAL FLOW RATE (Kg/hr) % MATERIAL FLOW RATE (Kg/hr) %

UREA 61250 76.11 UREA 61250 97.88

WATER 18593 23.10 WATER 700 1.11
BIURET 624 0.79 BIURET 624 1.01

Total 62574 100

Losses
WATER 17893 100

TOTAL 80467 100

4.6 PRILLING TOWER

Fig 4.6 Flow of material across prilling tower

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Let x & y be the mass fractions of Urea in feed (F) & product (P) resp.
x= 0.9788 (97.88 %)
y= 0.9796 (97.96 %)
Making urea balance:
F.x = P.y
62574*0.9788 = P*0.9796
P = 62524 Kg/hr

Table 4.6 Flow of material across prilling tower

INPUT OUTPUT

MATERIAL FLOW RATE (Kg/hr) % MATERIAL FLOW RATE (Kg/hr) %

UREA 61250 97.88 UREA 61250 97.96

WATER 700 1.11 WATER 650 1.11
BIURET 624 1.01 BIURET 624 0.93

Total 62,524 100

Losses
WATER 50 100

TOTAL 62574 100

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Chapter 5

Energy balance
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ENERGY BALANCE
Assumption : Datum temperature = 0oC

5.1 REACTOR [5]

Fig 5.1 Energy flow across reactor

INLET STREAM

Material specific heat at 40oC

NH3 0.53 cal/gm oC = 2.219 Kj/KgoC

CO2 0.22 cal/gm oC = 0.9211 Kj/Kg oC

specific heat at 180oC

Carbamate 0.62 cal/gm oC = 2.596 Kj/Kg oC

Heat input
mCp∆t
NH3 : 3.6968 x 104 x 2.219 x 40 = 0.328 x 107 Kj/hr
CO2 : 4.7843 x 104 x 0.9211 x 40=0.176 x 107 Kj/hr
Carbamate: 9.5336 x 104 x 2.24 x 180= 4.455 x 107 Kj/hr

Heat input = 4.959 x 107 Kj/hr

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∆HR = - 31.32 Kcal/gm mol

= -0.013 x 107 Kj/Kmol of Urea formed.
Amount of urea formed during the reaction = 1020.83 Kmol/hr
∆HR = 1020.83 x 0.013 x 107 Kj/hr
= 13.27 x 107 Kj/hr

OUTLET STREAM
Material specific heat at 180oC mol fractions (x) Flow rate
(Kmol/hr)
NH3 0.55 cal/gm oC = 39.15 Kj/KmoloC 0.033 114.76
CO2 0.23 cal/gm oC = 42.37 Kj/Kmol oC 0.0158 54.36
Carbamate 0.62 cal/gm oC = 202.49 Kj/KmoloC 0.354 1222.3
Urea 0.4828 cal/gm oC=121.32 Kj/KmoloC 0.296 1020.83
o o
Water 1 cal/gm C = 75.37 Kj/Kmol C 0.299 1032.94
Biuret 183.8 Kj/KmoloC 0.002 6.07
Total = 3,451.3

Cp of mixture = ∑ xiCpi

So, Cp= 0.033 x 39.15 + 0.0158 x 42.37 + 0.296 x 121.32 + 0.354 x 202.49 + 0.002 x
183.8 + 0.299 x 75.37 = 132.46 Kj/KmoloC

So, heat carried by outlet stream = mCp∆t

= 3,451.3 x 132.46 x 180
= 8.229 x 107 Kj/hr

Heat input + ∆HR - Heat output = rate of accumulation

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4.959 x 107 + 13.27 x 107 -- 8.229 x 107 = rate of accumulation

rate of accumulation = 10 x 107 Kj/hr

Assumption : Cooling water at 25oC is used to remove heat from the reactor. The outlet is
steam at an absolute pressure of 4.5 bar (Ts = 147.9 oC).

So, heat gained by cooling water = 10 x 107 Kj/hr

mCp∆t + mλ = 10 x 107 Kj/hr
or, m (Cp∆t + λ ) = 10 x 107
m [ 4.187 x (147.9-25) + 2120.6 ] = 10 x 107 Kj/hr

( Here λ = 2120.6 kj/kg & =4.187 Kj/kg oC)

m = 108 /2635.18
m = 37,948 Kg/hr
.
5.2 STRIPPER [6]

Fig 5.2 Energy flow across stripper

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Total heat input = 8.229 x 107 Kj/hr

OUTLET STREAM

1) Liquid

Material specific heat at [ 185oC] [5] mol fractions (x) Flow rate
(Kmol/hr)
NH3 0.58 cal/gm oC = 41.31 Kj/KmoloC 0.05 114.76
o o
CO2 0.24 cal/gm C = 44.22 Kj/Kmol C 0.024 54.36
Urea 0.5385 cal/gm oC=135.3 Kj/KmoloC 0.46 1020.83
Water 1 cal/gm oC = 75.37 Kj/KmoloC 0.463 1032.94
Biuret 183.8 Kj/KmoloC 0.003 6.07
Total = 2,228.96

Cp of mixture = ∑ xiCpi
So, Cp= 0.05 x 41.31 + 0.024 x 44.22 + 0.46 x 135.3 + 0.003 x 183.8 + 0.463 x 75.37 =
100.81 Kj/KmoloC

So, heat carried by outlet stream = mCp∆t

= 2228.96 x 100.81 x 185
= 4.157 x 107 Kj/hr

2) Vapour stream : Ammonium carbamate

Material specific heat at [ 185oC] Flow rate

(Kmol/hr)
Carbamate 0.62 cal/gm oC = 202.49 Kj/KmoloC 1222.3

For carbamate λ = 210 Kj/Kg

So, heat carried by carbamate = m Cp∆t + mλ
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= 1222.3 x 202.49 x 185 + 95336 x 210

= 6.581 x 107 Kj/hr

Here, steam at 24 atm is used (Ts = 221.8 oC).

λ of steam =1855.3 Kj/kg
Heat supplied by steam = Heat output – Heat input
= (6.581 + 4.157 – 8.229) x 107 Kj/hr
m λ = 2.509 x 107 Kj/hr
m = 2.509 x 107 /1855.3
m = 13,523 Kg/hr

5.3 CARBAMATE CONDENSER [6]

Fig 5.3 Energy flow across carbamate condenser

Energy balance
mv λv = ms Cp ( Ts-25) + ms λs
Putting the values we get :
95337 x 210 = ms [4.187 x (147.9 – 25) + 2120.6] [ where λs =2120.6 kj/kg]
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So, ms = 7,597.5 kg/h

5.4 MEDIUM PRESSURE SEPARATOR [5]

Fig 5.4 Energy flow across medium pressure separator

Heat input = 4.157 x 107 Kj/hr

1) Liquid

OUTLET STREAM
Material specific heat at [ 140oC] mol fractions (x) Flow rate
(Kmol/hr)
NH3 0.54 cal/gm oC = 38.4 Kj/KmoloC 0.027 57.4
CO2 0.23 cal/gm oC = 42.37 Kj/Kmol oC 0.0127 27.182
Urea 0.493 cal/gm oC=123.84 Kj/KmoloC 0.476 1020.83
Water 1 cal/gm oC = 75.37 Kj/KmoloC 0.4815 1032.94
o
Biuret 170.92 Kj/Kmol C 0.0028 6.07
Total = 2144.42
Cp of mixture = ∑ xiCpi
So, Cp= 0.027 x 38.4 + 0.0127 x 42.37 + 0.476 x 123.84 + 0.0028 x 170.92 + 0.4815 x
75.37 Kj/KmoloC
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= 97.29 Kj/KmoloC
heat output = 2144.42 x 97.29 x 140 Kj/hr
= 2.921x 107 Kj/hr

2) For gases escaping from the top

Material λ at 140oC mol fractions (x) Flow rate

(Kmol/hr)
NH3 320 cal/gm oC = 22.777 x 103 Kj/KmoloC 0.6785 57.35
CO2 110 cal/gm oC = 20.265 x 103 Kj/Kmol oC 0.3215 27.182
Total = 84.53

λ of mixture = ∑ xiλi
So, λ = (0.6785 x 22.777 + 0.321 x 20.265) x 103 Kj/KmoloC
= 21.969 x 103 Kj/Kmol

Material specific heat at [ 140oC] mol fractions (x) Flow rate

(Kmol/hr)
NH3 0.54 cal/gm oC = 38.4 Kj/KmoloC 0.6785 57.35
o o
CO2 0.23 cal/gm C = 42.37 Kj/Kmol C 0.3215 27.182
Total = 84.53

Cp of mixture = ∑ xiCpi

So, Cp = 0.6785 x 38.4 + 0.321 x 42.37 Kj/KmoloC

= 39.676 Kj/KmoloC

Heat escaping from the top = m ( Cp∆t + λ )

= 84.53( 39.676 x 140 + 21.969 x 103 )
= 0.2327 x 107 Kj/hr
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Assumption : Cooling water enters at 25oC & leaves at 50oC.

So , heat gained by cooling water = Heat input – heat output

= ( 4.157– 2.921 – 0.2327) x 107 Kj/hr
mCp∆t = 1.00 x 107 Kj/hr
m = 1.00 x 107 / ( 4.187 x 25)
m = 95,533.8 Kg/hr

5.5 LOW PRESSURE SEPARATOR [5]

Fig 5.5 Energy flow across low pressure separator

Heat input = 2.921 x 107 Kj/hr

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1) Liquid
OUTLET STREAM
Material specific heat at [ 80oC] mol fractions (x) Flow rate
(Kmol/hr)
Urea 0.429 cal/gm oC=107.76 Kj/KmoloC 0.496 1020.83
Water 1 cal/gm oC = 75.37 Kj/KmoloC 0.5 1032.94
Biuret 149 Kj/KmoloC 0.004 6.07
Total = 2059.8
Cp of mixture = ∑ xiCpi
So, Cp= 0.496 x 107.76 + 0.5 x 75.37 + 0.476 x 123.84 + 0.004 x 149 Kj/KmoloC
= 91.73 Kj/KmoloC
heat output = 2059.8 x 91.73 x 80
= 1.51 x 107 Kj/hr

2) For gases escaping from the top

Material λ at 140oC mol fractions (x) Flow rate

(Kmol/hr)
NH3 260 cal/gm oC = 18.51 x 103 Kj/KmoloC 0.679 57.41
CO2 85 cal/gm oC = 15.66 x 103 Kj/Kmol oC 0.321 27.182
Total = 84.59
λ of mixture = ∑ xiλi
So, λ = (0.679 x 18.51 + 0.321 x 15.66) x 103 Kj/KmoloC
= 17.6 x 103 Kj/Kmol

Material specific heat at [ 140oC] mol fractions (x) Flow rate

(Kmol/hr)
NH3 0.52 cal/gm oC = 37.013 Kj/KmoloC 0.027 57.41
CO2 0.21 cal/gm oC = 38.69 Kj/Kmol oC 0.0127 27.182

Total = 84.59
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Cp of mixture = ∑ xiCpi
So, Cp = 0.679 x 37.013 + 0.321 x 38.69 Kj/KmoloC
= 37.55 Kj/KmoloC
Heat escaping from the top = m ( Cp∆t + λ )
= 84.59 ( 37.55 x 80 + 17.7 x 103)
= 0.1743 x 107 Kj/hr
Assumption : Cooling water enters at 25oC & leaves at 50oC.
So , heat gained by cooling water = Heat input – heat output
= ( 2.921– 1.51 – 0.1743) x 107 Kj/hr
mCp∆t = 1.2367 x 107 Kj/hr
m = 1.2367 x 107 / ( 4.187 x 25)
m = 1,18,146 Kg/hr
5.6 EVAPORATOR [5]

Fig 5.6 Energy flow across evaporator

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For product stream coming out of 1st evaporator:

Material specific heat at [ 85oC] mol fractions (x) Flow rate
(Kmol/hr)
o o
Urea 0.435cal/gm C=109.28 Kj/Kmol C 0.75 1020.83
Water 1 cal/gm oC = 75.37 Kj/KmoloC 0.245 333.33
Biuret 149 Kj/KmoloC 0.005 6.06
Total = 1360.223

Cp of mixture = ∑ xiCpi
So, Cp = 0.75 x 109.28 + 0.245 x 75.37 + 0.005 x 149 Kj/KmoloC
= 101.17 Kj/KmoloC
mCp∆t = 1360.223 x 101.17 x 85
= 1.17 x 107 Kj/hr
Heat balance
1st evaporator :

Heat input (feed) + Heat input by steam = heat carried by water vapour + energy of the
bottom product
Heat input (feed) + S1 λs1 = E1HE1 + energy of the bottom product
1.537 x107 + S1 x 2123.2 = 12,593 x 2614.97 + 1.17 x 107
S1 = 13,781 Kg/hr
2nd evaporator :
Heat input (feed) + Heat input by steam = heat carried by water vapour + energy of the
bottom product

Heat input (feed) + S2 λs2 = E2HE2 + energy of the bottom product

1.17 x 107 + S2 x 2123.2 = 5,300 x 2545.7 + 1065.8 x 96.84 x 27
S2 = 2,157 Kg/hr
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5.7 PRILLING TOWER [5]

s
Fig 5.7 Energy balance across prilling tower

Heat input = 1065.8 x 96.84 x 27 = 0.279 x 107 Kj/hr

OUTLET STREAM
Material specific heat at [ 30oC] mol fractions (x) Flow rate
(Kmol/hr)
Urea 0.3758 cal/gm oC=94.41 Kj/KmoloC 0.96 1020.83
Water 1 cal/gm oC = 75.37 Kj/KmoloC 0.034 36.11
Biuret 133.02 Kj/KmoloC 0.006 6.07
Total = 1063.01
Cp of mixture = ∑ xiCpi
So, Cp = 0.96 x 94.41 + 0.034 x 75.37 + 0.006 x 133.02 Kj/KmoloC
= 93.99 Kj/KmoloC
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Heat output = 1063.01 x 93.99 x 25

= 0.250 x 107 Kj/hr
Assuming, humidity of air at 25oC = 0.01
Heat carried away by air = heat input – heat output
(mCp∆t)dry air = ( 0.279 – 0.250) x 107
m = .029 x 107 /(1.009 x 1)
m = 28,74,133 Kg/hr
So,flow rate of air =28,74,133 Kg/hr
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Chapter 6

Equipment design:
Design of reactor & evaporator
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EQUIPMENT DESIGN

6.1 REACTOR DESIGN [7]

Fig 6.1.1 Urea reactor

From fig-6.1.2, for NH3 to CO2 ratio of 2 corresponding yield of urea is 50 %.From fig-
6.1.3,for 50 % yield of urea the residence time is 40 min.

t = 40 min
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Fig 6.1.2 Graph of % urea yield Vs molar ratio of NH3 Vs CO2

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Fig 6.1.3 Graph of % urea yield Vs residence time.

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Now, t = V/F ( Ref : Chemical reactor design-Peter Harriott, Pg-90)

Where, t = residence time

F = Volumetric flow rate into the reactor in m3/hr.
V = Volume of the reactor in m3.

Now,
Density of liquid NH3 = 618 Kg/ m3 ( Ref: J H Perry)
Density of CO2 gas at 40 oC = 277.38 Kg/ m3 (density=PM/RT; P=162 atm,T=313 K)
3
Density of Carbamate = 1600 Kg/ m (Ref: http://www.inorganics.basf.com)

So, NH3 flowing into the reactor = 36,968/618 = 59.82 m3 /hr

CO2 flowing into the reactor = 47,842/277.38 = 172.478 m3 /hr
Carbamate flowing into the reactor = 95,337/1600 = 59.59 m3 /hr

Total flow rate into the reactor = 59.82 + 172.478 + 59.59

= 291.89 m3 /hr

Since, t = V/F
Therefore, V=txF
= (40 x 291.89)/60
V = 194.59 m3

For design purpose V = 195 m3

Now, volume of the reactor = (Л D2/4)L = 195 [D = 2.5 m (given)]

(Ref : Equipment Design-Brownell & Young;Pg-80)
or, L = 195 x 4/(3.14 x 2.52)
= 39.75 m
or, L = 40 m
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6.1.1 THICKNESS OF SHELL [8]

Data available :
Temperature inside the reactor = 180 oC
Pressure inside the reactor = 154 atm

Material of construction :
Low alloy carbon steel (Ref : Fertilizer manufacture- M E Pozin)
Material specification :
IS : 2002-1962 Grade 2B (Ref: B C Bhattacharya, Table-A1,Pg-261)

Allowable stress = 1.18 x 108 N/m2

Diameter of the reactor = 2.5 m
(Ref : Fertilizer manufacture- M E Pozin,Pg-263;for plants having capacity of 4,50,000
tons/yr)

Now, volume of the reactor = (Л D2/4)L = 195

(Ref : Equipment Design-Brownell & Young;Pg-80)
or, L = 195 x 4/(3.14 x 2.52)
= 39.75 m
or, L = 40 m

Also,L/D = 40/2.5 = 16 which is consistent with the actual ratio which is between 14 to
20.
Now,
t = pDi/(2fj – p) [Ref : Equipment design- M V Joshi,Pg-96 ]
where, t = thickness of the shell
Di = internal diameter
J = joint efficiency
p = design pressure
f = permissible stress
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internal pressure = 154 atm = 1.56 x 107 N/m2

Design pressure p = (10 % extra)
= 1.1 x 1.56 x 107 N/m2
= 1.716 x 107 N/ m2

J=1 [ For class 1 pressure vessels , BIS-2825]

f = 1.18
Di = 2.5 m
So, t = 1.716 x 107 x 2.5/(2 x 1.18 x 108 x 1 – 1.716 x 107 )
t = 0.196 m
= 196 mm
or, t = 200 mm

6.1.2 HEAD DESIGN [10]

For 2 : 1 ellipsoidal dished head
th = pDV/2fJ [ ref : Equipment design- M V Joshi,Pg-106,Eq-5.24]
where, p = internal design pressure
D = major axis of ellipse
V = stress intensification factor = ( 2 + k2)/4
k = major axis/minor axis

So, th = 1.716 x107 x 2.5 x 1.5 /(2 x 1.18 x108 x 1)

t = 0.273 m
or, t = 273 mm

or, t = 300 mm
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6.1.3 DIAMETER OF PIPES [11]

We know that,
(Di)opt = 0.0144 x (m`)0.45/(ρ)0.32

For inlet pipes:

(Di)NH3 = 0.0144 x (36968)0.45/(618)0.32
= 0.2093 m
= 8.24 inch
Standardizing using Table-11,PHT,D Q Kern we get:
NPS = 10
Schedule no. = 60
OD = 10.75 inch
ID = 9.75 inch

(Di)CO2 = 0.0144 x (47842)0.45/(277.38)0.32

= 0.3037 m
= 11.95 inch
Standardizing using Table-11,PHT,D Q Kern we get:
NPS = 12
Schedule no. = 30
OD = 12.75 inch
ID = 12.09 inch

(Di)carbamate = 0.0144 x (95337)0.45/(1600)0.32

= 0.2364 m
= 9.307 inch
Standardizing using Table-11,PHT,D Q Kern we get:
NPS = 10
Schedule no. = 60
OD = 10.75 inch
ID = 9.75 inch
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(Di)outlet stream = 0.0144 x (1,80,147)0.45/(1283.97)0.32

= 0.3378 m
= 13.29 inch
Standardizing using Table-11,PHT,D Q Kern we get:
NPS = 16
Schedule no. = 30
OD = 16 inch
ID = 15.25 inch

6.1.4 SKIRT SUPPORT FOR REACTOR [10]

Wt. of the reactor = wt. of material of costruction + weight of the contents of the reactor
= ПDtLρ + weight of the contents of the reactor
= П x 2.5 x 0.2 x 44 x 7857 + 1,80,147 [ρ = 7857 kg/m3]
W = 722 tons
= 7.085 x 107 N
Material of construction :
IS : 2002-1962 Grade 2B (Ref: B C Bhattacharya, Table-A1,Pg-261)

Allowable tensile stress = 1.18 x 108 N/m2

Yield stress = 2.55 x 108 N/m2
Wind pressure upto = 1300 N/m2

Stress due to dead weight:

fd = ∑W/( П Dok tsk)
where,
fd = Stress
∑W = Dead wt of vessel
Dok = Outside diameter of the skirt
tsk = thickness of skirt
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fd = 7.085 x 107/(3.14 x 2.5 x tsk)

= 9.025 x 106/tsk N/m2

Assuming height of skirt = 5 m

fwb = Mw/Z = 4Mw /( П D2ok tsk) [ Ref: equation 13.22,M V joshi]

Mw = Plw (h1/2) + Puw ( h1 + h2/2)

Plw = kP1h1Do [ where k = 0.7 ]
Puw =kP2h2Do

fwb = 0.7 x 1300 x 20 x 2.5 x (20/2) x 4/( 3.14 x 2.52 x tsk ) +

0.7 x 1300 x 20 x 2.5 x 30 x 4 / ( 3.14 x 2.52 x tsk )

fwb = 3.709 x 105 / tsk N/m2

Stress due to seismic load :

fsb = (2/3) x CWH/ (П Rok tsk) [ here C = 0.08 ]
fsb = (2/3) x (0.08 x 7.085 x 107x 40)/( ( 3.14 x (2.5/2) x tsk )
fsb = 3.85 x 107 / tsk N/m2

Maximum tensile stress = fsb -- fd

= 3.85 x 107/tsk -- 0.9025 x 107/tsk
(ft) Max = 2.9475 x 107/tsk

Now,permissible tensile stress = 1.18 x 108 N/m2

tsk = 2.9475 x 107/ ( 1.18 x 108)
= 0.2498 mm
Maximum compressive stress : [ Ref : Equation 13.29,Pg-326,M V Joshi]
(fc) Max = 3.85 x 107/tsk + 0.9025 x 107/tsk
(fc) Max = 4.7525 x 107/tsk
(fc) Permissible ≤ ⅓ Y.P
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≤ ⅓ x 2.55 x 108 N/m2

or, tsk = 4.7525 x 107/ (0.85 x 108)
tsk = 559.1 mm

So, thickness to be used = 600 mm

6.2 EVAPORATOR DESIGN [5]

Fig 6.2.1 Urea evaporator (climbing film long tube vertical evaporator)

Vapour space pressure = 0.23 atm

Vapour space temperature = 63.1 oC
BPR = 21.9 oC
[Ref : Kirk Othmer,Encyclopedia of chemical technology,Vol-21]
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Boiling point of liquid = 85 oC

For product stream coming out of 1st evaporator:

Material specific heat at [ 85oC] mol fractions (x) Flow rate

(Kmol/hr)
Urea 0.435cal/gm oC=109.28 Kj/KmoloC 0.75 1020.83
Water 1 cal/gm oC = 75.37 Kj/KmoloC 0.245 333.33
Biuret 149 Kj/KmoloC 0.005 6.06
Total = 1360.223

Cp of mixture = ∑ xiCpi
So, Cp = 0.75 x 109.28 + 0.245 x 75.37 + 0.005 x 149 Kj/KmoloC
= 101.17 Kj/KmoloC
mCp∆t = 1360.223 x 101.17 x 85
= 1.17 x 107 Kj/hr
Heat balance
1st evaporator :

Heat input (feed) + Heat input by steam = heat carried by water vapour + energy of the
bottom product

Heat input (feed) + S1 λs1 = E1HE1 + energy of the bottom product

For steam at 147.165 oC, λs1 = 2123.2 kj/kg
Putting the values we get
1.537 x107 + S1 x 2123.2 = 12,593 x 2614.97 + 1.17 x 107
S1 = 13,781 Kg/hr

Economy = 12,593/13781 = 0.914

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Now,
U1 value is obtained from fig-6.2.2.At 63.1oC ( 145.58oF) the value of U1 is 270
Btu/hr.sq.ft.oF. Multiplying this value by 5.6783 gives the value of U1 in W/m2K.
A1 = S1 λs1 / U1∆T1
∆T1 = (∆T)app – BPR1
= 147.165 – 63.1 – 21.9
= 62.165 oC
So, A1 = 13,781 x 2123.2 / 1533 x 62.165
= 307.03 m2
similarly,
A2 = S2 λs2 / U2∆T2
∆T2 = (∆T)app – BPR2
= 147.165 – 23.77– 3.48
= 119.915 oC
So, A2 = 2157 x 2123.2 / 738 x 119.915
= 51.75 m2
( Ref: values of U1 & U2 from Perry’s handbook,10-35)
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Fig 6.2.2 Graph to find out heat transfer co-efficient

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6.2.1 DESIGN :

Assuming :
Length = 6 m [ Ref: M V Joshi,Pg-220]
Tube OD = 1 inch [ Table-10,PHT,D Q Kern]
Tube ID = 0.834 inch [14 BWG]
Minimum pitch = 1.25 x OD
= 1.25 x 25 = 31.25 mm [ Ref: M V Joshi,Pg-220]

Let pitch = 32 mm square pitch

Area = 307.03 m2
No. of tubes (N) :
307.03 = П x 0.025 x 6 x N
N = 651.8
or, N = 652
Let OTL = D
So, (П /4) x D2 = 652 x (0.032)2
D = 922 cm

Now, Ddi = OTL + 2C

= 0.922 + 2 x 0.075
Ddi = 1.072 m

Standardizing D using Table-B4,Pg271,B C Bhattacharya

Ddi = 1100 mm

6.2.2 WALL THICKNESS CALCULATION [10]

Material of construction : Mild steel
Specification : IS 2002-1962 Grade-1 [Ref : B C bhattacharya,Pg-261,Appendix-A]
fall = 0.93 x 108 N/m2
C = 0 mm
J = 0.85
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t = pdDi/(2fj – p) + C [Ref : Equipment design- M V Joshi,Pg-96 ]

where, t = thickness of the shell
Di = internal diameter
J = joint efficiency
pd= design pressure
f = permissible stress
C=Corrosion allowance
pd = 1.1 x ps
ps = 4.5 ata = 4.413 bar

pd = 4.854 x 105 N/m2

t = (4.854 x 105 x 1.1)/ (2 x 0.93 x 108 x 0.85 – 4.854 x 105)

= 3.3876 mm

Assuming, t std = 5 mm [ Ref: Pg-269, B C Bhattachrya]

Checking this thickness for critical buckling pressure:
Pc = critical external buckling pressure
Pc = [2.42E / (1-µ 2)3/4 ] x [( t/Do)5/2/ { L/Do – 0.45 x (t/Do)1/2}]
[ Ref : M V Joshi ,eqn- 5.14,Pg-100]
E = 2 x 106 N/cm2 [ For mild steel]
µ = 0.30 [ Ref: B C bhattacharya , Pg-269,table-A-8]
L=6m
Do = Di + 2 x t
= 1.5 + 2 x 0.006
= 1.512 m
Putting values in the above equation of Pc we get
Pc = 1.316 Kg/cm2
Taking factor of safety = 4
Pall = Pc/4 = 1.316/4 = 0.329 Kg/cm2
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Which is less than 1 Kg/cm2

Hence, this thickness is not acceptable.

Again, taking tstd = 6 mm [Ref: B C Bhattacharya, Pg-269]

We get,
Pc = 2.072 Kg/cm2
Pall = 2.072 /4 = 0.518 Kg/cm2
Which is less than 1 Kg/cm2
Hence, this thickness is also not acceptable.

Again, taking tstd = 7 mm [Ref: B C Bhattacharya, Pg-269]

We get,
Pc = 3.0387 Kg/cm2
Pall = 3.0387 /4 = 0.75 Kg/cm2
Which is less than 1 Kg/cm2
Hence, this thickness is also not acceptable.

Again, taking tstd = 8 mm [Ref: B C Bhattacharya, Pg-269]

We get,
Pc = 4.234 Kg/cm2
Pall = 4.234 /4 = 1.05 Kg/cm2
Which is greater than 1 Kg/cm2

Hence, this thickness is acceptable.

So, tmin = 8 mm
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6.2.3 SEPARATOR [10]

Top head (Elliptical head)
For 2 : 1 ellipsoidal dished head
Di = 1 m [ Ref: Table B-4,Pg-271,B C Bhattachrya]
L =4m [ Ref: Table B-2,Pg-269,B C Bhattachrya]
th = pDV/2fJ [ ref : Equipment design- M V Joshi,Pg-106,Eq-5.24]
where, p = internal design pressure
D = major axis of ellipse Graph to find out heat transfer co-efficient
V = stress intensification factor = ( 2 + k2)/4
k = major axis/minor axis

p = 0.23 ata = 0.226 x 105 N/m2

j = 0.85
Di = 1.6 m
k =2
V = 1.5

For internal pressure :

th = (0.226 x 105 x 1.5 x 1) / (2 x 0.93 x108 x 0.85)
= 2.144 x 10-4 m
= 0.214 mm

For external pressure :

Pext = 1 Kg/cm2
Corresponding internal pressure to be used to calculate th = 1.67 x Pext
So, Pint = 1.67 Kg/cm2
So,
th = 4.4 x Rc[3 x (1 – µ 2)]1/2 x (p/2E)1/2 [ Ref : M V Joshi ,eqn- 5.26,Pg-107]
where, p = Design external pressure
Rc = Crown radius for torispherical & hemispherical heads and
equivalent crown radius for elliptical head.
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E = modulus of elasticity
µ = Poisson’s ratio

Putting the values we get

th = 0.0061 mm

So, tstd = 5 mm [ Ref: B C Bhattacharya,Pg-269]

6.2.4 BOTTOM HEAD DESIGN [10]

Assuming an apex angle of 90o
For , conical head
D=1m
th = pDV/2fJCos α [ Ref : M V Joshi,Pg-106]
Here, α = Half the apex angle

For, internal pressure :

p = 0.226 x 105
th = (0.226x 105 x 1.5 x 1) / (2 x 0.93 x108 x 0.85x 0.707)
= 0.3032 mm

For, external pressure :

p = 1.67 x Pext
= 1.67 x 1 kg/cm2

So,
th = (1.67x 105 x 1.5 x 1) / (2 x 0.93 x108 x 0.85x 0.707)
= 2.241 mm

tstd = 5 mm [Ref: B C Bhattacharya,Pg-269]

Checking this thickness for critical buckling pressure :
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Pc = [2.42E / (1-µ 2)3/4 ] x [( t/Do)5/2/ { L/Do – 0.45 x (t/Do)1/2}]

[ Ref : M V Joshi ,eqn- 5.14,Pg-100]

Here, L = D/2
Putting the values we get,
Pc = 19.11 kg/cm2
So, Pall = Pc/4
= 19.11 / 4
= 4.778 kg/cm2
Which is greater than 1 kg/cm2

So, this thickness is acceptable

Hence, tmin = 5 mm
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Chapter 7

Result & discussion

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RESULT & DISCUSSION

The selected capacity of the plant is 4,50,000 tons/year based on 300 working days. The
product from the prilling tower contains 98 % urea. Critical review of all the
manufacturing processes has been presented. Snamprogetti process has been selected for
the project. The Snamprogetti ammonia-stripping urea process involves a high NH3 to
CO2 ratio in the reactor, ensuring the high conversion of carbamate to urea . The highly
efficient ammonia stripping operation drastically reduces the recycling of carbamate and
the size of equipment in the carbamate decomposition . Snamprogetti technology differs
from competitors in being based on the use of excess ammonia to avoid corrosion as well
as promote the decomposition of unconverted carbamate into urea.
Material & energy balance for each of the equipment has been done. The reactor is
designed & its volume is found to be 195 m3. The length & diameter of the reactor has
been found to be 40 m & 2.5 m respectively. The L/D ratio of the reactor is found to be
16 which is consistent with the actual plant data. The L/D ratio of the urea reactor
according to the actual plant data lies between 14 to 20.
Climbing-film, long-tube vertical evaporator is used for the concentration of urea. The
length of the heat exchanger is found to be 6 m. The diameter & height of the separator is
1 m & 4 m respectively. 652 number of tubes of 1 inch OD, 14 BWG & 6 m long (Area =
307 m2) have been used.
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REFERENCES:

1) Shreeve R N. Chemical process industries,3rd edition. New York : McGraw

Hill book company,1967
2) Dryden’s. Outlines of chemical technology, 3rd-edition.New Delhi:Affiliated
East west press private limited,2004
3) Othmer Kirk,Encyclopedia of chemical technology, Vol.- 21. New York:John
Wiley & Sons,2004
4) NFL-Guna (M.P),Plant data.
5) Perry R H. Chemical Engineers Handbook,6th-edition. New York: McGraw
Hill Book Co,1984
6) www.basf.com
7) Pozin M E. Fertilizer Manufacture. Moscow:Khimia,1974
8) Brownell L E & young E H. ProcessEquipment Design.New York:John Wiley
& Sons,1968
9) Bhattacharyya B C. Chemical Equipment Design,1st edition. New
Delhi:CBS,2003
10) Joshi M V. Process Equipment Design,3rd edition. New delhi:Mcmillan India
Limited,2001
11) Kern D Q.Process Heat Transfer. New Dehli:Mcgraw Hill Companies,2004
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