Jo Harris, Lorraine Cale - Promoting Active Lifestyles in Schools With Web Resource-Human Kinetics (2018) PDF

Promoting Active
Lifestyles in Schools
Jo Harris, PhD
Lorraine Cale, PhD
Loughborough University
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Harris, Jo, 1955- author. | Cale, Lorraine, author.

Title: Promoting active lifestyles in schools / Jo Harris, PhD,
Loughborough University, Lorraine Cale, PhD, Loughborough University.
Description: Champaign, IL : Human Kinetics, [2019] | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017021054 (print) | LCCN 2017055556 (ebook) | ISBN
9781492560678 (e-book) | ISBN 9781492533818 (print)
Subjects: LCSH: Physical education and training--Study and teaching--United
States. | Health education--Study and teaching--United States. | Physical
education for children--United States. | Activity programs in
education--United States.
Classification: LCC GV361 (ebook) | LCC GV361 .H37 2018 (print) | DDC
372.86--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017021054
ISBN: 978-1-4925-3381-8 (print)
Copyright © 2019 by Jo Harris and Lorraine Cale
All rights reserved. Except for use in a review, the reproduction or utilization of this work in any form or by any electronic, mechani-
cal, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including xerography, photocopying, and recording, and in any information
storage and retrieval system, is forbidden without the written permission of the publisher.
The web addresses cited in this text were current as of July 2017, unless otherwise noted.
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We thank the Mountfields Lodge Primary School in Loughborough and Hamilton College in Leicester for assistance in providing
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E6847
We would like to thank the many teachers and trainee teachers
who trialled and helped to develop practical ideas in this book.
We are also grateful to the staff, pupils and parents of Mountfields
Lodge Primary School in Loughborough and Hamilton College
in Leicester for allowing us to take photographs in their schools.
Contents
Preface vii ◾ How to Access the Web Resource ix
Part I Promoting Healthy, Active Lifestyles

in UK Schools 1
Chapter 1 Recommendations for Nurturing Healthy,
Active Children 3
Benefits of Regular Physical Activity 4
Risks of Inactivity 5
Schools’ Effectiveness in Promoting Active Lifestyles 6
Common Misconceptions About Children’s Health, Activity and Fitness 13
Summary 14
Chapter 2 Whole-School Approaches to Promoting Healthy

Lifestyles 15
Creating a Healthy School 16
Health Education Models and Approaches 18
Active Schools Models and Approaches 19
Increasing Activity Levels in All Lessons 21
Working With Parents to Promote Active Lifestyles 24
Summary 25
Chapter 3 Physical Education’s Contribution to Promoting

Healthy Lifestyles 27
Promoting Active Lifestyles in Curriculum Physical Education 28
Physical Education and Public Health 28
Activity-Promoting Models and Principles in Physical Education 29
Health-Related Learning Outcomes 31
Health-Related Learning Contexts 32
Assessment of Health-Related Learning 38
Health-Related Learning Support 39
Summary 41
iv
Contents v
Part II Monitoring Health, Activity and Fitness

in Schools 43
Chapter 4 Monitoring Health in Schools 45
Defining Health 46
Rationale for Monitoring Children’s Health 48
Methods of Monitoring Children’s Health 48
Learning Through Monitoring Children’s Health 51
Applying What You Learn From Monitoring Health 51
Summary 52
Chapter 5 Monitoring Physical Activity in Schools 53

Defining Physical Activity 54
Rationale for Monitoring Children’s Physical Activity 54
Methods of Monitoring Children’s Physical Activity 54
Learning Through Monitoring Children’s Physical Activity 57
Applying What You Learn From Monitoring Physical Activity 60
Summary 61
Chapter 6 Monitoring Physical Fitness in Schools 63

Defining Physical Fitness 64
Rationale for Monitoring Children’s Physical Fitness 64
Methods of Monitoring Children’s Physical Fitness 64
Learning Through Monitoring Children’s Physical Fitness 66
Applying What You Learn From Monitoring Physical Fitness 73
Summary 73
Part III Health-Related Learning in Physical

Education 75
Chapter 7 Involving All Children in Healthy, Active Lifestyles 77
Rationale for Involving All Children in Healthy, Active Lifestyles 78
Strategies for Involving All Children in Healthy, Active Lifestyles 79
Involving Children With Common Health Conditions in Physical Activity 83
Recommendations for Involving Children With Asthma, Diabetes and
Obesity in Physical Activity 87
Summary 91
Chapter 8 Health-Related Learning for 5- to 7-Year-Olds 93

Health-Related Learning Outcomes and Contexts 94
Assessing Health-Related Learning 95
Monitoring Health, Activity and Fitness 97
Health-Related Learning Plans for 5- To 7-Year-Olds 99
Summary 105
vi Contents

Health-Related Learning Plans for 7- to 11-Year-Olds 115
Summary 122

Summary 141

Summary 161
Glossary 163 ◾ References 165 ◾ Index 175 ◾ About the Authors 181

Preface
Helping children lead healthy, active lifestyles be undertaken both within and beyond school
has become increasingly important as we have buildings. This range accommodates schools that
learned more about the ill-health consequences can deliver lessons (in physical education and
of sedentary living, as well as the current health other subjects) in the surrounding environment
status and low activity levels of a significant beyond the classroom. In addition, it offers best-
proportion of young people. In response to such practice case studies to help you visualise and
concerns, school curricula around the world conceptualise how to implement practices that
are placing increased emphasis on promoting promote activity. Throughout, the book’s content
healthy, active lifestyles. This book will help you is based on evidence and informed by research
and your school create such an emphasis and drawn from the findings of studies conducted
support you in your efforts to promote active by the authors and eminent researchers around
lifestyles among young people. the world.
More specifically, the book is designed to help
you make a positive difference to your pupils’
health, well-being and quality of life by equipping Content Overview
them with the knowledge, skills, understand-
ing, competence and confidence to engage in a Promoting Active Lifestyles in Schools contains a
physically active lifestyle. It will also help schools mixture of practical ideas and activities, along-
address this important element of the curriculum side explanations based on current thinking and
in a planned, progressive manner that is acces- evidence. It is structured in three parts. Part I
sible to all pupils. explains the importance of promoting healthy,
Promoting Active Lifestyles in Schools is active lifestyles in schools and clarifies how
intended for all persons involved in promoting schools in general, and physical education in
healthy, active lifestyles in schools: primary particular, can do so. Part II focuses on how
school teachers; secondary school teachers; children’s health, activity and fitness can be
personal, social, health and economic educa- monitored in schools and how this monitoring
tion coordinators; healthy-school coordinators; can help pupils learn the importance of being
health, physical activity, physical education and healthy, active and fit in their everyday lives.
sport coordinators in schools, local authori- Part III addresses how children of all ability
ties and communities; health, physical activity, levels can be involved in a healthy, active life-
physical education and school sport consultants, style, including children with specific health
advisers and providers of professional develop- conditions such as asthma, diabetes and obesity.
ment; and primary and secondary school teacher It also presents a range of health-related learn-
educators. ing activities for pupils of various ages that are
developmentally appropriate, inclusive and
progressive.
Scope Specific features of the book include the fol-
lowing:
In terms of breadth, the book addresses curricu-
lum requirements (in both physical education and •• Practices based on evidence and informed
other subjects); whole-school and cross-curricu- by research on health-related pedagogies
lar recommendations and expectations; extracur- around the world
ricular opportunities; and links with parents and •• Practical learning activities that are tried
physical activity providers in the community. It and tested for helping pupils of all ages lead
includes a diverse range of activities that can a healthy, active lifestyle
vii
viii Preface
•• Clear explanations of the current thinking health, activity and fitness; a parent information
and evidence underpinning the practical sheet (An Hour a Day Keeps the Doctor at Bay!);
ideas and activities lifestyle case studies; health behaviour question-
•• Developmentally appropriate procedures for naires; physical activity diaries; developmentally
monitoring children’s health, activity and appropriate fitness tests; reflective questions; and
fitness in schools worksheets for use with pupils of various age
groups. These resources exemplify the pedagogi-
•• Best-practice case studies to help you visu-
cal principles recommended in the book and will
alise and conceptualise how the principles
help you implement activity-promoting practices.
outlined in the book can be implemented
The resource also includes a list of web links to
using real-life practices that promote activity
help you learn more about the many initiatives
and guidelines mentioned in the book.
How to Use the Web Promoting Active Lifestyles in Schools will help
Resource you and your school promote healthy, active life-
styles in a planned, progressive manner that is
The web resource, found at www.Human accessible to all pupils. These efforts will make a
Kinetics.comPromotingActiveLifestyles positive difference to the health, well-being and
InSchools, includes a variety of useful materi- quality of life of your pupils by equipping them
als that you may either print and use as is or with the knowledge,
adapt to suit your needs. Specifically, you skills, understanding,
will find the following: a quiz addressing competence and confi-
children’s health, activity and fitness dence to engage in phys-
recommendations; true-or-false statements ically active lifestyles.
associated with debunk-ing myths and
misconceptions about children’s
How to Access
the Web Resource
Throughout Promoting Active Lifestyles in Schools, Items box at the left, click the Enter Pass
you will notice previews of supplemental materi- Code option in that box. Enter the follow-
als that can be found in the web resource. This ing pass code exactly as it is printed here,
online content is available to you free of charge including any capitalization and hyphens:
when you purchase a new print or electronic HARRIS-4CRA-WR.
version of the book. The web resource offers 5. Click the Submit button to unlock your
printable and editable supplemental materials online product.
such as worksheets, assessments, information
6. After you have entered your pass code
sheets, and more. To access the online content,
for the first time, you will never have to
simply register with the Human Kinetics website.
enter it again in order to access this online
Here’s how:
product. Once you have unlocked your
1. Visit www.HumanKinetics.com/Promoting product, a link to the product will appear
ActiveLifestylesInSchools permanently in the menu on the left. All
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2. Click the first edition link next to the cor-
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ix
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PART I
Promoting Healthy,
Active Lifestyles
in UK Schools
1
Recommendations
for Nurturing Healthy,
Active Children
Chapter Objectives
After reading this chapter, you will be able to
▶▶ explain the rationale for promoting physical activity among all children
and young people;

▶▶ understand the role of schools and curriculum physical education in
promoting healthy, active lifestyles;

▶▶ describe worldwide and UK recommendations on physical activity for
health for children and young people;

▶▶ identify reasons for the shift from exercise recommendations and fit-
ness test batteries to holistic physical-activity guidelines and education

programmes that promote activity and fitness; and
▶▶ recognise gaps in children’s and young people’s knowledge and
understanding of health, fitness and physical activity that may hinder

the promotion of healthy, active lifestyles.
3
4 Promoting Active Lifestyles in Schools
S chools provide obvious venues for health pro-

motion, and physical education (PE) clearly
has a role to play in promoting active lifestyles.
2008b, 2009, 2015b; Physical Activity Guide-
lines Advisory Committee, 2008; Public Health
England, 2014a, 2014b, 2015; Stensel, Gorely, &
However, it is important to reflect critically on Biddle, 2008). For example, research finds that
how best to fulfil these roles in order to achieve increased physical activity provides small but
positive health outcomes for all children and significant benefits in reducing body fat and can
young people. To start with, we need to know play a role in obesity treatment for young people
how active children should be and how best to when combined with appropriate dietary modi-
implement recommendations about activity for fication. Research has also found a beneficial
health in the school setting. We must also identify association between physical activity and a range
and address common gaps in children’s knowl- of metabolic factors, such as hypertension (high
edge and understanding of health, fitness and blood pressure), insulin resistance and lipid and
physical activity in order to increase their uptake lipoprotein concentrations. In addition, weight-
of healthy, active lifestyles. With these concerns bearing and strength-enhancing physical activity
in mind, this chapter brings you up to date on can promote skeletal health in young people. Reg-
the growing evidence base that underpins the ular physical activity also reduces risk factors for
promotion of physical activity among children chronic conditions (such as heart disease) and,
and young people. if maintained into adulthood, reduces the risk of
morbidity and mortality from various diseases
(e.g., cardiovascular disease, diabetes, cancer).
Benefits of Regular These physical health benefits are particularly
important given the increasing rates of obesity
Physical Activity among children and the fact that cardiovascular
disease has its origins in childhood. Childhood
A review of worldwide literature provides a strong obesity is a global issue, as evidenced by a report
rationale for promoting healthy, active lifestyles from the World Health Organisation (WHO,
among children (Biddle & Asare, 2011; Depart- 2016) indicating that the number of overweight
ment of Health, Department of Health, Social or obese infants and young children (aged 0
Sciences and Public Safety, Scottish Government, through 5 years) increased from 32 million in
& Welsh Government (2011); Donnelly et al., 1990 to 42 million in 2013. In England, obesity
2016; Janssen & LeBlanc, 2010; National Institute figures increased from 11 percent of boys and 12
for Health and Care Excellence [NICE], 2008a, percent of girls aged 2 through 15 in 1995 to 18
2008b, 2009, 2015b; Physical Activity Guidelines percent and 19 percent in 2005. The levels have
Advisory Committee, 2008; Public Health Eng- been slightly lower since then—for example, 16
land, 2014a, 2014b, 2015). In particular, such percent for boys and 15 percent for girls in 2013
a review finds evidence not only that physical (Health and Social Care Information Centre
activity benefits the health of young people but [HSCIC], 2015).
also that many children are relatively inactive In terms of psychological and social benefits,
and that they generally become less active as they physical activity that is appropriately structured
get older. This finding is especially concerning in and delivered can help young people feel better
light of hypokinetic conditions (i.e., those related about themselves and reduce symptoms of
to inactivity) such as obesity. Furthermore, a anxiety and depression (Biddle & Asare, 2011).
thorough literature review identifies patterns in It can also result in increased self-confidence and
health-related behaviours and finds that many self-worth, particularly in disadvantaged groups,
of these behaviours are acquired and established such as those with learning or behavioural dif-
during childhood and adolescence. ficulties and those with initially low self-esteem.
Evidence shows that physical activity provides Appropriate physical activity can also improve
children with a range of psychological, social and young people’s social skills, such as their ability
physical benefits (Biddle & Asare, 2011; Depart- to relate to others, as well as their sense of fair
ment of Health, Department of Health, Social play and justice.
Sciences and Public Safety, Scottish Govern- These psychological and social health benefits
ment, & Welsh Government, 2011; Donnelly et of physical activity take on increased importance
al., 2016; Janssen & LeBlanc, 2010; NICE, 2008a, in light of the global prevalence (about 20 per-
Recommendations for Nurturing Healthy, Active Children 5
cent) of mental health disorders among children •• Children tend not to engage in sustained
and adolescents (WHO, 2005). This concern holds vigorous activity or exercise training, which
particularly true in the United Kingdom (Tymms have been the foci of many studies.
et al., 2016) which ranked last on children’s well- •• Because children’s health cannot be mea-
being among 21 of the world’s richest countries in sured by mortality statistics, researchers
2007, 16th among 29 in 2013 and 20th out of 35 have relied on CVD risk factors, which
of the richest countries in 2016 (United Nations represent a relatively crude indicator of
Children’s Fund, 2007, 2013, 2016). The psycho- cardiovascular health.
logical and social benefits only occur, however, if
•• Children’s habits associated with a physically
experiences of physical activity, physical educa-
inactive lifestyle may have had insufficient
tion and sport are positive and explicitly planned
time to negatively influence CVD risk factors.
and structured to produce particular outcomes.
This type of structure is more likely to be used •• It may be that an insufficient number of chil-
when the efforts are facilitated by well-qualified dren have been inactive for negative health
professionals. consequences to be evident.
Some research also indicates benefits of physi- Nevertheless, a strong rationale exists for
cal activity for young people’s academic or cogni-
promoting physical activity among all children
tive performance. Specifically, some studies report
and young people. This rationale is based on
weak but positive associations between physical
the strengthening relationship between physi-
activity (as well as physical fitness) and academic
cal activity (and physical fitness) and health in
achievement and between fitness and elements of
children, the fact that CVD has its origins in
cognitive function (Keeley & Fox, 2009). Other
childhood, and the increasing rates of inactivity-
research has indicated a positive effect of activity
related or hypokinetic health conditions (e.g.,
on cognitive outcomes and academic achieve-
obesity) among children.
ment, with the greatest effect coming from aerobic
exercise (Fedewa & Ahn, 2011).
Evidence is also mounting that children benefit Risks of Inactivity
from physical fitness. For example, physical fit-
ness is related to a healthy cardiovascular dis- Many children are relatively inactive. The World
ease (CVD) risk profile and to healthy levels of Health Organisation’s Health Behaviour in
body fatness in children and adolescents; it may School-aged Children (HBSC) survey reported
also exert a positive influence on psychological that less than half of young people met the
health and cognitive performance (Janssen & physical activity recommendation of one hour
LeBlanc, 2010). In addition, findings from large- or more of at-least moderate activity each day
scale studies have suggested that high physical (Currie et al., 2008). Even worse, in the United
fitness during adolescence and young adulthood Kingdom, this guideline is not met by the vast
is related to a healthy risk-factor profile later in majority of children; indeed, only 20 percent
life (Janssen & LeBlanc; Twisk, Kemper, & Van of girls and 23 percent of boys in England are
Mechelen, 2002). at least moderately active for one hour or more
Having said all this, the health benefits of on a daily basis (HSCIC, 2016). This pattern of
physical activity and physical fitness for children boys being proportionally more active than girls
are not as well established as they are for adults. holds true across all countries and all age groups
In addition, the associations between, on one (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
hand, physical activity and physical fitness and, Development [OECD], 2013).
on the other hand, some health benefits for chil- In recent years, physical activity levels have
dren appear to be only small or relatively weak. dropped among children and young people;
These gaps may result from the following factors: moreover, physical activity tends to decline during
adolescence. The Health Survey for England 2015
•• We lack a sufficient number of large-scale, (HSCIC, 2016) identified decreases between 2008
longitudinal studies conducted on children, and 2015 in the proportion of both girls and boys
and such studies must contend with difficul- who met health guidelines for physical activity.
ties in measuring children’s health, fitness The decrease was more marked in the oldest age
and activity. group. Also, time spent being sedentary both
during the week and at weekends increased with even as schools are increasingly asked to address
age (HSCIC, 2016). Having said this, the Health public health concerns (e.g., poor nutritional
Survey for England excludes school-based activi- behaviours, unwanted pregnancies, tobacco use),
ties which clearly form a key source of both sed- they themselves are grappling with issues such
entary and active behaviours. as insufficient training, financial constraints and
Similar patterns have been found among chil- competing elements in a finite curriculum. Third,
dren and young people both in other countries in some argue that the core business of schools is
the United Kingdom—in the Welsh Health Survey not to reduce health problems but to focus on
2016 (Welsh Government, 2017), the Scottish educational outcomes (Gard & Pluim, 2014; St.
Health Survey 2015 (Scottish Government, 2016) Leger, 2004; Thomas, 2004). Whilst these fac-
and the Young People and Sport in Northern tors undoubtedly limit schools’ effectiveness in
Ireland survey (2016)—and around the world addressing societal health problems, they should
(OECD, 2013). To add to the complexity of the not stop schools from contributing what they
situation, national surveys from all UK countries can to health education and promotion among
and international data point to differences in children.
physical activity participation associated with a Within this broader context, the promotion
range of additional variables, such as geographi- of active lifestyles remains a widely accepted
cal region, urban or rural location, culture, reli- goal of school physical education, both in the
gion, and special needs and disabilities. United Kingdom and across the world (Austra-
Patterns of health-related behaviours are often lian Curriculum and Reporting Authority, 2011;
acquired and established during childhood and Department for Education, 2013). One reason for
adolescence. For example, physical activity tracks this focus lies in the fact that physical educators
into adulthood (Twisk, Kemper, & Van Mechelen, (along with some teachers of other curriculum
2000) and up to 79 percent of children in England subjects) possess appropriate knowledge and
who are obese in their teens are likely to remain expertise. In addition, PE contributes to a broad
obese as adults (NICE, 2015; Telema, 2009). and balanced curriculum that promotes pupils’
spiritual, cultural, mental and physical develop-
ment. Physical education can also raise aware-
Schools’ Effectiveness in ness, develop knowledge and understanding and
enhance positive attitudes in young people with
Promoting Active Lifestyles respect to health and physical activity. Indeed,
school-based physical activity and physical edu-
Schools provide an important avenue through cation programmes (in addition to other aspects
which to promote healthy, active lifestyles among of the curriculum) have been shown over the
children because they years to promote knowledge and understanding
•• reach the vast majority of children and of physical activity, positive attitudes towards
adolescents, PE and physical activity, increased activity and
fitness levels and healthy dietary behaviours (as
•• influence children’s behaviour for 40 percent
exemplified in reviews by Cale & Harris, 2005,
or more of their waking time,
2006; De Meester, van Lenthe, Spittaels, Lien,
•• can improve the health of young people by & De Bourdeauhuij, 2009; Demetriou & Honer,
providing programmes and services that pro- 2012; Dobbins, De Corby, Robeson, Husson, &
mote enjoyable physical activity delivered by Tirilis, 2009; Dobbins, Husson, De Corby, & La
professionals and Rocca, 2013; Kriemler et al., 2011; Stone, McKen-
•• can influence not only young people but also zie, Welk, & Booth, 1998; and van Sluijs, McMinn,
their families. & Griffin, 2007).
Even so, schools’ effectiveness in addressing

societal health problems has been questioned Health-Related Recommendations
for a number of reasons (Gard & Pluim, 2014; for Children
St. Leger, 2004; Thomas, 2004). First, school
influence does not extend to certain factors that Whilst this book focuses on promoting active
affect young people’s health, such as genetics, lifestyles, the work of doing so must be seen in
environment and family modelling. Second, the broader context of schools’ role in encourag-
ROUTE 2 GOOD HEALTH: PROMOTING HEALTHY

BEHAVIOURS IN SCHOOLS
One secondary school implemented a whole-school initiative to promote healthy behaviours among its pupils.
In particular, the school governors and staff were keen to address childhood obesity as they were aware of an
increase in childhood and adult obesity in their geographical area and considered it an issue in their school. As a
consequence, the health behaviours targeted were healthy eating, healthy drinking and activity.
The initiative, named Route 2 Good Health, was introduced during assemblies for pupils in years 7 and 8
(i.e., 11- to 13-year-olds) at the beginning of the school year. It was also incorporated into the school’s per-
sonal, social, health and economic (PSHE) education programme in the form of specific lessons at the start of
each school term for years 7 and 8. Parents were informed of the initiative by means of a leaflet taken home by
pupils and through information provided on the school’s website. Parents were asked to support the initiative by
encouraging their children to make healthy food, drink and activity choices (e.g., eating fruits and vegetables and
walking or cycling to school).
Discussion points: What possible objections might parents raise to this sort of initiative? How would you deal
with parents who took offense at the implication that they were not providing healthy food and drink to their
child?
As part of the initiative, each pupil in years 7 and 8 was given a Route 2 Good Health booklet outlining the
benefits of healthy eating and drinking and of being active. These benefits were also discussed in the Route 2
Good Health lessons in the PSHE programme, as were the consequences of not eating and drinking healthily
and of being inactive. The booklet prompted pupils to reflect on their current eating, drinking and activity habits
and to consider ways of improving these health behaviours. Planned improvements were recorded in the form of
short-term, medium-term and long-term targets.
Discussion point: What are some examples of possible planned improvements in children’s eating, drinking and
activity habits?
The booklet also included pages on which to record eating, drinking and activity behaviours both in and out
of school. Positive health behaviours demonstrated in school—for example, consuming or purchasing healthy
meals and drinks at lunchtime and participating in extracurricular physical activity sessions—were rewarded with
a stamp in the booklet from canteen staff and teachers. Pupils with the most stamps at the end of each school
term received prizes at assemblies. These prizes included vouchers to spend at sport shops or local leisure cen-
tres.
Discussion points: Do you think it appropriate to offer extrinsic rewards to motivate children to adopt healthy
behaviours? Why, or why not? If they are used, what intrinsic rewards might be offered?
Teachers reported that the pupils generally welcomed the initiative, and there was an increase both in healthy
food and drink choices and in participation in extracurricular activity sessions. In addition, pupils gave positive
reports on the initiative in school council meetings. Accordingly, a one-year review of the initiative concluded that
it had improved the health behaviours of many pupils. Recommendations for the future included recording and
rewarding health behaviours performed outside of school and involving parents in confirming or ‘stamping’ these
behaviours.
Discussion points: What are the possible benefits and limitations of increasing parental involvement in the pro-
gramme? What actions might be taken to help sustain the programme?
ing young people to engage in lifestyles that are drinks. For example, the Department of Health’s
healthy overall. Recommendations related to 2009 Change4Life campaign helps families and
physical activity and diet generally include being individuals make small, sustainable improve-
active on a daily basis, eating plenty of fruits and ments to their diet, activity levels and alcohol con-
vegetables and drinking water instead of fizzy sumption levels. Using the slogan ‘eat well, move
PE programmes and educators can influence and promote healthy levels of physical activity not just in the
classroom but for a child’s lifetime.
more, live longer’, the programme recommends something different, such as taking a bath
adopting the following six health behaviours: or engaging in a new hobby)
6. Leading an active lifestyle (e.g., garden-
1. Eating five portions in total of fruits and
ing; walking or cycling to school or work;
vegetables each day (e.g., by adding fruit to
taking up an active hobby)
cereal or choosing canned fruit in its own
juice rather than in sugary syrup) Sport Northern Ireland (2009) has mounted
2. Reducing salt intake (e.g., swopping crisps, a similar social marketing campaign, Activ8, to
salted nuts and salty snacks for plain rice raise awareness among primary school children
cakes, chopped fruit, veggie sticks or about the importance of daily physical activity
unsalted nuts; using less sauce or reduced- and a healthy, balanced diet. The programme
salt sauce) promotes the following points:
3. Cutting back on saturated fat (e.g., choos- 1. Move your body.
ing oven chips instead of fried chips; grill- 2. Be part of a team.
ing or baking instead of frying; reducing
or giving up pastries; choosing reduced-fat 3. Create your own game.
cheese) 4. Involve your family.
4. Reducing sugar intake (e.g., replacing jams 5. Eat well.
and chocolate spreads with soft fruits; 6. Go outdoors.
replacing sweet cereals with low-sugar 7. Be a leader.
cereals and fruits)
8. Measure your success.
5. Cutting down on alcohol consumption
(e.g., drinking only with meals; resisting The World Health Organisation (2008) has
pressure to ‘keep up’ with others; doing established a global strategy on diet, physical
activity and health in order to combat increases •• Children and young people aged 5 to 17 years
among children in noncommunicable diseases old should accumulate at least 60 minutes
predominantly related to unhealthy diet and per day of moderate- to vigorous-intensity
physical inactivity. As part of this strategy, schools physical activity.
are encouraged to consider a range of process and •• Engaging in more than 60 minutes per day of
output indicators, such as the following: physical activity provides additional health
benefits.
•• Developing and disseminating a school
policy to promote healthy eating and •• Most daily physical activity should be aero-
increased physical activity bic.
•• Gathering baseline information about pupils’ •• Vigorous-intensity activities should be incor-
awareness of the benefits of healthy eating porated, including those that strengthen
and physical activity muscle and bone, at least three times per
week.
•• Designing and implementing a plan with
clear goals related to the school curriculum
and environment
Schools are also asked to consider a range of

short-term, intermediate and long-term outcome
indicators. Examples include the proportion of
pupils demonstrating knowledge and understand-
ing of healthy eating habits and the benefits of
physical activity (short-term outcome), partici-
pating in at least one hour of physical activity
per day (intermediate outcome) and being obese
(long-term outcome).
Such campaigns communicate important
health messages in straightforward language for
their respective audiences. However, their ability
to bring about positive changes in behaviour is
often constrained by the limited funds available
for disseminating key messages to target audi-
ences and evaluating a campaign’s effects. Whilst
campaigns can make important contributions
to positive behaviour change, the reality is that
they can do only so much, given the challenge
and complexity of changing behaviour, especially
behaviour that is well established.
Physical Activity
Recommendations for Children
Over the years, experts have produced various
physical activity recommendations, such as the
global recommendations from the WHO (2010)
on physical activity for health for 5- to 17-year-
olds (as well as recommendations for younger and
older age groups). Specifically, the WHO offers
the following recommendations for school-age
pupils to reduce signs of anxiety and depression
and improve cardiorespiratory and muscular The World Health Organisation provides
fitness, bone health, and cardiovascular and recommendations for the health and welfare
metabolic health markers: of children around the globe.
For this age group, the WHO proposes that physi- engaging in less activity than recommended does
cal activity include play, games, sport, transpor- not necessarily mean that the activity will not be
tation, recreation, and PE or planned exercise beneficial; to the contrary, any increase in physi-
in the context of family, school and community cal activity may provide some health benefits for
activities. young people. As a result, simple messages such
WHO recommendations regarding physical as ‘some is better than none’ and ‘try to do a bit
activity for health promote a consistent public more’ may lead to some of the same benefits and
health message and are age specific and culturally are likely to be more easily achievable by most.
appropriate. They are also realistic and attainable The recommendations are also limited by the
by the groups for whom they are intended. This assumption that children will be able to make
quality is enhanced by the emphasis on moderate time, will wish to do so, or will find suitable
as well as vigorous physical activity. That is, whilst opportunities to exercise frequently for as much
some vigorous-intensity activity is recommended as an hour a day. The commonly held view that
at least three times per week, physical activity children have ample time and energy for activity
does not have to be strenuous in order to provide is debatable, especially for older children who
benefits. This range of options should make the must meet commitments at school, at home and
prospect of participating more appealing for more possibly in part-time work positions. Therefore,
youngsters. In addition, the message that physical even though physical activity can be accumulated
activity can be accumulated over the course of throughout the day, the recommendations still
the day makes the recommendations particularly require children to be sufficiently motivated and
appropriate for younger children, whose activity to either have or know how to make sufficient
patterns tend to be sporadic and transitory. time for such activity.
The recommendations are further strength- Another limitation lies in the fact that the rec-
ened by their use of the broad term physical ommendations may not be well known among
activity, which can include activities as diverse young people (HSCIC, 2008). In fact, it has been
as play, exercise, sport, dance and active living. reported that only 10 percent of 12- to 15-year-
This term is preferable to the narrower exercise, olds in England were familiar with the recom-
which is commonly perceived as involving hard mendations for their age (Roth & Stamatakis,
work, strenuous activity and perhaps organised 2010). Moreover, the recommendations are not
sport (and therefore seems unattractive or even yet included in the formal curriculum of many
intimidating to some young people). Physical schools.
activity, in contrast, is characterized by flexibil- Furthermore, confusion sometimes arises
ity in that the activity can vary from day to day between recommendations for physical activity
in terms of type, setting, intensity, duration and for health and government targets relating to
amount; it also affords various ways to meet the how much time children should spend on PE and
recommendations according to a child’s stage of sport in schools. Examples of government targets
maturation. In addition, the recommendations include a previous long-term ambition in England
promote a range of components of physical fit- to ensure that all children had two hours per
ness, including muscular strength and aerobic week of curriculum physical education and the
fitness. Finally, they are reasonably straightfor- opportunity to access an additional two to three
ward and child friendly in comparison with some hours of sport beyond the curriculum. Similarly,
previous guidelines (some of which, for example, the Northern Irish, Scottish and Welsh govern-
specified that activity intensity should fall within ments expected schools to work towards provid-
a specific range of percentage of maximum heart ing two hours per week of good-quality PE for
rate). each child, as well as opportunities to participate
At the same time, the recommendations are in at least two hours per week of extracurricular
marked by some limitations. For one thing, they sport. Whilst government targets such as these are
are based on relatively limited research evidence generally desirable, they usually set a standard
and are subject to the fact that gaps exist in significantly lower than the recommended hour
what we know about the association between per day of physical activity for health. At the same
physical activity and children’s health (Cale & time, the two sets of recommendations support
Harris, 2009). For example, it is difficult to pre- each other in that government targets for PE and
cisely quantify minimal and optimal amounts sport in schools help ensure increased opportu-
of physical activity for young people. Therefore, nities for children to achieve the recommended
hour per day. We must also recognise, however, pupils and encourage them to be active in
that children still need to be able to find ways of their own time.
being active for at least two to three hours per •• Discuss with pupils the nature, scope and
week while away from school (e.g., in and around use of physical activity recommendations
the home) whether with family or friends or on and share with them the limitations and
their own. cautions outlined in this chapter.
Given these various limitations, we propose
viewing the recommendations as principles Finally, we recommend adopting an individu-
rather than strict rules, rigid prescriptions or alised, personalised and differentiated approach
unyielding standards. In other words, they should when giving pupils guidance about physical activ-
be seen as goals to progress towards rather than ity. Pupils should be encouraged to set attainable
rigid standards dictating the same starting point short-term goals and engage in types and amounts
and rate of progression for every child and forcing of physical activity that are appropriate for and
children to participate in a fixed regime of physi- appealing to them (Cale & Harris, 2009).
cal activity (Cale & Harris, 2009). In addition, they
should be applied with both common sense and
sensitivity, taking into account children’s health Fitness Testing Recommendations
and activity histories, physical fitness levels, for Children
functional capacities, personal circumstances,
personalities, goals, preferences and dislikes. When exercise recommendations for young
Finally, we advocate the view that all physical people were first formulated in the 1970s and
activity—including activity of light intensity 1980s, they tended to mirror recommendations
(e.g., strolling, leisure walking)—provides health made for adults in terms of specifying the volume
benefits when performed safely. As a result, there of activity (i.e., frequency, intensity, time and type,
should be no hierarchy of activities, and pupils as specified in the acronymic FITT principle)
should be helped to learn to value all forms and required to bring about changes in fitness test
types of physical activity. scores. For example, in 1988, the American Col-
A key area to focus on is how recommenda- lege of Sports Medicine (ACSM) reported that
tions for physical activity for health are promoted, children should undertake vigorous exercise every
interpreted and accepted by teachers, health day for 20 to 30 minutes in order to experience
professionals, parents. Guidance for meeting fitness gains. The ACSM (1991, 1995) went on
physical activity recommendations for children to provide practical advice for those involved in
include the following: designing training programmes for children—for
example, gradually increasing the quantity of
•• Help pupils recognise barriers that restrict exercise; ensuring adequate muscular strength
their physical activity (e.g., lack of time, and flexibility; using proper body mechanics,
money, facilities, transport) and find ways proper footwear and appropriate running sur-
to overcome them. faces; and taking precautions in high-temperature
•• Help pupils appreciate the full range of environments.
physical activity opportunities available to In the 1970s and 1980s, the considerable
them and identify effective ways to incor- interest in fitness testing of children led to the
porate such activities into their daily lives development of fitness test batteries, such as,
(e.g., walking or cycling to school, shops or in 1976, the Youth Fitness Test provided by the
meetings with friends). American Alliance for Health, Physical Education
•• Spread the word: disseminate and promote and Recreation (AAHPER). Early test batteries
the recommendations and key messages to such as this one faced some criticism because
pupils, colleagues and other schools. they predominantly tested motor fitness (includ-
ing agility, balance, coordination and skill). Over
•• Make best use of the opportunities and time time, they lost popularity and were replaced by
provided through government targets to sup- different school-based programmes. For example,
port the recommended one hour of physical the Youth Fitness Test was replaced in 1988
activity per day. by Physical Best, which was provided by the
•• Enable the highest possible quality of PE renamed American Alliance for Health, Physical
and school sport experiences to motivate Education, Recreation and Dance (AAHPERD).
Also in the 1980s, the Cooper Institute for Aero- •• Omission of a guideline relating to flexibility
bics Research introduced Fitnessgram, which was •• Addition of a guideline relating to minimiz-
intended to address concerns about fitness testing ing sedentary behaviour
of children and resulted in more comprehensive
fitness education programmes. Fitnessgram These guidelines sit alongside the similar WHO
has since been successfully updated and further recommendations outlined earlier in this chapter.
developed and is widely used as an education Both recommend at least one hour of moderate to
programme (Plowman et al., 2006; Morrow, Scott, vigorous physical activity per day for 5- to 17-year-
Martin, & Jackson, 2010). olds and encourage vigorous activities that
Over time, specific fitness recommendations strengthen muscle and bone at least three times
for children came to be replaced by more holistic per week. The two sets of recommendations differ
physical activity guidelines, such as the Children’s only in that the WHO guidelines explicitly state
Lifetime Physical Activity Model (Corbin, Pan- that physical activity of amounts greater than 60
grazi, & Welk, 1994). This model proposed, as a minutes per day will provide additional health
minimum, that children should engage in daily benefits, whereas the UK guidelines state that
moderate physical activity for 30 minutes or more all children and young people should minimise
spread across three or more sessions per day time spent being sedentary (sitting) for extended
through childhood games and lifestyle activities periods. Given their similarities, both sets of rec-
(e.g., walking to school). Four years later, in Eng- ommendations are advocated for use in schools.
land, the Health Education Authority established As discussed earlier, the recommendations are
recommendations for young people which have characterized by both strengths and limitations,
since been replaced by UK-wide physical activity and we advise taking care to implement them
guidelines for children and young people aged 5 sensitively and wisely.
to 18 years (Department of Health; Department A quiz titled Children’s Health, Activity and Fit-
of Health, Social Sciences and Public Safety; ness Recommendations is available for printing
Scottish Government; Welsh Government; 2011). or completing electronically in the web resource.
These newer guidelines state the following: This quiz has been created for use with children
in upper primary or lower secondary school. It
1. All children and young people should includes a series of questions based on health
engage in moderate to vigorous intensity recommendations associated with nutrition and
physical activity for at least 60 minutes and physical activity. The questions address points
up to several hours every day.
2. Vigorous intensity activities, including
those that strengthen muscle and bone,
should be incorporated at least three days
a week.
3. All children and young people should
minimise the amount of time spent being
sedentary (sitting) for extended periods.
The 2011 UK-wide physical activity guidelines

differed from the previous guidelines for this age
in the following ways:
•• Inclusion of vigorous physical activity in

recognition of the additional benefits it can
provide
•• Emphasis of 60 minutes per day as a mini-
mum with the addition of the statement ‘and
up to several hours every day’
•• Increased frequency of activities to
strengthen muscle and bone (from two days
to at least three days per week)
such as how much of one’s diet should consist •• have only a superficial understanding of the
of fruits and vegetables each day and how much relationship between health and exercise.
activity should be done by children aged 5 to 17
years; answers are included. The quiz can be used It has been suggested that young people’s inad-
to gauge children’s knowledge and understand- equate or inaccurate understandings of health,
ing of common health guidelines before teaching fitness and physical activity may result from how
them about healthy eating and active living. these subjects are taught in schools and addressed
in popular culture (Burrows & Wright, 2004; Bur-
rows et al., 2002; Lee & Macdonald, 2009, 2010).
This may be true, for instance, of approaches
Common Misconceptions steeped in ‘healthism’ discourse, which is based
on the notion that health can be achieved ‘unprob-
About Children’s Health, lematically through individual effort and disci-
Activity and Fitness pline, directed mainly at regulating the size and
shape of the body’ (Crawford, cited in Kirk and
Colquhoun, 1989, p. 419). Such approaches may
Studies over a number of decades and from
lead young people to develop reductive, limited
across the world have shown that children hold
and limiting conceptualisations of health, fitness
misconceptions and misunderstandings about
and physical activity (Burrows, 2008; Burrows
health, activity and fitness (Brusseau, Kulinna,
& Wright, 2004; Burrows et al., 2002; Burrows,
& Cothran, 2011; Burrows & Wright, 2004; Bur-
Wright, & McCormack, 2009; Harris et al.,
rows, Wright, & Jungersen-Smith, 2002; Dixey,
2016; Lee & Macdonald, 2009, 2010). Moreover,
Sahota, Atwal, & Turner, 2001; Harris, 1993, 1994;
young people’s engagement with healthism dis-
Harris, Cale, Duncombe, & Musson, 2016; Keat-
courses may be facilitated by well-meaning but
ing et al., 2009; Merkle & Treagust, 1993; O’Shea
inadequately prepared teachers who themselves
& Beausoleil, 2012; Placek et al., 2001; Powell
hold narrow, reductive views of health, fitness
& Fitzpatrick, 2015; Stewart & Mitchell, 2003).
and physical activity (Harris et al., 2016; Lee &
For example, children tend to consider health
Macdonald, 2009, 2010). Such cases may result
almost exclusively in a physical or corporeal sense
in schools falling well short of their potential to
(predominantly in terms of body shape and size)
promote healthy, active lifestyles.
and view food and exercise as the main modera-
This danger implies an urgent need to increase
tors of health. They also tend to describe health
the breadth, depth and relevance of young peo-
from a negative perspective, stating what they
ple’s learning about health in schools. Specifically,
should avoid doing in order to stay healthy (e.g.,
a coordinated whole-school approach to teaching
eating sugary or fatty foods, being sedentary for
health would help young people connect learning
long periods) rather than what they should do.
across a range of subjects. In addition, we can
These findings suggest that children tend to have
adopt teaching approaches that help pupils relate
a somewhat narrow and negative perspective on
their learning to themselves and their everyday
what it means to be healthy.
lives. In PE, in particular, learning should chal-
These studies also provide evidence of worry-
lenge the narrow focus, misunderstandings and
ing gaps, and some confusion, in young people’s
misconceptions that many young people hold
knowledge and understanding of health, fitness
concerning health, fitness and physical activity.
and physical activity. For example, many young
Meeting this goal is likely to require us to develop
people
alternative approaches, both in initial teacher
•• think that fitness is about being thin and education and in professional development
looking good, related to PE-for-health pedagogies. Approaches
that address pupils’ misunderstandings and mis-
•• think that exercise must be hard in order conceptions are presented in parts 2 and 3 of this
to be good, book. You can also visit the web resource for a
•• fail to make informed links between exercise printable handout titled Debunking Myths and
or energy expenditure and being overweight Misconceptions About Children’s Health, Activity
or obese and and Fitness.
Summary
The rationale for promoting physical activity
among children has been strengthened in recent
decades, both by the growing evidence of the
benefits of physical activity in childhood and
by the increased prevalence of inactivity-related
health conditions among children. Schools
provide important avenues through which to
promote healthy lifestyles, as they reach virtually
all children and provide structured, progressive
programmes taught by professionals. In particu-
lar, school PE can play a key role in promoting
active ways of life. To help promote active life-
styles, we encourage you to make effective use
of well-established recommendations for activity
by children (at least one hour per day) and to be
mindful of the limitations of a ‘one size fits all’ or
testing-dominated approach in the school setting.
We also advise you to incorporate approaches that
address gaps, misunderstandings and misconcep-
tions in children’s knowledge and understanding
of health, fitness and physical activity.
2
Whole-School Approaches
to Promoting
Healthy Lifestyles
Chapter Objectives
▶▶ describe whole-school approaches (e.g., healthy-school programmes)
to enhancing health behaviours;

▶▶ appreciate the multidimensional nature of health in its physical, psy-
chological and social aspects, which involve individuals, groups, com-

munities and the environment;
▶▶ recognise various approaches to health education that draw from
selected health behaviour theories and models;

▶▶ identify active schools that explicitly commit to maximising opportuni-
ties for all adults and children in school to be active;

▶▶ make use of active pedagogies in lessons and activity breaks during the
school day to increase pupils’ activity levels in the school setting; and
▶▶ understand that promoting activity involves collaboration among all
who exercise significant influence on pupils.
15
H ealthy schools aim to achieve healthy life-

styles for the entire school population—
pupils; teaching, support and administrative
•• were aware of a range of relevant initiatives
and networks and took advantage of appro-
priate opportunities to promote and develop
staff; governors; and parents—by developing a physical activity; and
supportive environment conducive to the pro- •• encouraged staff, parents and other adults to
motion of health. A healthy school depends on become more involved in promoting physi-
three key elements: curriculum, environment (or cal activity and helped them develop their
‘hidden’ curriculum) and community. In addition, skills, abilities and understanding through
a healthy school is committed to promoting good appropriate training.
health through its curricular, extracurricular and (Department for Education and Employment, 1999)
organisational practices.
Whole-school approaches to encouraging and As part of this programme, a toolkit was
enhancing health behaviours have emerged as a designed to help schools ‘plan, do and review’
global priority (Stewart-Brown, 2006). As a result, health and well-being improvements for their
whole-school initiatives have been designed and pupils and identify and select effective activities
implemented in many countries to help create and interventions (Department of Health, 2005).
schools that The ‘plan’ phase included selecting health and
well-being priorities based on data about pupils’
•• identify health as a central feature of the needs, defining outcomes and identifying pos-
school agenda; sible activities and interventions to achieve those
•• foster positive attitudes towards health outcomes. The ‘do’ phase involved selecting and
among staff and pupils; implementing activities and interventions to help
•• reinforce and reward health knowledge and achieve the desired outcomes, monitoring prog-
understanding and healthy behaviour; ress towards the outcomes and making any nec-
essary adjustments to milestones and outcomes.
•• acknowledge that behaviour is influenced The ‘review’ phase required schools to evaluate
by a range of factors that go beyond simply achievement of outcomes, share and celebrate
holding individuals responsible for their improvements in pupils’ health and well-being
health and activity; and and review the provision of programming to
•• share responsibility for promoting healthy promote health and well-being.
lifestyles and encourage working in partner- Another national approach to developing
ship to enhance health. healthy schools has been mounted in Wales
through the Welsh Network of Healthy School
Schemes. This effort, launched in 1999, uses
Creating a Healthy School National Quality Award indicators relating to
seven key health topics: food and fitness, emo-
Back in the late 1990s, the National Healthy tional health and well-being, personal devel-
Schools Programme was launched by the gov- opment and relationships, substance use and
ernment in England to raise awareness of school misuse, environment, safety and hygiene. The
opportunities to improve the health of children, indicators for these health topics are expressed
teachers, families and the local community. in the following aspects of school life (Welsh
The initial version of the programme included Assembly Government, 2009).
national quality standards for healthy schools
based on a number of health themes, one of which •• Leadership and communication: policy
was physical activity. In order to achieve in this developed by a working group that includes
area, schools had to demonstrate that they pupils; evidence of complementary roles of
policy and curriculum; appropriate training
•• took a whole-school approach to promoting for teachers; school engagement with and
physical activity; support of community initiatives
•• offered all pupils, regardless of age or abil- •• Curriculum: schemes of work that identify
ity, at least two hours of physical activity physical activity, oral health and nutrition
per week within and two hours outside the (including links between food and fitness
curriculum; and mental and emotional health and well-
Whole-School Approaches to Promoting Healthy Lifestyles 17
being) and reflect policy; school commit- Similarly, in 2004, Scotland launched a
ment to providing two hours of high-quality national framework for health-promoting schools
PE per week for every pupil; provisions under the banner of Being Well—Doing Well.
of consistent messages (and avoidance of This approach identifies key characteristics of
mixed messages) in relation to diet, oral health-promoting schools in relation to the fol-
health and physical activity lowing areas: leadership and management; ethos;
•• Ethos and environment: evidence of food partnership working; curriculum, learning and
and fitness initiatives that actively involve teaching; personal, social, health and economic
pupils; encouragement of all staff to demon- education programmes; and environment,
strate behaviours consistent with policy on resources and facilities (Scottish Health Promot-
food and fitness; environment that encour- ing Schools Unit, 2004). In 2008, the Schools
ages physical activity (Health Promotion and Nutrition) (Scotland) Act
published further guidance for schools, which
•• Family and community involvement:
described health-promoting schools as those that
well-informed parents and governors who
understand the importance of policy on •• ensure entitlement to and participation in
good nutrition and physical activity, for physically healthy activities for all, particu-
both pupils and themselves; links with local larly those who are less active;
community organisations, sport clubs and
businesses to support the food and fitness •• embed physical activity within the school
agenda; use of expertise from parents and development plan;
community members to support curricular •• build PE into a whole-school approach
or, if appropriate, noncurricular activities to promoting health and physical activity
Programmes should help pupils understand the various ways to lead healthy lives; they should not focus solely on
exercise and sport.
across the curriculum, most notably in PE,

physical activity and sport but also, for
Health Education Models
example, in the sciences (e.g., beneficial and Approaches
effects of regular exercise, need for good
personal hygiene and dental hygiene) and in Health education provides planned opportuni-
mathematics (e.g., BMI, comparing energy ties for participants to develop knowledge and
intake and energy expenditure); life skills conducive to individual and community
health. It views health as a multidimensional
•• maximise opportunities for pupils to be
phenomenon including mental, physical, spiritual
active in the classroom throughout the
and emotional aspects and concerning individu-
school day in order to improve concentration
als, groups, communities and the environment.
and focus for learning;
Health education can be implemented through
•• help pupils understand that physical activ- a variety of approaches drawing from a range of
ity can be incorporated into all aspects of health behaviour theories and models. Here are
school life, and life beyond school, through selected approaches considered relevant to the
such activities as walking to and from school school setting.
or work, attending a dance class, playing
outside with friends, rambling and cycling; •• Rational model: Also known as the ‘knowl-
•• provide opportunities and space for physical edge, attitudes, practices’ model, this
activity, play, eating, socialising and privacy; approach is based on the premise that
increasing a person’s knowledge will lead
•• ensure that school grounds are clean, safe to changes in attitude and behaviour. It is
and maintained to a high standard in order now generally considered to be a somewhat
to encourage pupils to be physically active; simplistic model of behaviour change.
•• promote active travel, such as walking and •• Health belief model: This more complex
cycling to school, and provide cycle racks, approach centres on the premise that health-
secure lockers and appropriate areas for related decision making and behaviour are
changing and showering; and based on a range of factors, including per-
•• provide physical activity opportunities ceived susceptibility to an identified threat,
through wider school and community activi- severity of the threat, benefits and barriers,
ties to allow young people to be physically cues to action and self-efficacy.
active in less formal settings and to give them •• Transtheoretical model of change: This
more choice and influence regarding the model views behaviour change in terms of
types of activities in which they participate progression through five stages of readiness
(Scottish Government, 2008). to change: precontemplation (not thinking
about change), contemplation (starting to
Northern Ireland has a similar programme,
think about change), preparation (ready
known as Health Action Schools, which was set
to take action), action (making changes in
up in 2003 by Action Cancer. This programme
behaviour) and maintenance (sustaining
is designed to improve knowledge of health and
behaviour change).
encourage pupils to take ownership of their
lifestyle choices. It also provides gold, silver •• Theory of planned behaviour: This approach
and bronze Health Action awards to schools. holds that intent is influenced not only by
The programme for nursery schools introduces one’s attitude towards behaviour but also
pupils to ‘golden rules’ for being healthy in rela- by one’s perception of social norms (i.e., the
tion to eating, exercise, smoking and sun safety. strength of others’ opinions about the behav-
The primary-school programme focuses on the iour and one’s own motivation to comply
dangers of smoking and of drinking alcohol; the with the opinions of significant others)
importance of eating a healthy, balanced diet; the and one’s degree of perceived behavioural
effects of being physically active; and ways to stay control.
safe in the sun. The programme for secondary •• Activated health education model: This
school includes workshop-based sessions that three-phase model holds particular rel-
cover healthy eating, exercise, cancer awareness, evance for schools. The first phase, which
smoking and alcohol. is experiential, actively engages individuals
in assessing their health. The second phase, is effectively structured, planned, delivered
which involves awareness, presents infor- and evaluated.
mation and creates awareness of the target •• Promote physical activity throughout the
behaviour. The third phase, which focuses curriculum.
on responsibility, helps individuals identify
•• Monitor pupils’ levels of involvement in sport
personal responsibility, clarify personal
and activity (both in and out of school).
health values and develop a customised plan
for behaviour change. •• Reduce the proportion of nonparticipating
Based on World Health Organization 2012. pupils in PE.
•• Provide an extracurricular programme
These approaches go some way towards con-
that includes a broad range of purpose-
veying the challenge of health behaviour change,
ful and enjoyable physical activities (e.g.,
which involves a complex interplay of knowledge,
competitive and noncompetitive, team and
understanding and attitudes and is influenced by
individual).
social norms. Awareness of these approaches can
help you make appropriate decisions about how •• Increase the proportion of pupils who regu-
to deliver health-related topics. These decisions larly participate in extracurricular activities.
can facilitate curriculum-focused outcomes that •• Increase the proportion of staff who regu-
go well beyond increased knowledge and under- larly contribute to the extracurricular pro-
standing and include the development of par- gramme.
ticular skills and attributes, as well as enhanced •• Organise events (in both curricular and
attitudes towards adopting healthy lifestyles. extracurricular time) that promote physi-
cal activity (e.g., sport days, activity weeks,
taster sessions).
Active Schools Models •• Identify both quantitative and qualitative
and Approaches targets related to health in PE development
plans.
The same three elements that have traditionally
formed the basis of a healthy schools model—cur- Environment (Hidden Curriculum)
riculum, environment and community—are also •• Provide areas for play that are safe, adequate
important in an active schools model. An active and stimulating (both indoors and outdoors).
school is expected to commit explicitly to physi- •• Ensure that sport and activity facilities are
cal activity and to maximise opportunities for adequate and well maintained.
activity among all adults and children associated
with the school (Cale, 1997; Fox, 1996; McMul- •• Make sport facilities and equipment avail-
len, Ni Chroinin, Tammelin, Pogorzelska, & Van able for recreational use at lunch and break
der Mars, 2015). The first steps recommended times.
in seeking to become an active school are to •• Create inclusive, eye-catching displays and
develop an active-school policy and set up an noticeboards about PE, sport and physi-
active-school committee. Here is an example of cal activity around the PE department and
an active-school policy. school.
Curriculum Community
•• Allocate at least two hours per week of cur- •• Raise awareness among and enlist support
riculum time for PE for all pupils. from staff, parents, governors and com-
•• Provide a broad, balanced, relevant and munity members for the physical activity
high-quality PE programme that complies messages promoted in school.
with statutory requirements and is acces- •• Provide all pupils with accurate, up-to-date
sible to and meets the needs and interests information about the activity opportunities
of all pupils. available in the local community.
•• Fully implement health-related PE require- •• Provide opportunities for pupils, staff, gov-
ments through a programme of study that ernors and parents to be active.
•• Develop alliances and partnerships with

local providers (e.g., sport clubs, leisure cen-
tres) to increase opportunities for activity.
•• Formulate an active-school committee (with
pupil, staff, governor and parent representa-
tives) to develop, implement and evaluate
the effectiveness of the active-school policy.
Adapted, by permission, from L. Cale and J. Harris, 2009, Getting the buggers fit
(London: Continuum), 160-161. Used by permission of Bloomsbury Publishing Pic.
These models help ensure that activity promo-

tion is given high status and placed firmly on the
school agenda. They can also help you develop a
clear vision (in terms of goals and objectives to
increase activity), identify the means for realising
that vision, and coordinate and evaluate physical
activity strategies and initiatives in the school.
Instead of creating separate policies, schools
can incorporate physical activity objectives and
elements of an active-school policy into exist-
ing, related policies. As every school is differ-
ent—for example, in its location, composition
and resources—the content of any policy should
focus primarily on the needs of the school’s staff
and pupils. Moreover, the goals and strategies
emanating from the policy should be realistic
and feasible.
One flexible approach to promoting physical
activity is to adopt key principles that can be
applied in a range of ways in different schools.
The following list presents 10 PAL (promoting Schools can encourage pupils to become more active
active lifestyles) principles, some or all of which by integrating the use of activity trackers which provide
a clear visual account of activity during the day.
schools may be able to apply, depending on their
particular circumstances (for more about PAL,
see chapter 3).
1. Include guidelines for physical activity for 5. Promote active travel to school (e.g.,
health among children in both physical cycling, walking, scooting) and ensure safe
education and PSHE education (alongside storage of cycles and scooters.
other health guidelines). 6. Ensure that physical activity facilities
2. Discuss the promotion of active lifestyles, (including changing areas) are clean, safe
including marketing the ‘one hour a day’ and well managed.
physical activity guideline, with all staff, 7. Review the school’s extracurricular physi-
governors, pupils and parents. cal activity programme and consider how
3. Make the goal of increasing physical activ- accessible and appealing it is for all pupils.
ity levels an agenda item for school coun- 8. Encourage teachers from all subjects to
cils and encourage pupil representatives to contribute to the school’s extracurricular
propose ideas for achieving it. programme; when they do, reward them.
4. Increase activity levels in non-PE lessons 9. Visibly raise the profile of physical activity
by having pupils move more within the in school (e.g., via noticeboards, newslet-
learning environment (e.g., in the class- ters, intranet or website, assemblies, in-
room or outdoors). school screens and videos).
10. Develop good community links (e.g., with liaison among subject leaders at the school. Here
feeder or partner schools, local leisure are some examples.
centres and sport clubs) to increase the
quality and quantity of physical activity •• Mapping activities in humanities lessons
opportunities for pupils. (e.g., locating markers or geocaches in the
school grounds or local area)
•• Science investigations, such as changes to
Increasing Activity Levels pulse rate and breathing intensity during
various activities (e.g., walking, jogging,
in All Lessons skipping, walking up stairs)
•• Nature walks in science lessons
To build on physical activity provided in the PE •• Measurement activities in mathematics
curriculum and the extracurricular programme, lessons (e.g., monitoring distances covered
schools should consider increasing physical when walking, jogging, running or jumping)
activity across all areas of the curriculum (e.g.,
in English, maths and science lessons). This •• Activities to develop literacy and numeracy
approach is consistent with the active schools in PE lessons
philosophy, which aims to maximise opportuni-
ties for all adults and children in the school to Active Pedagogies
be active. With this end in mind, in recent years,
standing desks have been trialled in schools to Schools can also encourage the adoption of
help address sedentary behaviour, and studies in teaching approaches that increase pupils’ activity
England and Australia have found that the use levels during lessons. Such approaches, known as
of standing desks in primary schools resulted in active pedagogies, use tasks that involve chil-
more in-class activity (Clemes et al., 2015). Some dren in moving within the learning environment.
schools have also purchased activity trackers (e.g., One method to help pupils become more active
pedometers) to encourage increased physical is simply to have them answer a question (e.g.,
activity during the school day. Pedometers have How active should people of your age be?) by
been used in programmes such as Schools on the moving to the most appropriate response among
Move (Youth Sport Trust, Department for Educa- a range of options (only one of which is correct)
tion and Skills and Department of Health), which placed on large cards located in various parts of
have found them effective in increasing physical the learning area. You can tailor the questions,
activity among the school population (Lubans, answers and follow-up discussions differently for
Morgan, & Tudor-Locke, 2009; Stathi, Nordin, different age groups. For example, in working
& Riddoch, 2006). with pupils aged 7 through 11 years, you might
use the following question:
Active Cross-Curricular Links How often should you be active?
Cross-curricular links with an activity focus can For this question, the answers written on the
help increase the amount of time for which pupils cards could be as follows: once a week, every day,
are physically active during the school day; they twice a week, every other day, on school days only.
can also provide a different, stimulating environ- The simplicity of the question and the broad time
ment for effective learning (British Heart Foun- frames given in the answers match the level of
dation, 1999b). In addition, such links can help complexity and understanding of younger pupils.
pupils connect health-related learning in various The follow-up for pupils in this age range might
subjects—for example, the effects of exercise on be to inform them that they should be active every
the body, which is often taught in both physical day for an hour or more and that this time can
education and science lessons. These connections be made up of shorter periods of time (e.g., four
can make the learning experience more coherent 15-minute blocks or six 10-minute blocks). An
for pupils and improve the effectiveness of their associated numeracy challenge could be provided
learning. Ideas for increasing physical activity by asking the children to calculate different ways
across the curriculum can be generated through in which the one hour could be accumulated.
This challenge should include energetic activi- •• PE is good fun.

ties, including some that strengthen bones and •• I get bored during break times.
muscles.
•• I enjoy going to after-school activity and
When working with pupils aged 11 through 14
sport clubs.
years, the following question and answers might
be used to appeal to their ability to conceptualise •• I look forward to my PE lessons.
at higher levels: •• There is not much to do at lunchtimes.
How much activity should people of your age Response Statements for Pupils Aged 11
do?
to 14
Answer-station cards for this question could Young people’s responses to the following state-
include the following: 10 minutes of energetic ments can be used to trigger discussions about
activity every day, one hour of energetic activity what they like (and dislike) about fitness testing
each day, 30 minutes of activity every day, two and should also reveal their understanding of
hours of activity per week, 5 minutes of very ener- the relationships between fitness, activity and
getic activity daily. In the follow-up discussion, health. Young people should be informed that
young people should be made aware that one being active provides health benefits and can lead
hour of energetic physical activity is the mini- to improved fitness and that they should aim to
mum recommendation for good health and that be active for at least one hour per day. To see if
it should include some activities that strengthen they are meeting this recommendation, you might
muscles and bones. You could also point out to also encourage them to keep an activity diary for
them that the responses indicating 5, 10 and 30 a period of time.
minutes of activity, respectively, could be part of
the ‘one hour a day’ made up of multiple accu- •• Fitness testing is enjoyable.
mulated time blocks. You could also replace the •• Fitness testing is a good way to find out how
term ‘energetic’ in the ‘one hour a day’ response active you are.
with ‘moderate- to vigorous-intensity’ if the young •• We should be fitness-tested every term of
people have been taught these concepts. In the every year.
United Kingdom, many young people experi-
ence two hours of PE per week, and they should •• Fitness testing is good for you.
understand that this time contributes to the rec- •• I hate fitness testing.
ommended amount of physical activity per week
Another way to use active pedagogies in the
but falls well short of it (by five hours).
classroom is to ask pupils to demonstrate their
Another method of increasing physical activity
understanding of a topic or concept by moving
levels during lessons is to ask pupils to respond
to various locations in the learning area. For
to a series of statements (e.g., PE is good fun;
example, pupils might be asked to collect items
I hate fitness testing) by moving to the most
from around the room that are environmentally
appropriate response among a set of options
friendly. Here are some examples for two differ-
spaced around the learning environment. The
ent age groups:
available responses might include agree, not sure
and disagree for pupils aged 7 through 11 years
and strongly agree, agree, not sure (or don’t know
Suggested Tasks for Pupils Aged 7 to 11
or neutral), disagree and strongly disagree for •• Move to the equipment you need to use next.
pupils aged 11 through 14 years. Here are some
•• Touch five items in the room that are made
examples of statements and related discussions.
of plastic (or wood or metal).
Response Statements for Pupils Aged 7 •• Take your partner to the picture or photo-
to 11 graph that you like best and tell him or her
Children’s responses to the following statements why you like it so much.
can be used to trigger discussions about what •• Move around the area and choose a tree
they like (and dislike) about PE and about the (or shrub or flower) that you would like to
range of active choices available during breaks sketch. Then collect the equipment needed
and lunchtimes. for sketching and set yourself up to start.
•• In a group of three, act out how the sun, associated with a series of health messages
earth and moon move in relation to each such as ‘an hour a day keeps the doctor at
other. bay’. An example for this particular message
could include a sequence of actions designed
Suggested Tasks for Pupils Aged 11 to 14 to represent ‘an hour’, ‘a day’, ‘doctor’ and
‘keep…at bay’.
•• Move around the room and rate the various
Here are some examples of heart-health
items or products (according to indicated
messages for 7- through 11-year-olds:
criteria). Then take your group to the items
or products that you have rated the highest •• Being active is good for your heart.
(first and second) and explain why you rated •• Activity strengthens your muscles and
them so highly. bones.
•• Have each person in your group select one •• Being active should be a daily habit, like
item in the area to use in a group design. brushing your teeth.
Show your selected items to the group and •• Move more; sit less.
explain why you chose them. As a group,
discuss whether—and if so, how—each item •• Active children are happy children.
could be used in the group design. And here are some examples of heart-
•• As part of your warm-up, use five ways of health messages for 11- through 14-year-
travelling on your feet while progressing olds:
gradually from first ‘gear’ to fifth.
•• An hour a day keeps the doctor at bay.
•• Choose one photograph from those on dis-
•• Some activity is better than none.
play around the room. Think of a story that
could be associated with this photograph. •• Get into a habit of activity—it all adds up.
Take your partner to see your selected pho- •• Excellence in PE is maintaining an active
tograph and tell her or him your story. lifestyle.
•• Collect matching items from around the •• Friends who are active together stick
room, as well as one that does not match. Ask together.
your group to work out and explain which
•• Asking pupils to lead exercises for their peers
items match and why—and which item is
the odd one out. •• Asking pupils to sing and move to action
songs, such as ‘Head, Shoulders, Knees and
Activity Breaks Toes’ (and to progress to creating their own
action songs)
Another way to increase pupils’ physical activity •• Asking pupils to play simple action games,
participation is to incorporate activity breaks such as Simon Says (and to progress to cre-
within the school day (British Heart Foundation, ating their own action games)
1999a). Teachers who have used this approach
have reported positive responses from pupils, •• Asking pupils to design actions for use with
including increased concentration and improved popular music and teach them to peers or
behaviour (Donnelly, 2011). To help maximise younger pupils
learning time, these breaks can be associated A number of organisations have provided activ-
with key concepts or health messages. Here are ity ideas for the classroom, hall or playground.
a few possibilities. Examples include Take 10—Fit to Succeed and
Take 10—Every Move Counts (Devon Local
•• Incorporating an active start to, or com-
Authority), Activators Cards (Norfolk County
ponent within, each lesson, as seen in the
Council), Class Moves (Welsh Assembly Govern-
examples provided in the previous section
ment and NHS Health Scotland) and 10 Minute
on active pedagogies
Shake Up resources (Public Health England,
•• Informing pupils about the next topic or task 2017). Though some of these ideas have yet to
during a walk outside be formally evaluated, findings regarding those
•• Asking pupils to perform actions in the that have been studied suggest that they can help
classroom (with or without music) that are increase the physical activity levels of all pupils
in the school setting (Lowden, Powney, Davidson,

& James, 2001).
Working With Parents
Activity breaks should be seen not as a replace- to Promote Active Lifestyles
ment for curriculum physical education but as a
complement to it. School PE lessons provide the A holistic approach to promoting active lifestyles
means by which pupils learn to become physically involves collaboration among all those who exert
competent in a broad range of physical activities significant influence on pupils, including parents
and develop valuable transferable skills such as and other family members (e.g., siblings, grand-
cooperation, collaboration, teamwork, persever- parents). Research indicates that children and
ance and resilience. This learning must not be young people are more likely to be active if their
replaced with activity breaks. parents and other family members are active,
HEALTHIER TOGETHER
An inner-city secondary school and its eight feeder primary schools decided to make a concerted effort to
work with parents to promote healthy lifestyles in the local community. The initiative, known as Healthier
Together, was proposed by a member of the senior school management team and discussed with gover-
nors to ensure high-level approval from the outset. In collaboration with parent–teacher committees, a
programme flier was developed to outline the schools’ ambition of promoting healthy behaviours among
pupils and their families and to describe the plan for achieving this goal. The flier also included informa-
tion about the benefits of healthy lifestyles and the possible consequences of unhealthy ways of life. It was
shared with all staff and parents in the respective schools.
Discussion point: How important do you think it is to involve parents in the development of such an initia-
tive, and why?
In addition, organisers distributed a calendar of Healthier Together events scheduled for the academic
year. These events included activity and healthy-eating events involving pupils and their families—for
example, a Jolly January Jog, a Summer Sunset Stroll and a Healthy Bake-Off.
Discussion point: What are some other ideas for family-oriented events to promote and support healthy
living?
The initiative also included a call-out (via website, e-mail and text) for parents to support extracurricular
school activities and sports by assisting with supervision, equipment, refreshments and kit. Parents were
also asked if they had any expertise or other qualifications in various activities and sports or would be will-
ing to obtain a suitable qualification (with partial funding) in order to contribute to extracurricular sessions.
Discussion points: What are your views on involving parents in delivering or supporting extracurricular
sessions? What quality-assurance issues would schools need to consider in order to ensure the safety and
well-being of their pupils?
The schools ran the initiative for a full school year and then evaluated its success, both in terms of
increasing awareness and uptake of healthy behaviours among pupils, parents and in terms of increasing
involvement of parents in extracurricular programmes. The evaluation took the form of discussions among
staff in the participating schools and among the members of parent–teacher committees. In general, the
initiative was considered to be successful both in improving awareness of healthy lifestyles among pupils
and in increasing involvement of parents in supporting extracurricular programmes. From the nine schools,
11 parents were partially funded to obtain an exercise or coaching qualification, and 10 went on to deliver
activity sessions in a number of the schools. This participation meant that the schools’ extracurricular pro-
grammes could be extended to involve more pupils.
Discussion point: What are your thoughts about how the initiative was evaluated?
although this result is certainly not guaranteed

(Gustafson & Rhodes, 2006; Jago, Fox, Page,
Brockman, & Thompson, 2010). Schools may
consider liaising with parents in any of the fol-
lowing ways:
•• Informing them about the school’s policy to

promote active lifestyles and how it plans to
do so with their cooperation
•• Educating them about the benefits of an
active lifestyle and the possible conse-
quences of a sedentary way of life (as in the
Information Sheet for Parents available in
the web resource for this chapter)
•• Explaining guidelines for physical activity
for health and how parents can help their
children meet those guidelines (possibly
using support resources such as the Get Kids
on the Go booklet described in chapter 3)
•• Encouraging an active way of life, including
activities for the whole family (e.g., walking,
swimming, cycling)
•• Organising fun activity events that involve
pupils and their families (e.g., Jolly Jog,
Winter Waddle, Spring Steps, Summer
Summary
Stroll)
The various approaches to health education
•• Encouraging support for school activities in schools reflect the multidimensional nature
and sport events (e.g., helping with trans- of health and convey the complexity and chal-
port, equipment, refreshments and kit) lenge involved in changing health behaviours.
•• Asking if they have qualifications or exper- We encourage whole-school approaches, which
tise related to activities or sports and would help achieve healthy lifestyles for the entire
like to contribute to the school’s extracur- school population through the curriculum, the
ricular physical activity programme environment and the community. Similarly, an
•• Asking if they would be willing to attain a active school maximises opportunities for all
suitable qualification (with partial funding) adults and children associated with the school to
in order to make a regular commitment to be active. To do so, it builds on physical activity
delivering extracurricular physical activity in the PE curriculum and extracurricular pro-
sessions gramme by increasing physical activity across
the curriculum. This expansion can be achieved
Through effective communication with par- by incorporating activity breaks within the school
ents—via newsletters, websites, e-mail, texts day that are associated with key health messages
and meetings—you can tap into a potentially and encouraging the adoption of active teach-
vast source of goodwill and expertise. Doing so ing approaches or pedagogies. Schools should
may allow you to increase the physical activity also pursue multiple ways to involve parents
opportunities available to all pupils in the school in promoting active lifestyles because, in order
setting. to be truly effective, our efforts should involve
collaboration among all who exert a significant
influence on children.
3
Physical Education’s
Contribution to Promoting
Healthy Lifestyles
Chapter Objectives
▶▶ explain the rationale for increasing promotion of active lifestyles in
physical education curricula;

▶▶ identify the knowledge, understanding, skills and attitudes associated
with active lifestyles that can be taught in curriculum PE;

▶▶ identify ways to assess health-related learning;
▶▶ describe effective approaches to promoting active lifestyles in PE that
result in affective, behavioural and cognitive (ABC) learning outcomes;

▶▶ recognise gaps between health-related rhetoric and reality that have
led to calls for critical pedagogies, known collectively as ‘PE for health’,
that are sociocultural and evidence-based; and
▶▶ use the support available for health-related learning in the form of
programmes, resources and professional development.
27
T his chapter explains the increasing promo-

tion of active lifestyles in PE curricula and
details the health-related learning that can be
when active; demonstrating enthusiasm
to participate; setting targets for sustain-
ing moderate to vigorous physical activity;
incorporated into school PE. You will be guided explaining factors that affect and influence
to select from a range of effective approaches to participation; identifying types of activity
promoting active lifestyles in PE that avoid gaps where stamina is key to success; creating,
between health-related rhetoric and reality. You implementing and monitoring personal
will also be pointed towards relevant sources of goals for sustaining activity; and making
support for this area of work. informed choices and decisions for sustain-
ing moderate to vigorous physical activity
(Education Scotland, 2017).
Promoting Active Lifestyles •• The national curriculum for physical edu-
in Curriculum Physical cation in Wales states that PE contributes
to learners’ personal and social education
Education by prioritising activities that contribute to
health, fitness and well-being throughout
The promotion of active lifestyles has been a key life. Children aged 5 to 7 years are encour-
aim of PE curricula in the United Kingdom and aged to enjoy physical activity. Those aged
around the world for many decades. For example, 7 to 11 years begin to understand that PE
one main aim of the national curriculum for involves learning how to feel healthy and
England is to ensure that all pupils lead healthy, stay fit while having fun; they also learn
active lives. In order to achieve this goal, 11- to how different types of activity help them
14-year-old pupils should develop the confidence stay healthy and fit. Children aged 11 to 14
and interest to get involved in exercise, sports years understand that engaging in activity
and activities outside of school and in later life; is beneficial to their health and fitness and
they should also understand and pursue the take greater responsibility for their own
long-term benefits of physical activity. Similarly, well-being. And 14- to 16-year-olds develop a
14- to 16-year-olds should get involved in a range growing sense of responsibility for choosing
of activities that develop personal fitness and a healthy and active lifestyle through activi-
promote active, healthy lifestyles (Department ties that can be enjoyed and sustained both
for Education, 2013). Here are some examples in the school and in the community (Welsh
of promoting active lifestyles in the PE curricula Assembly Government, 2008).
of other UK countries:
Of course, national curricula for PE undergo
•• The national curriculum for physical edu- revisions from time to time, but the aim of pro-
cation in Northern Ireland states that PE moting active lifestyles has remained prominent
should help young people develop positive for decades. In fact, it has become even more
attitudes towards participation in physical central in recent times due to the trend towards
activities in their pursuit of healthy lifestyles. a more sedentary way of life and the associated
It also states that PE should help individuals concerns about children’s health (particularly the
develop awareness of the positive impact of rise in childhood obesity, as outlined in chapter
physical activity on health and well-being 1). Whilst the promotion of active lifestyles is not
(Council for the Curriculum, Examinations the only aim of PE curricula, it is a very impor-
and Assessment, 2014). tant one; moreover, it is associated with other
•• The national curriculum for physical educa- key aims, such as the development of movement
tion in Scotland focuses on developing physi- competence.
cal competencies, cognitive skills, personal
qualities and physical fitness. Outcomes and
benchmarks associated with the promotion Physical Education
of physical activity across the key stages
include: identifying and describing reasons and Public Health
why people participate in physical activity;
sustaining energetic levels of play/activity; PE contributes to public health and to personal
identifying different ways to be physically well-being through the physical learning context
active; describing how the body changes that it provides for every child. High-quality PE
Physical Education’s Contribution to Promoting Healthy Lifestyles 29
provides regular participation in physical activ- For example, only 28 percent of pupils in the UK
ity, which is associated with a range of physical, are members of an out-of-school club, and only
psychological and social benefits (for details, see 16 percent of girls compete in a nonschool con-
chapter 1). text (Future Foundation, 2015). These statistics
In terms of young people in particular, research suggest that, for many pupils (especially girls),
has found that PE can provide a number of posi- school PE serves as their main or only source
tive outcomes, such as increased physical activity of regular physical activity. Unfortunately, in
and fitness levels and improved knowledge of and recent decades, curriculum PE time has itself
attitudes towards physical activity (Bailey et al., been threatened, mainly as a consequence of
2009; Cale & Harris, 2006). In addition, reviews curriculum overcrowding and increased focus
of the effects of physical activity and PE on young on academic attainment. As a result of this shift,
people’s academic or cognitive performance have some schools have squeezed PE into smaller time
indicated positive (albeit weak) but positive asso- periods despite mounting evidence of the health
ciations; moreover, they have found no evidence benefits of physical activity for children and
that additional physical activity or PE time is increasing concerns about children’s health due
detrimental to academic achievement or cogni- to the trend towards sedentary living. To minimise
tive function (Bailey et al., 2009; Donnelly et al., reductions in PE time and, where necessary, to
2016; Fedewa & Ahn, 2011; Keeley & Fox, 2009). make a case for increasing it, interested per-
One study also provides evidence that curriculum sons—governors, senior staff, teaching colleagues
PE can provide long-term benefits. Specifically, and parents—should be informed of the health
it found that pupils who had been involved in a benefits of regular physical activity and the con-
PE intervention 20 years earlier showed better tribution that high-quality PE and extracurricular
motor fitness and reported better health and more programmes make to promoting healthy, active
positive attitudes towards physical activity. In lifestyles (Cale, Casey, & Harris, 2016).
addition, females who had been involved in the
enhanced PE programme reported being signifi-
cantly more active than their peers (Shephard & Activity-Promoting Models
Trudeau, 2000).
From a health perspective, curriculum PE and Principles in Physical
provides an inclusive learning entitlement which Education
should ensure that all children
Active lifestyles can be promoted in PE through
•• are provided with opportunities to gain
a range of approaches. Ideally, they sit within
competence in a broad, balanced range of
and make a significant contribution to a whole-
physical activities;
school approach, as in the healthy schools and
•• are helped to enjoy being active and to feel active schools models discussed in chapter 2. A
confident and comfortable in a physical schoolwide approach helps ensure that active
activity context so that they are more likely living is advocated not just by PE teachers but
to choose to be active in their own time; by all adults in the school setting.
•• experience and appreciate the broad range of As part of a models-based approach to PE, a
benefits (physical, psychological and social) pedagogical model for health-based physical
of a healthy, active lifestyle; education (HBPE) has been proposed which
•• are aware of how active they are and should takes the following as its central theme: ‘pupils
be; valuing a physically active life, so that they
•• know how to find and access activity oppor- learn to value and practice appropriate physical
tunities in the community, including at activities that enhance health and well-being for
school, around the home and in the local the rest of their lives’ (Haarens, Kirk, Cardon,
area; and & de Bourdeaudhuij, 2011, p. 330). This model
requires that the affective domain (i.e., valu-
•• understand energy balance and the need to
ing physical activity) be treated prominently in
increase physical activity in daily living in
planning for learning. It also calls for teachers’
order to assist with healthy weight manage-
beliefs to be oriented towards self-actualisation
ment.
and individual development in order to prepare
For many young people, the school environ- individuals for meaningful participation in soci-
ment is a prominent source of physical activity. ety. Thus the model prioritises both personal
THE PROMOTING ACTIVE LIFESTYLES (PAL) PROJECT

A university research team undertook an action-based study to develop and trial a principle-based approach to
promoting active lifestyles that could inform policies and resources suitable for use by school PE teachers and
teacher educators. The participants consisted of PE teachers and trainee teachers who were involved in an initial-
teacher-training partnership and had expressed particular interest in promoting active lifestyles. Twelve partici-
pants volunteered—three teachers and nine trainee teachers—and all but one engaged with the study throughout
an academic year.
Discussion points: What are the possible strengths and limitations of a principle-based approach to behaviour
change? What are the pros and cons of involving both trainee teachers and experienced teachers in this study?
The participants selected and trialled principles in schools and reported back at twilight meetings every few
months during the year. They also twice completed an online survey about the effects of the PAL project on
pupils, themselves and their department or school. During the four meetings, the participants were introduced
to and helped develop PAL principles on the whole-school and PE-specific levels; thus their voices were valued.
They also discussed the implications of literature from around the world on topics related to promoting active
lifestyles—for example, whole-school approaches to health, the role of fitness testing in promoting activity and
health-based approaches to teaching PE.
Discussion points: What is the value of involving teachers in the development of principles? What additional
health-related topics could have been included?
The meetings also provided opportunities for participants to share and discuss their experiences of trialling
the principles, thus creating a supportive community of practice. Their experiences demonstrated that a princi-
ple-based approach to promoting active lifestyles can help teachers and trainee teachers alter their pedagogies
to increase activity levels both within and beyond PE lessons. Participants also reported that pupils responded
positively to the pedagogies.
Discussion points: What is the benefit of creating a community of practice? What limitations affected this
study?
and sociocultural goals, and its subject matter the time that pupils spend receiving instruc-
is selected accordingly. The model emphasises tions or waiting to access equipment or
that valuing a physically active life is a sustain- resources.
able long-term process and that significant •• Make active use of the time spent getting to
components of this process include developing and from venues (e.g., by jogging or walking
knowledge and looking beyond the individual to briskly) for the purpose of warming up or
the wider community. cooling down.
Another flexible approach to promoting active
•• Teach pupils about the broad range of ben-
lifestyles in PE is for an entire PE department
efits (physical, psychological and social)
to adopt PAL principles (for a whole-school
of a healthy, active lifestyle, including the
PAL approach, see chapter 2). Here are some
role of physical activity in healthy weight
examples:
management.
•• Limit time spent getting ready before or after •• Where appropriate, move pupils on to the
PE lessons; instead, maximise learning time. next task without stopping the whole class.
•• Meet the Association for Physical Education •• Acknowledge, praise and reward effort and
(afPE) guideline (Harris, 2015) of having progress.
pupils move for 50 percent to 80 percent of •• Handle assessment of learning and progress
available learning time (excluding changing in active ways (e.g., ‘show me . . .’, ‘demon-
and getting to or from venues) by limiting strate . . .’, ‘shadow . . .’).
•• Routinely inform pupils where they can

be active within a few miles of the school
Health-Related Learning
(in every unit of work and via the school’s Outcomes
intranet or library).
•• Teach pupils how active they should be, In order to promote active lifestyles, we need
involve them in monitoring their activity to establish affective, behavioural and cognitive
levels so they become aware of how active (ABC) learning outcomes. Affective outcomes
they are, and inform them of multiple ways relate to feelings and attitudes (e.g., positive
to increase their activity levels. attitude towards PE), as discussed earlier in this
•• Identify low-activity pupils and offer them chapter in regard to the HBPE model. Behav-
(and their parents) support, guidance and ioural outcomes are associated with actions
information, as well as targeted or bespoke (e.g., participating in a school sport club),
activity sessions. whereas cognitive outcomes involve knowledge
and understanding (e.g., knowing the social
Initially, it may be prudent to adopt the principles health benefits of being active). Together, these
that most PE teachers favour and consider fea- types of outcomes are referred to as the ABC of
sible and manageable in their particular setting. health-related learning. Here are some examples
Once these principles are embedded within the of health-related ABC outcomes associated with
routine practice, additional principles can be the promotion of active lifestyles.
pursued.
PE lessons should not focus only on keeping pupils moving; rather, they should produce affective, behavioural and
cognitive learning outcomes.
Sample Health-Related ABC Outcomes placed into four categories: safety issues, exercise
for 7- to 11-Year-Olds effects, health benefits and activity promotion.
Research has indicated that outcomes related
Pupils will do the following:
to safety issues and exercise effects are more
Affective frequently addressed by PE teachers than are
•• Enjoy PE lessons. outcomes associated with health benefits and
activity promotion (Harris, 2009). However, the
•• Look forward to being active during outcomes related to health benefits and activity
lunchtimes. promotion are the ones most closely linked to
Behavioural the promotion of active lifestyles. Therefore, we
•• Regularly participate in PE lessons with need to pay more attention to these outcomes,
effort and energy. which have been updated to align closely with
•• Choose to be active during break times. recommendations for physical activity for health
(table 3.2).
Cognitive
•• State that activity strengthens one’s heart
and bones. Health-Related Learning
•• Describe how being active helps one feel
better. Contexts
Sample Health-Related ABC Outcomes There has been much discussion about effective
for 11- to 14-Year-Olds ways to incorporate health-related learning into
physical education. One approach is to integrate
Pupils will do the following: the learning through the teaching of PE activity
Affective areas, such as athletics, dance, games, gymnas-
tics, outdoor education and swimming. Another
•• Feel positive about PE. approach is to teach health-related concepts in
•• Seek out opportunities to be active at separate units of work—for example, health-
lunchtimes. related exercise, health-related fitness, and
Behavioural health and fitness. Whilst these approaches each
•• Regularly work hard to improve in PE have their merits, they are also subject to some
lessons. limitations. For example, when health-related
learning is integrated through the teaching of PE
•• Complete activity diaries that demon- activity areas, it may become lost or take second
strate increasing activity levels. place to other learning, such as skill development
Cognitive and tactical understanding. Similarly, integrating
•• Explain the social benefits of physical health-related learning in isolated units of work
activity. may imply that it does not relate closely to the
•• Demonstrate the parts of a warm-up and rest of the PE curriculum.
explain their purpose. An alternative approach is to teach more-
generic health-related learning concepts (such
There has been much debate about the learning as those relating to safety issues and exercise
associated with the promotion of active lifestyles. effects) through all aspects of PE and to teach
Back in 2000, a working group comprising repre- more-specific learning concepts (such as those
sentatives of national PE, sport and health organ- associated with health benefits and activity pro-
isations in England reached consensus about this motion) in separate units of work. The separate
learning and published health-related outcomes units should be connected closely with curricular
for children aged 5 to 16 years (Harris, 2000). PE and extracurricular and community-activity
These findings are presented in table 3.1, which programmes in order to help pupils understand
incorporates links to relevant health-related that all forms of physical activity confer health
aspects of other subjects (e.g., science; personal, benefits and can form part of a healthy lifestyle.
social, health and economic education). To make Research has shown that PE teachers gener-
clear the range of coverage and the progression ally accept their responsibility to promote active
between key stages, the learning outcomes were lifestyles and that the majority articulate a ‘fit-
TABLE 3.1 Health-Related Learning Outcomes for Ages 5 to 16
Pupils who are 5 to 7 years old can do the following:
•• Identify and adhere to safety rules and practices (e.g., changing clothes for PE lessons; tying long hair
back; not wearing jewellery; sitting and standing with good posture; wearing footwear when skipping
Safety issues with a rope; not running fast to touch walls).
•• Explain that activity starts with a gentle warm-up and finishes with a calming cool-down.
•• Recognise, describe and feel the effects of exercise, including changes to
•• breathing (e.g., it becomes faster and deeper),
•• heart rate (e.g., heart pumps faster),
•• temperature (e.g., person feels hotter),
Exercise effects
•• appearance (e.g., person looks hotter),
•• feelings (e.g., person feels good, more energetic, tired) and
•• external body parts (e.g., arm and leg muscles are working).
•• Explain that the body uses food and drink to release energy for exercise.
•• Explain that regular exercise improves health by
Health benefits •• helping one feel good (e.g., happy, pleased, content) and helping body parts (e.g., bones, muscles)
grow, develop and work well.
•• Identify when, where and how they can be active at school (both in and out of lessons).
Activity promotion
•• Use opportunities to be active, including at playtimes.
•• Explain the need for safety rules and practices (e.g., adopting good posture at all times; being
hygienic; changing clothes and having a wash after energetic activity; wearing footwear as appropriate;
following rules; protecting against cold weather; avoiding sunburn; lifting safely; using space sensibly
[not bumping into others]).
Safety issues
•• Identify the purpose of warming up and cooling down and recognise and describe the parts of a
warm-up and of a cool-down: exercises for the joints (e.g., arm circles), whole-body activities (e.g.,
jogging, skipping without a rope) and stretches for either the whole body (e.g., reaching long and tall)
or parts of the body (e.g., lower-leg or calf muscles).
•• Explain and feel the short-term effects of exercise.
•• Breathing rate and depth increase to provide more oxygen to working muscles.
•• Heart rate increases to pump more oxygen to working muscles.
•• Temperature increases because working muscles produce energy in the form of heat; as that heat
is transferred to the body’s surface (skin) to control body temperature, the skin can become moist,
sticky and sweaty.
Exercise effects •• Appearance can become flushed due to blood vessels widening and getting closer to the surface of
the skin.
•• Feelings and moods can vary (e.g., having fun, feeling good among friends).
•• Explain that the body needs a certain amount of energy every day in the form of food and drink in
order to function properly (e.g., for normal growth, development and daily living) and that body fat
increases if more calories are taken in than are needed (e.g., for breathing, growing, sleeping, eating,
moving, exercising).
•• Explain that exercise strengthens bones and muscles (including the heart) and helps keep joints
flexible. Explain that exercise can help one feel good about oneself and can be fun and social (e.g.,
involves sharing experiences and cooperating with others).
Health benefits
•• Explain that regular exercise improves one’s physical capacity and therefore permits daily activities to
be performed more easily.
•• Explain that being active helps one maintain a healthy body weight.
•• Monitor their current levels of activity (e.g., daily, twice weekly).
•• Identify when, where and how they can be active, both in and outside of school.
Activity promotion •• Make decisions about which physical activities they enjoy and explain that individuals have different
feelings about the types and amounts of activity they do.
•• Use opportunities to be active for 30 to 60 minutes every day (with rest periods as necessary),
including lessons, playtimes and club activities.
(continued)
33
Table 3.1 (continued)
•• Demonstrate their understanding of safe exercise practices (e.g., tying long hair back and removing
jewellery to avoid injury; adopting good posture when sitting, standing or moving; performing
exercises with good technique; having a wash or shower following energetic activity; using equipment
and facilities with permission and, where necessary, under supervision; administering basic first aid;
wearing adequate protection, such as goalkeeping gloves and leg pads, as appropriate; coping with
specific weather conditions, such as using sunscreen to avoid sunburn and drinking fluids to prevent
dehydration; following proper procedures for specific activities).
•• Demonstrate their concern for and understanding of back care by lifting, carrying, placing and using
equipment responsibly and with good technique.
•• Explain why certain exercises and practices are not recommended (e.g., standing toe touches,
Safety issues straight-leg sit-ups, bounces during stretching, flinging movements) and be able to perform safe
alternatives (e.g., sit-and-reach stretch, curl-up with bent legs, stretches held still, movements
performed with control).
•• Explain the value of purposefully preparing for and recovering from activity and the possible
consequences of not doing so.
•• More specifically, explain the purpose of, and plan and perform, each component of a warm-up and of
a cool-down (i.e., mobility exercises, whole-body activities, static stretches) both for activity in general
(e.g., games, athletics) and for specific activities (e.g., volleyball, high jump, circuit training).
•• Use good technique in performing developmentally appropriate cardiorespiratory activities, as well as
strength and flexibility exercises, for each major muscle group.
•• Explain and monitor a range of short-term effects of exercise on
•• the cardiovascular system (e.g., changes in breathing, heart rate, temperature, appearance, feelings,
recovery rate and ability to pace oneself and remain within a target zone) and
•• the musculoskeletal system (e.g., increases in muscular strength, endurance and flexibility;
improved muscle tone and posture; enhanced functional capacity and sport or dance performance).
Exercise effects
•• Explain that appropriate training can improve fitness and performance and that specific types of
activity affect specific aspects of fitness (e.g., running affects cardiorespiratory fitness)
•• Explain the differences between whole-body activities (e.g., walking, jogging, cycling, dancing,
swimming) that help reduce body fat and conditioning exercises (e.g., straight and twisting curl-ups)
that improve muscle tone.
•• Explain a range of long-term benefits of exercise for physical health, such as
•• reduced risk of chronic disease (e.g., heart disease),
•• reduced risk of bone disease (e.g., osteoporosis),
•• reduced risk of some other health conditions (e.g., obesity, back pain) and
•• improved management of some health conditions (e.g., asthma, diabetes, arthritis).
•• Explain that exercise can enhance mental health and social and psychological well-being (e.g.,
Health benefits enjoyment of being with friends; increased confidence and self-esteem; decreased anxiety and stress)
and that an appropriate balance between work, leisure and exercise promotes good health.
•• Explain that increasing activity levels and eating a balanced diet can help one maintain a healthy body
weight (i.e., energy balance), that the body needs at least a certain minimum intake of daily energy in
order to function properly and that strict dieting and excessive exercising can damage one’s health.
•• Explain how each activity area (athletics, dance, games, gymnastics, swimming and outdoor and
adventurous activities) can contribute to physical health and to social and psychological well-being
(e.g., can improve stamina, assist in weight management, strengthen bones, be enjoyable).
•• Access information about a range of activity opportunities at school, at home and in the local
community and identify ways to incorporate activity into their lifestyles (e.g., walking or cycling to
school or to meet friends; helping around the home or garden).
•• Reflect on their activity strengths and preferences and know how to get involved in activities.
•• Participate in activity of at least moderate intensity for a minimum of half an hour and preferably for
Activity promotion one hour every day (i.e., 30 to 60 minutes accumulated over the course of the day).
•• Participate at least twice a week in activities (e.g., dance, aerobics, skipping, games, body
conditioning, resistance exercises) that enhance or help maintain muscular strength and flexibility, as
well as bone health.
•• Monitor and evaluate personal activity levels over a period of time (e.g., by keeping an activity diary for
four to six weeks and reflecting on the experience).
34
•• Recognise and manage risk and apply safe exercise principles and procedures (e.g., not exercising
when unwell or injured; avoiding prolonged high-impact exercise; administering first aid, including
resuscitation techniques; avoiding excessive amounts of exercise).
•• Evaluate warm-ups and cool-downs in terms of safety, effectiveness and relevance to the specific
Safety issues activity and take responsibility for their own safe and effective preparation for and recovery from
activity.
•• Select, perform and evaluate exercises from a range of lifetime activities (e.g., jogging, swimming,
cycling, aerobics, step aerobics, circuit training, weight training) with an eye toward safety,
effectiveness and developmental appropriateness.
•• Explain that training and practice affect performance and are activity specific.
•• Explain that training programmes develop both health-related components of physical and mental
Exercise effects fitness (cardiorespiratory fitness, muscular strength and endurance, flexibility, body composition,
composure and decision making) and skill-related components (agility, balance, coordination, power,
reaction time, speed, concentration and determination).
•• Explain that frequent and appropriate exercise enhances the physical, social and psychological well-
being of all individuals, regardless of age, able-bodiedness or disability, and the presence or absence
of health conditions (e.g., asthma, depression) and chronic disease (e.g., arthritis).
•• Explain that exercise can help one manage stress and contribute to a happy, healthy and balanced
lifestyle.
Health benefits
•• Appreciate the risks associated with a sedentary lifestyle and with excessive behaviour (e.g.,
overexercising, disordered eating).
•• Identify how each activity area (e.g., gymnastics, swimming, athletics) can contribute to specific
components of health-related fitness; for example, gymnastics involves weight-bearing actions and
thus develops muscular strength and endurance.
•• Plan, perform, monitor and evaluate a safe and effective health-related exercise programme that meets
their personal needs and preferences over an extended period of time (e.g., 6 to 12 weeks).
•• Access physical activity personnel (e.g., sport development officers, active school coordinators,
coaches, instructors), facilities (e.g., leisure centres; sport, health and fitness clubs) and services
(e.g., courses, projects, leaflets, pamphlets) in the local community.
•• Demonstrate a range of lifetime physical activities (e.g., walking, jogging, swimming, cycling,
aerobics, step aerobics, circuit training, weight training, skipping, aqua exercise).
•• Explain and demonstrate practical understanding of the key principles of exercise programming and
training, including
•• progression (developing the amount of exercise by gradually increasing frequency, intensity,
duration or a combination of these factors);
•• overload (progressively enabling the body to do more exercise than accustomed to);
Activity promotion
•• specificity (doing a particular exercise or sporting activity to benefit specific muscles, joints, bones
and energy systems);
•• balance, moderation and variety (maximising exercise benefits and minimising risks);
•• maintenance (establishing a routine, sustaining a commitment and coping with relapse);
•• reversibility (gradually losing the benefits of exercise if it is discontinued); and
•• cost–benefit ratio (weighing costs such as time, money, transport and sweat against benefits such
as maintaining body weight, feeling good and improving health and fitness).
•• Assess their own qualities, skills, achievements and potential so that they can set personal goals that
help them follow the activity recommendations for young people and develop a commitment to an
active lifestyle.
•• Explain constraints on being active and explore how to overcome them in order to access and sustain
involvement in activity.
Adapted, by permission, from J. Harris, 2000, Health-related exercise in the National Curriculum. Key stages 1 to 4 (Leeds: Human Kinetics).
35
TABLE 3.2 Learning Outcomes That Promote Health and Activity
for Ages 5 to 16
•• Explain that regular activity improves health by

Health benefits •• helping one feel good (e.g., happy, pleased, content) and
•• helping body parts (e.g., bones and muscles) grow, develop and work well.
•• Identify when, where and how they can be active at school (in and out of lessons).
Activity Promotion
•• Explain that activity strengthens bones and muscles (including the heart) and helps keep joints
flexible.
•• Explain that activity can help one feel good about oneself and can be fun and social (e.g., sharing
Health benefits experiences and cooperating with others).
•• Explain that regular activity permits one to perform daily activities more easily.
•• Identify when, where and how they can be active in and outside of school.
Activity Promotion •• Make decisions about which physical activities they enjoy and explain that individuals have different
feelings about the types and amounts of activity to do.
•• Use opportunities to be active for one hour per day (with rest periods as necessary), including
lessons, playtimes and club activities.
•• Explain a range of long-term benefits of activity for physical health, including

•• improved management of some health conditions (e.g., asthma, diabetes).
•• Explain that activity can enhance mental health and social and psychological well-being (e.g., enjoying
Health benefits being with friends, increased confidence and self-esteem, decreased anxiety and stress) and that an
appropriate balance between work, leisure and activity promotes good health.
•• Explain that increasing activity levels and eating a balanced diet can help maintain a healthy body
weight (energy balance), that the body needs at least a certain minimum intake of daily energy in order
to function properly, and that strict dieting and excessive exercising can damage one’s health.
•• Explain how each activity area (athletics, dance, games, gymnastics, swimming and outdoor and
(e.g., can improve stamina, assist in weight management, strengthen bones, be enjoyable).
•• Reflect on their activity strengths and preferences and know how to go about getting involved in
Activity Promotion activities.
•• Participate in activity of at least moderate intensity for one hour every day (accumulated over the
course of the day), including activity that strengthens muscles and bones.
•• Monitor and evaluate personal activity levels over a period of time (e.g., by keeping an activity diary for
four to six weeks and reflecting on the experience).
36
•• Explain that frequent and appropriate activity enhances the physical, social and psychological well-
being of all individuals, regardless of age, able-bodiedness or disability, and the presence or absence
of health conditions (e.g., asthma, depression) and chronic disease (e.g., arthritis).
•• Explain that activity can help one manage stress and contribute to a happy, healthy and balanced
lifestyle.
Health benefits
•• Plan, perform, monitor and evaluate a safe and effective activity programme that meets their personal
needs and preferences over an extended period of time (e.g., 6 to 12 weeks) and meets the guidelines
for physical activity for health.
•• Access physical activity personnel (e.g., sport development officers, coaches, instructors), facilities
(e.g., leisure centres; sport, health and fitness clubs) and services (e.g., courses, projects, leaflets,
pamphlets) in the local community.
aerobics, step aerobics, circuit training, weight training, skipping, aqua activity).
•• Explain and demonstrate practical understanding of the key principles of activity programming and
training, including
•• progression (developing the amount of activity by gradually increasing frequency, intensity,
duration, or a combination of these factors),
Activity Promotion •• overload (progressively enabling the body to do more activity than previously accustomed to),
•• specificity (doing a particular exercise or sporting activity to benefit specific muscles, joints, bones
and energy systems),
•• balance, moderation and variety (maximising activity benefits and minimising risks),
•• maintenance (establishing a routine, sustaining a commitment and coping with relapse),
•• reversibility (gradually losing the benefits of exercise if it is discontinued) and
•• cost–benefit ratio (weighing costs such as time, money, transport and sweat against benefits such
as maintaining body weight, feeling good and improving health and fitness).
•• Assess their own qualities, skills, achievements and potential so that they can set personal goals that
help them follow the activity recommendations for young people and develop a commitment to an
active lifestyle.
•• Explain constraints on being active and explore how to overcome them in order to access and sustain
involvement in activity.
Adapted, by permission, from J. Harris, 2000, Health-related exercise in the National Curriculum. Key stages 1 to 4 (Leeds: Human Kinetics).
ness for life’ philosophy focused on the role of teachers’ sporting backgrounds, the fact that their
physical activity in maintaining and enhancing university and teacher-training courses are typi-
health (Harris & Leggett, 2015a, 2015b). Their cally oriented towards sport science, and their
teaching practices, however, have been found to limited awareness of and exposure to fitness-for-
generally reflect a ‘fitness for performance’ phi- life pedagogies (Harris & Leggett, 2015a, 2015b).
losophy focused on the role of physical activity in Whatever its cause, the gap between health-
developing and increasing fitness. Characteristics related rhetoric and practice has led to calls for
of these two philosophies are presented in table critical pedagogies, known as ‘PE for health’,
3.3 (Harris & Leggett, 2015a, 2015b). that take a sociocultural and evidence-based
It has been suggested that this curious mis- approach (Armour & Harris, 2013; Burrows,
match between articulated philosophy (fitness Wright, & McCormack, 2009). Such pedagogies
for life) and practice (fitness for performance) are reflected and exemplified in parts 2 and 3 of
may be influenced by the following factors: PE this book.
TABLE 3.3 Characteristics of Fitness-for-Life and Fitness-for-

Performance Approaches in Physical Education
Fitness for life Fitness for performance
Sources and Primary and public health Sport science and biomedicine
influences
Role of physical activity in maintaining or Role of physical activity in developing or
enhancing health increasing fitness
Desire for pupils to be fit enough to undertake and Desire for pupils to be fit for sport
enjoy everyday activities
Promotion of active lifestyles Emphasis on improving sport performance
Focus on participation Emphasis on fitness testing and training and on
conditioning activities linked to sport performance
Broad PE curriculum including lifetime activities Limited PE curriculum dominated by competitive
games and fitness-related activities
Dominant foci Freedom for older pupils (14- to 16-year-olds) to Freedom for pupils to design sport-related
choose their activities training programmes based on fitness
components and training principles
Focus on helping pupils become increasingly
independent in being active, both at school and
beyond
Focus on recreational activities in extracurricular
programmes
Activity monitoring associated with recommended
levels of physical activity for young people
Assessment of Health-
Related Learning
Health-related learning can be assessed through
written, verbal and active responses to questions,
tasks and tests. More specifically, affective and
behavioural outcomes can be assessed by means
of teacher observation of effort and commitment
in PE lessons, participation records for PE lessons
and extracurricular activities, and activity moni-
toring (e.g., activity diaries) and fitness testing.
Cognitive outcomes, on the other hand, can be
assessed through question-and-answer episodes
(e.g., addressing the benefits of being active) and
through practical and active tasks (e.g., demon-
strating a range of aerobic activities, perform-
ing exercises to strengthen or stretch particular
muscle groups). The web resource for this chapter
includes two sample assessments that you may
use or modify to suit your needs.
Peer- and self-assessment are particularly
appropriate for health-related learning as they
directly involve pupils in making judgements
and decisions about their own learning and that
of their peers, which helps them take ownership •• For next week’s lesson, make a list of places
of their health. Active assessment tasks are also in the local area where you can be active
encouraged, as they help increase pupils’ activity (other than at school).
levels in PE lessons. Here are some examples of •• Keep an activity diary for one school day;
methods for assessing health-related learning: include in it all activity that you do, such
as walking, cycling or scooting to and from
Focused Questions school; being active at breaks or lunchtimes;
playing sport, exercising or dancing in
•• How do you feel when you are active? school or outside of school; and perform-
•• What happens to your breathing when you ing any active jobs you do at home, such as
exercise? cleaning, gardening or going to and from the
•• Why does your heart rate change when you shops. Add up all the minutes of activity you
exercise? have done in one day. Does it amount to at
•• Which muscles are working hard when you least 60 minutes (one hour) of activity?
run?
•• What is one reason that being active is good
for your health? What else can you say about Health-Related Learning
that? What is another reason? (Continue Support
prompting to ensure inclusion of physical,
psychological and social health benefits.) A wealth of support for health-related learning
•• Talk to a partner about how being active is available from numerous associations and
helps you maintain a healthy weight. (Ask for organisations, including national PE, health
volunteers to share their ideas with another and sport bodies. This support takes the form of
group or with the whole class, or ask specific programmes, resources and professional develop-
pairs or pupils for their responses.) ment opportunities associated with participation
in physical activity.
•• Why is it important to stretch muscles after
For example, the Association for Physical
you have worked them hard?
Education (afPE) is the only physical-education
•• How much activity should young people do? subject association in the United Kingdom, and
•• Explain to a partner how stronger upper- its purpose is to promote and maintain high
body muscles help you throw further. standards and safe practice in all aspects and
•• What are some of the main reasons that at all levels of PE. To meet this purpose, it seeks
some young people are not active? to influence developments at both national and
local events, in part by working to raise aware-
Practical Tasks ness of PE’s contributions to public health and
well-being. It pursues this objective by providing
•• Show me an exercise that makes your heart information on its website; in its professional
pump faster. journal, Physical Education Matters (e.g., its posi-
•• Demonstrate a stretch for the muscles in the tion statement on health [Harris, 2015] and its
back of your leg. perspectives on fitness testing); at conferences
and events; through professional learning oppor-
•• Perform an exercise that strengthens your
tunities; and through its contributions to national
tummy (stomach or abdominal) muscles.
campaigns, such as Sport England’s This Girl Can,
•• With a partner, design a warm-up for the in the form of resources for schools.
long jump; include activities to mobilise In another example, the Association for Young
joints in the legs and to warm your major leg People’s Health supports evidence-based practices
muscles, followed by stretches of the main in adolescent health and health care. It also works
muscles used in jumping. on a range of initiatives to increase young people’s
•• Observe another group’s cool-down for voice and involvement in decisions that affect
sprinting and decide how effective it is in their health and works with a range of profession-
reducing heart and breathing rates and als to improve health services for young people.
stretching out the main muscles that are Every two years, it publishes key data on adoles-
worked hard when sprinting. cence, including information about lifestyle and
Photo by Alan Edwards f2images.com

Physical education offers all children opportunities to access the outdoor environment and to learn about them-
selves through fun, exciting challenges and adventures
health-related behaviours (Association for Young tion service on physical activity news, events and
People’s Health, 2017). publications as well as details of ongoing projects
SSEHS Active (http://www.ssehsactive.org such as the ‘CLASS PAL’ which works with schools
.uk/) is part of the School of Sport, Exercise and to develop, implement and evaluate a ‘toolbox’ of
Health Sciences at Loughborough University. strategies for teachers to use to break up or reduce
The School is a key partner of the National the sitting time of primary school pupils in the
Centre for Sport and Exercise Medicine. SSEHS classroom (which helps facilitate a whole school
Active aims to develop, translate and disseminate approach to activity, as encouraged in chapter 2).
research and practice-based evidence to expand Sport England, Sport Northern Ireland, Sport
and improve effective practice of physical activ- Scotland and Sport Wales all have a remit to
ity promotion in the UK. Its website includes promote participation in physical activity and
high quality resources for practitioners, some of have developed campaigns, programmes and
which emanated from the previous British Heart projects involving school-age children and young
Foundation National Centre for Physical Activity people. For example, Sport England has devised
and Health based at Loughborough. Examples of the national campaign This Girl Can to get girls
resources on the website include: a booklet titled and women moving regardless of shape, size or
‘Interpreting the UK physical activity guidelines ability, as well as the Sportivate project to give
for children’ which helps adults working with more young people the chance to discover a sport
children and young people (e.g. teachers, parents, that they love. Sport Northern Ireland launched
youth workers) to use the Government’s physical the Activ8 campaign to raise awareness among
activity guidelines; and report cards which give children and young people of the importance
information about the physical activity of chil- of taking part in at least 60 minutes of physical
dren and youth across a number of countries, activity every day and of eating a healthy and
including England, Scotland and Wales. The balanced diet (as mentioned in chapter 1). Sport
website also provides a comprehensive informa- Scotland created an Active Schools programme
to encourage children and young people to get

active and stay active, as well as an Active Girls
Summary
initiative to increase girls’ and young women’s The promotion of active lifestyles has become
participation in PE, sport and physical activity an increasingly prominent aim of PE curricula
through programmes such as: YDance Active, around the world due to the trend towards a more
Active Girls, and Fit for Girls. Sport Wales is also sedentary way of life and associated concerns
involved in a number of programmes in schools, about children’s health. As a result, governors,
such as Play to Learn, Dragon Multi-Skills & senior staff, teaching colleagues and parents
Sport, and Physical Literacy 5×60. should be aware of the range of health benefits
The Youth Sport Trust (YST) is an indepen- provided by regular physical activity and the
dent charity devoted to changing young people’s contribution that high-quality PE and extracur-
lives by helping them achieve their full potential ricular programmes make to promoting healthy,
through high-quality PE and sport opportunities. active lifestyles.
The YST provides resources and professional The promotion of active lifestyles within PE
learning events and supports schools’ efforts to can be approached in a variety of ways, such as
enhance their pupils’ achievements and aspira- adopting a specific health-based model or activ-
tions. Particular examples among many include ity-enhancing principles to attain health-related
their work with schools on the My Personal Best learning outcomes in the affective, behavioural
programme, which is associated with character and cognitive domains. Health-related learning
development through PE, Start to Move, Active can be taught through all aspects of PE, as well
Kids and their support of ‘innovation and lead as in discrete units of work that make close con-
schools’ that focus on a range of specialisms, nections with curricular PE and extracurricular
including health and well-being. and community-activity programmes. However,
Additional sources of information include gov- teachers should be aware of the common mis-
ernment departments of education and health, as match between a fitness-for-life philosophy,
well as associated organisations, such as Public on one hand, and, on the other hand, teaching
Health England, Public Health Wales, the Scottish practices that reflect a philosophy of fitness for
Public Health Network, and Public Health Agency performance. To resolve this gap, teachers should
in Northern Ireland. The latter, for example, has seek to adopt ‘PE for health’ pedagogies that are
produced an activity-record booklet (It All Adds critical, sociocultural and evidence based. Health-
Up) to help young children track their amount related learning can be assessed via a wide range
of physical activity. Numerous other resources of methods, among which peer assessment, self-
to help teachers promote healthy, active life- assessment and active assessment are particularly
styles are available from subject associations and appropriate. A wealth of health-related learning
organisations such as the PSHE Association (i.e., support is available for teachers in the form of
the association for personal, social, health and programmes, resources and professional develop-
economic education) in England and the Social, ment opportunities associated with participation
Personal and Health Education (SPHE) Support in physical activity.
Service in Scotland.
PART II
Monitoring Health,
Activity and Fitness
in Schools
4
Monitoring Health
in Schools
Chapter Objectives
▶▶ recognise health definitions, behaviours and descriptors;
▶▶ understand the rationale for monitoring children’s health;
▶▶ identify methods for monitoring children’s health in schools;
▶▶ describe key findings from some school-based child measurement
programmes;
▶▶ promote learning through monitoring children’s health and
▶▶ implement practical ideas and tools for monitoring children’s health.
45
T his chapter considers the rationale for the

increased prominence given to monitoring
children’s health in schools. It also describes and
•• Drinking alcohol in moderation or not at all
•• Remaining in control of one’s emotions
•• Coping with the day-to-day pressures and
critiques school-based national child measure-
stresses of work
ment programmes in the United Kingdom; more
specifically, it reports key findings from these pro- •• Being active every day
grammes and outlines alternative forms of health •• Feeling happy
monitoring that focus on adopting healthy, active
lifestyles. In a school setting, children’s health These descriptors can be used to trigger discus-
behaviours can be monitored using child-friendly sions among children about their own lifestyles
questionnaires and diaries, and this chapter and what, if anything, could be changed to
describes pedagogically appropriate examples improve their health status. In this vein, the web
that can help you implement effective health resource for this chapter includes case studies
monitoring within the curriculum. of three young people (see the document titled
Examples of Young People’s Lifestyles) that can
be used to generate discussion among children.
Here are some possible starter questions:
Defining Health
•• How healthy is this person?
Health was initially defined by the World Health •• What, if anything, could this person do to
Organisation (WHO) not merely as the absence improve his or her health?
of disease or infirmity but as a state of complete
physical, mental and social well-being (WHO, •• What might help the person do so?
1948). This definition was later expanded to •• What might prevent the person from doing
describe health as a resource for everyday life so?
and a positive concept emphasising social and
Children can also be encouraged to write a
personal resources, as well as physical capaci-
short narrative, profile or blog paragraph about
ties (WHO, 1986). These definitions demonstrate
their own lifestyle (similar to the examples pro-
the multidimensional nature of health (physical,
vided in the web resource). These responses can
mental and social) and its complex relationship
be used anonymously to discuss what it means
with everyday living. However, despite their use-
fulness in outlining the parameters of health, they
are problematic to operationalise. Specifically, it
is difficult to use them to assess one’s own state
of health or to determine someone else’s health
status. For example, what does a ‘state of com-
plete physical, mental and social well-being’ feel
like? What ‘social and personal resources’ are
required, and how much of them is necessary to
be in ‘good health’?
Consequently, practitioners tend to turn to
descriptors of health behaviours to help learn-
ers understand what it means to lead a healthy
lifestyle. For example, positive health behaviours
might include the following:
•• Eating a balanced diet, including fruits and

vegetables
•• Drinking plenty of water every day
•• Getting sufficient sleep
•• Maintaining a sensible balance between
work, rest and play (or relaxation)
•• Not smoking
Monitoring Health in Schools 47
to be healthy, how health is affected by factors

both within and beyond an individual’s control,
and what can be achieved collectively and indi-
vidually to improve public health. You are encour-
aged to be creative both in your methods of
monitoring pupils’ health and in the ways in
which you use the information gathered. See the
following case study for one school’s approach to
monitoring health behaviours and promoting
positive ones.
Health descriptors can be further developed to
include specific public health recommendations
for children and young people. For example,
the ‘being active every day’ descriptor can be
replaced with a more precise descriptor, such
as ‘being active for at least one hour per day’
or ‘accumulating at least 60 minutes per day of
moderate- to vigorous-intensity physical activity’.
Health behaviour questionnaires that use specific
public health recommendations are presented in
the web resource for this chapter.
HEALTHY HOMEWORK INITIATIVE

One primary school in the East Midlands introduced a Healthy Homework initiative as a way to promote
positive health behaviours among its pupils beyond the school gates. At the start of the school term, all
pupils were given a Healthy Homework journal and bag (containing a ball, a skipping rope, a soft bat, a
beanbag and a cone) and encouraged to participate in healthy behaviours outside of school. Examples of
such behaviours included choosing healthy food and drink options at home (e.g., fruits, vegetables, no- or
low-sugar drinks) and being active (e.g., walking, cycling or scooting to and from school or shops; taking
part in physical activity sessions and sport clubs).
Discussion points: What are the possible advantages and disadvantages of packaging healthy behaviours
as homework? What are your thoughts about the content of the Healthy Homework bag?
Pupils were encouraged to record their healthy behaviours in their journal on a daily basis, and parents
were asked to sign the journal at the end of each week. The journals were used by class teachers to prompt
discussion with pupils about the consequences of healthy and unhealthy behaviours. The initiative was
evaluated after one term. The vast majority of the younger pupils (8- and 9-year-olds ) had enthusiastically
engaged with the initiative, completed their Healthy Homework journals each week and made good use of
the items in their Healthy Homework bags. Engagement was lower, however, among older pupils (9- and
10-year-olds); in fact, about a quarter of those pupils no longer recorded healthy behaviours after a few
weeks unless prompted to do so by their class teachers.
Discussion points: Why do you think the older pupils were less engaged with the initiative? How might
their engagement be increased?
Despite these mixed results, responses were generally positive from most of the teachers and from
many parents, although about a third of parents had not signed the journals on a weekly basis. The school
plans to discuss the findings of the evaluation with school governors and parent groups and then improve
the initiative for future years.
Discussion points: What might be done to increase the proportion of parents who sign the journals? How
might the initiative as a whole be improved for future years?
Rationale for Monitoring •• Gather population-level data to allow analy-

sis of trends in growth patterns and obesity.
Children’s Health •• Inform local planning and delivery of ser-
vices for children.
Monitoring children’s health is considered impor-
tant both because cardiovascular disease has its •• Increase public and professional under-
origins in childhood and because obesity rates standing of weight issues in children and
are increasing among children and are associated serve as a vehicle for engaging with children
with health conditions such as type 2 diabetes. and families about healthy lifestyles.
The emphasis on monitoring also derives in part As part of these programmes in England and
from growing concerns about children’s mental Wales, the heights and weights of children aged
health, given that 20 percent of children experi- 4 or 5 years (in Wales) plus those aged 10 or 11
ence mental health problems and 10 percent have years (in England) are measured and used to cal-
a clinically diagnosable mental health disorder culate their body mass index (BMI). Specifically,
(World Health Organisation, 2005). More spe- BMI is the quotient of weight (expressed in kilo-
cifically, the United Kingdom ranked last among grams) divided by the square of height (expressed
21 of the world’s richest countries in UNICEF’s in metres). Written feedback about children’s
report on children’s well-being in 2007, 16th out weight status is provided to their parents. Partici-
of 29 in 2013 and 20th out of 35 of the world’s pation is not compulsory, but nonparticipation is
richest countries in 2016 (United Nations Chil- handled on an opt-out basis only.
dren’s Fund, 2007, 2013, 2016). Operational guidance about how to undertake
The rationale for monitoring children’s health the measuring is provided by organisations such
is strengthened by the fact that patterns of as Public Health England, which states the fol-
health-related behaviours are often acquired and lowing:
established during childhood; therefore, helping
children become aware of their health status •• Ensure that parents receive a letter explain-
constitutes an important aspect of behaviour ing the purpose of the programme and pro-
change. With this end in mind, it is prudent to vide them with the opportunity to withdraw
undertake some health monitoring in schools, their child from it.
which reach virtually all children and hold the •• Aim to provide results to parents within six
potential to improve the health of young people weeks of measurement.
(and their families) by providing professionally
•• The privacy and dignity of the child must be
delivered programmes and services that promote
safeguarded at all times, and the measure-
healthy lifestyles. Of course, schools are limited
ment is to be done sensitively in a private
in the extent to which they can monitor children’s
setting.
health, as they do not have the expertise, time
or funding to undertake precise, comprehensive •• Height and weight information must be
measurements of, for example, blood pressure, gathered by health professionals with mini-
blood lipids or depression. However, they may feel mal physical contact.
able to make use of low-cost, noninvasive meth- •• Individual children's results will not be
ods of exploring health outcomes and behaviours, shared with school staff or other pupils, and
such as eating and activity habits and general level suppression and disclosure controls will be
of satisfaction with school and life. implemented when the data set and publica-
tion are released to ensure that individual
children cannot be identified.
Methods of Monitoring Based on National Health Service (NHS) Digital, 2016.
Children’s Health
In some countries, including England and Wales, Key Findings of National Child
government departments have established school- Measurement Programmes
based national child measurement programmes
to do the following: For the 2015–2016 year, the National Child Mea-
surement Programme in England was based on
•• Tackle obesity. more than a million measurements of children in
Teachers can guide pupils to reflect on their health habits and to set targets to help adopt healthy, active lifestyles.
state-maintained schools, representing some 95 children living in the most deprived areas
percent of those eligible. Key findings included was 12.5 percent, as compared with 5.5 per-
the following: cent among those living in the least deprived
areas. For 10- and 11-year-old children, the
•• The prevalence of obese 4- and 5-year-old figures were 26 percent and 11.7 percent,
children (9.3 percent) was higher than in respectively.
2014–2015 (9.1 percent) but lower than in
•• Obesity prevalence varied by local author-
2006–2007 (9.9 percent). The prevalence
ity—for example, ranging from 11 percent to
of obese 10- and 11-year-old children was
28.5 percent for 10- and 11-year-old children
higher (19.8 percent) than in 2014–2015
living in London boroughs.
(19.1 percent) and 2006–2007 (17.5 percent).
Based on Public Health Wales National Health Services (NHS) Trust, 2017.
•• More than a fifth (22.1 percent) of 4- and
5-year-old children were either overweight or The Child Measurement Programme for Wales
obese, which was higher than in 2014–2015 only involved children aged 4 or 5 years during the
(21.9 percent) but slightly lower than in 2015–2016 academic year. Key findings included
2006–2007 (22.9 percent). Approximately the following:
one-third (34.2 percent) of 10- and 11-year-
old children were either overweight or obese, •• Participation rates fell to 93.3 percent in
which was higher than in 2014–2015 (33.2 2015–2016 from 94.5 percent in 2014–2015.
percent) and 2006-2007 (31.6 percent). In terms of sheer numbers, over 33,000
•• Obesity prevalence for children living in the children’s measurements were included in
most deprived areas was double that of those 2015-2016.
living in the least deprived areas. Specifically, •• Nearly three-quarters (72.9 percent) of the
obesity prevalence among 4- and 5-year-old children measured had a BMI classified as
healthy, the same proportion as in the previ- as their bodies are growing and maturing. In par-
ous year. ticular, BMI classifications are not without issues,
•• The prevalence of 4- to 5-year-old children especially when used with children. At best, BMI
found to be obese in Wales (11.7 percent) provides a general indicator of body fatness, but
was significantly higher than in England (9.3 it is neither reliably accurate nor precise, and it
percent). It was also significantly higher in does not predict future body shape and size.
Wales than in any of the individual English Concerns have also arisen about how infor-
regions, where the highest prevalence was mation related to children’s health (e.g., BMI)
10.7 percent (in North East England). is reported to parents and about the expecta-
tion for parents to respond to this information.
•• A strong relationship was found between
A study exploring the benefits and harms of
levels of obesity and deprivation; specifically,
providing weight feedback to parents as part of
13.5 percent of children in the most deprived
the National Child Measurement Programme in
areas were obese, as compared with 8.8 per-
England found that providing weight feedback
cent in the least deprived areas.
did not cause obvious unfavourable effects and
Public Health Wales National Health Service [NHS] Trust, 2017.
did increase recognition of child overweight
and encourage some parents to seek help. How-
Critique of National Child Health ever, the effect of weight feedback on behaviour
Measurement Programmes change was limited, which suggested that further
work is needed in order to find ways to more
Whilst population-level information about chil- effectively communicate health information
dren may have its uses, child health measurement to parents and identify what information and
programmes such as those just described are support might encourage parents to make and
controversial. For one thing, they are considered maintain lifestyle changes for their children
by some to be an extreme example of a ‘performa- (Falconer et al., 2014).
tivity’ culture, in which particular characteristics
of individuals are overemphasized (Evans, Rich,
Allwood & Davies, 2007). For example, it could Alternative Approaches
result in characteristics such as physical appear- to Monitoring Health in Schools
ance, performance, competitiveness and victory
being viewed as more important than enjoyment, In addition to conventional ways of monitor-
learning, health and social inclusion. ing children’s health in schools (e.g., measuring
In contexts influenced by performativity height and weight), a range of digital apps are
culture, young people’s body shape, fitness and now available that record measurements and
performance are constantly on display and being provide information and advice about health
evaluated and judged by teachers and peers. Some (including physical activity). Indeed, more than
young people naturally perform well in these 100,000 health and medical apps are now avail-
evaluations and get rewards (e.g., success, recog- able through the Apple App Store and Google Play
nition, enjoyment, fun, respect), whereas others (Lupton, 2014), and they are providing public
perform poorly and receive the sanctions that health knowledge to a range of users. Some of
accompany failure (e.g., discomfort, embarrass- these apps could have merit for use with pupils;
ment, rejection, harassment, devaluation). Plac- however, little is known about how people engage
ing emphasis on body shape, weight and size can with them, and few of them have been subjected
encourage individuals classified as overweight or to critical analysis (Lupton, 2014). For this
obese to be perceived and to perceive themselves reason, if you wish to employ an app, or indeed
as failures, and this process may adversely affect any online resource, then you must first evalu-
their mental health. With such concerns in mind, ate its suitability and utility for young people in
some educators argue that it is better to focus on terms of its age appropriateness, the health infor-
process, or health behaviour, than on product, or mation it provides and the messages it delivers.
health outcome. For example, focusing on being Some digital resources may be of questionable
active (or on eating healthily) may be more effec- quality and could confuse or misguide pupils or
tive in bringing about behaviour change than even promote unhealthy or extreme behaviours.
focusing on fitness (or weight). Therefore, you must be a critical and discerning
In addition, categorising children as over- user of such resources and encourage pupils to
weight or obese is a complex process, especially do likewise.
Learning Through Monitoring benefits of doing so, now and in the future.
Keep up the good work and try to influence
Children’s Health your family and friends to lead a healthy
lifestyle too!
Within the curriculum, children learn about •• 21 through 30 points: Well done, you lead a
their own health and how it is affected by their healthy lifestyle much of the time and will
lifestyle choices. For example, most national cur- benefit from doing so. You might consider
ricula require children to learn what they can do whether you could lead an even healthier
to become and stay healthy. They also learn to lifestyle by adjusting some of your habits.
identify risks and think about their options—and
the short- and long-term consequences—when •• 11 through 20 points: You lead a healthy
making decisions about personal health. Helping lifestyle some of the time and will benefit
children become aware of, and reflect on, their from doing so. However, you should consider
lifestyle helps them personalise the issue of health leading a healthier lifestyle by improving on
and thus makes it meaningful and relevant. a number of your habits.
This outcome can be achieved through the •• 10 or fewer points: Oh dear, it seems that
use of health behaviour questionnaires, such you lead an unhealthy lifestyle and are
as those presented in the web resource for this likely to suffer the consequences, now and
chapter. Responses to such questionnaires can be in the future. You should consider choosing
rated and used to calculate health scores. Here is a much healthier lifestyle by improving on
one possible rating system: many of your habits.
Score 5 points for each ‘always’ response.

Score 3 points for each ‘mostly’ response. Applying What You Learn
Score 2 points for each ‘sometimes’ response.
From Monitoring Health
Score 0 points for each ‘never’ response.
Based on their health score total, children can be Engaging children in the process of self-reflection
offered generic feedback such as the following. enhances learning and helps children to set
measurable targets for improvement. Here are
•• More than 30 points: Congratulations, you some self-reflection questions you might ask of
lead a very healthy lifestyle and will reap the primary-age children:
•• Which parts of your health have you done

well on?
•• Which parts of your health could you do
better on?
•• Which parts of your health could you change
for the better?
•• State one action that you can do to improve
your health.
And here are some questions for secondary-

age children:
•• What does your overall health score tell you?

•• What have you done well on?
•• What could you improve on?
•• Are there parts of your health that you
cannot change? If yes, what are they?
•• What is stopping you from changing these
parts?
•• What are you able to change about your
health?
•• State three actions that you can carry out health issues such as obesity. However, these
over the next three months to improve your programmes are controversial due to the com-
health. plexity of categorising children as overweight or
•• What will help you carry out these actions? obese, the risk of overemphasising individuals’
physical characteristics (which can adversely
•• What might prevent you from carrying them
affect their mental health), questions about how
out?
information is reported to parents, and issues
•• On a scale of 0 to 10, how confident are you related to expectations for parents to respond
that you will be able to improve your health appropriately.
over the next three months? Within the curriculum, children learn about
their own health and about the effects of lifestyle
choices on their health. Children can be helped
Summary to understand what it means to follow a healthy
lifestyle by using descriptors of healthy behav-
It is prudent to monitor children’s health in iours based on public health recommendations.
schools, both because health-related behaviour Children’s awareness and understanding of
patterns are often established during childhood health-related matters can be further enhanced
and because schools can influence children’s by engaging them in the process of reflecting
health choices. In one form of monitoring, on their lifestyle. This process can also help
some countries have established school-based them set measurable, manageable targets for
child measurement programmes to address improvement.
5
Monitoring Physical
Activity in Schools
Chapter Objectives
▶▶ explain the rationale for monitoring children’s physical activity,
▶▶ describe the main methods used for monitoring children’s physical
activity and their key strengths and limitations,

▶▶ identify ways to promote learning through monitoring children’s physi-
cal activity and

▶▶ apply practical ideas and tools for monitoring children’s physical activity.
53
W hile a good deal of attention is paid to moni-

toring children’s physical fitness in school,
relatively little attention is given to monitoring
cally, it is important to researchers and clinicians
for the following reasons (Trost, 2007; Loprinzi
& Cardinal, 2011):
their physical activity. This chapter addresses
•• To establish the physical activity patterns of
that oversight, which constitutes a missed oppor-
various population groups
tunity. First, the chapter considers the rationale
for monitoring physical activity and the main •• To understand the links between physical
methods considered feasible for doing so. It then activity and health
presents ideas for implementing physical activ- •• To establish the amount of physical activ-
ity monitoring and using it to promote learning ity required to influence overall health and
and healthy active lifestyles among pupils. This specific health outcomes
approach enables you to appreciate the value of •• To identify and understand the factors that
monitoring pupils’ physical activity and equips influence physical activity
you with the knowledge, understanding and ideas
•• To evaluate the effectiveness of interventions
you need in order to carry it out within your cur-
related to physical activity
riculum.
A number of purposes have also been identi-
fied for monitoring children’s physical activity in
Defining Physical Activity schools (Cale & Harris, 2009), including:
•• To determine how active pupils are and
Physical activity is a broad term defined as any whether they are meeting current physical
bodily movement produced by skeletal muscles activity recommendations (as discussed in
that results in energy expenditure above that chapter 1)
required for resting (Trost, 2007). It is important
•• To raise children’s awareness and under-
to recognise the difference between physical activ-
standing of their own (and recommended)
ity, or body movement, and energy expenditure,
levels of physical activity and thus assist with
which results from body movement. Thus, a
target setting and behaviour change
smaller child and a larger child may engage in the
same physical activity (e.g., walking up stairs) but •• To help meet curriculum aims and require-
expend a different amount of energy in doing so. ments related to being physically active
Physical activity encompasses many dimen- and leading healthy, active lives through
sions and domains. Its dimensions include enhanced awareness and understanding
volume (how much), duration (how long), fre- •• To determine the effect of physical activity
quency (how often), intensity (how hard) and initiatives and strategies implemented by
mode (what type). Its domains typically include schools
leisure-time physical activity, occupational physi- •• To contribute to a broader and more holistic
cal activity, transportation and routine activities approach to monitoring, which goes beyond
performed in and around the house. For children, clinical and fitness outcomes by also con-
the domains include physical activity at school sidering behaviours and physical activity
and out of school, active travel (e.g., walking, as a process (For more on the limitations
cycling), PE, sport, active play and other activities of focusing only on physical fitness, see
(e.g., housework, gardening). chapter 6.)
Rationale for Monitoring Methods of Monitoring

Children’s Physical Activity Children’s Physical Activity
Monitoring children’s physical activity gains Numerous methods can be used to monitor
importance in light of growing concerns over the children’s physical activity with varying levels of
physical activity levels of many young people and sophistication and various strengths and limita-
the strengthening links between physical activity tions. Over the years, a number of comprehensive
and health reported in chapter 1. More specifi- method reviews have been published (e.g., Doll-
Monitoring Physical Activity in Schools 55
man et al., 2009; Kohl, Fulton, & Caspersen, 2000; Various self-report measures have been devel-
Trost, 2007; Loprinzi & Cardinal, 2011). This oped for use with children, and they have been
discussion outlines the methods considered to be summarised and evaluated for reliability and
most practical and effective for use with pupils. validity in a number of reviews (e.g., Sallis &
These methods can be grouped broadly as follows: Saelens, 2000; Kohl et al., 2000; Biddle, Gorely,
Pearson, & Bull, 2011). Self-report instruments
•• Self-reports and proxy reports that have been identified and endorsed in the lit-
•• Heart rate monitoring erature include the Previous Day Physical Activity
•• Pedometers and accelerometers Recall (PDPAR), the Three-Day Physical Activity
Recall (3DPAR), the Physical Activity Question-
•• Observation
naire for Children (PAQ-C) or for Adolescents
(PAQ-A), the Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance
Self-Reports and Proxy Reports System (YRBSS) and the Teen Health Survey (for
more information about these instruments, see
Self-report probably remains the most commonly Trost [2007] and Biddle et al. [2011]). A caveat:
used method of monitoring children’s physi- It has been suggested that the large number of
cal activity. Self-report measures that are well self-report instruments highlighted in reviews
suited for use with children include surveys and illustrates a lack of uniformity in approach and
questionnaires (which can be self- or interviewer- suggests that investigators feel compelled to
administered), diaries and proxy reports (in design their own instruments (Trost, 2007).
which parents or teachers report on children’s
activity).
Self-report measures vary greatly in the nature Heart Rate Monitoring
of physical activity information they collect (e.g.,
type, duration, intensity, frequency), the timescale Another commonly used method for estimating
covered (e.g., one year, one week, one day) and children’s physical activity is heart rate moni-
how the results are reported (e.g., activity score, toring. It is considered a feasible and attractive
minutes in activity). Self-report measures typi- method because it relies on the strong relation-
cally offer the following main strengths: ship between heart rate and energy expenditure
during exercise. Modern heart rate monitors
•• Convenient and easy to administer usually comprise two elements: a chest strap
•• Time- and cost-efficient transmitter and a wrist receiver (which usually
•• Suitable for providing information about doubles as a watch) or mobile phone. Many sys-
type and context of physical activity tems and designs are now commercially available,
and they provide various types of information—
•• Not burdensome
for example, average heart rate; breathing rate;
•• Unobtrusive and nonreactive (thus unlikely time spent in, at or above a specific heart rate;
to alter observed behaviour) and detailed logging that can be downloaded to
a computer.
At the same time, self-report measures are subject
Heart rate monitoring offers a number of
to some limitations relating to, for example, the
advantages, such as the following:
respondent’s (particularly, child’s) recall ability,
interpretation and honesty, as well as varying •• The monitors are small, relatively cheap,
levels of appropriateness for capturing certain robust, easy to use and socially acceptable.
types of activity (e.g., unstructured play).
•• The method is unobtrusive, does not restrict
Despite these limitations, evidence suggests
movement and should not influence normal
that self-report methods provide acceptable esti-
activity.
mates of physical activity in older children. They
are less accurate and less reliable, however, with •• Information can be collected for long periods
children under the age of 10. For primary-age of time.
children, more appropriate approaches include •• It provides physiological quantification of
proxy reports and objective measures, such as physical activity in a manner that is both
accelerometers (Trost, 2007; Loprinzi & Cardinal, valid and reliable.
2011).
Drawbacks of heart rate monitoring include Accelerometers are more sophisticated than
the following: pedometers and are considered to be the most
promising objective tools for measuring physi-
•• It does not provide a direct measure of physical activity in free-living children (Trost, 2007).
cal activity but represents the individual’s Usually worn on the hip, these devices record the
physiological response to activity. vertical accelerations of the body produced by
•• Heart rate is influenced by many factors, movement at specific time intervals and convert
such as age, body size, fitness level, metabo- them to an activity count. In general, acceler-
lism, emotional state, fatigue, temperature, ometers share many of the same advantages and
type of exercise and muscle mass used. disadvantages as pedometers, but they offer the
•• The relationship between heart rate and added advantage of being able to assess the fre-
energy expenditure is weak during low- or quency, duration and intensity of movement. A
high-intensity physical activity. number of accelerometers are now available, and
•• Heart rate response lags behind changes they vary in both sophistication and cost.
in movement and may therefore mask the Technological advances in the consumer health
intermittent activity of children. and fitness market have also led to a proliferation
of other wearable electronic devices (e.g., Fitbit).
•• The method may be of limited use for assess- They generally consist of an accelerometer for
ing children’s total daily physical activity measuring physical activity, as well as secondary
when most of their day is spent being inac- sensors that provide additional information and
tive. feedback on various aspects of activity.
Pedometers and Accelerometers Observation

Pedometers provide an estimate of overall physi- Observation enables direct measurement of
cal activity and are well suited to measuring chil- physical activity and is particularly well suited
dren’s physical activity. They are generally worn to monitoring children’s physical activity in the
on the hip or waist and rely on the vertical move- school context. It usually involves watching a
ments of the body to count the number of steps child for an extended period of time and record-
taken over a period of time. A variety of models ing a rating of the child’s activity level on either a
are available that have been found to provide valid coding form or a handheld device. Activity cate-
and reliable assessments of children’s physical gory ratings are usually recorded at time intervals
activity. ranging from every five seconds to every minute.
Key advantages of pedometers include the fact Various systems for direct observation have been
that they are developed over the years for use in school and
physical education lessons, as well as general
•• small, easy to use and socially acceptable;
settings. Two widely used tools are the System
•• cost effective and for Observing Play and Leisure Activity in Youth
•• unobtrusive and thus do not restrict move- (SOPLAY) and the Observational System for
ment or influence normal activity. Recording Physical Activity in Children (OSRAC).
For details of these and other systems, see Trost
Disadvantages of pedometers include the fact (2007) and Kohl et al. (2000).
that they Observation offers the following major advan-
•• provide limited activity information (e.g., tages:
provide no information about activity type, •• It can provide accurate, detailed information
pattern or intensity); that covers type, intensity and duration of
•• are not suitable for monitoring some types physical activity and the physical and social
of activities—for example, ones that do context of activity, such as behavioural cues,
not involve travel or impact (e.g., cycling, environmental conditions and the presence
rowing, throwing and catching) and of significant others or of toys and equip-
•• count movement above a certain threshold ment.
as a step regardless of whether or not it •• It is flexible and can be used in a variety of
occurs during walking or running. settings.
•• It is particularly appropriate for young chil- butes, and the limitations of a measure should
dren’s activity, which is often sporadic and not be seen as devaluing the assessment. Rather
transitory. than worrying unduly about the precision of the
•• Observers can be easily trained to record method, it is more important pedagogically to
accurate information. ensure that pupils learn from the experience (Cale
& Harris, 2009).
Disadvantages of observation include the fol-
lowing:
•• The activity recorded is limited to what is Learning Through Monitoring

seen; therefore, significant information may
be missed.
Children’s Physical Activity
•• There are limits to where and when activity Having identified measures that are considered
can be observed. feasible and practical for use with pupils, we can
•• The potential exists for reactivity among the now consider some ideas for incorporating these
children; that is, they may alter their behav- measures within the curriculum. As noted in
iour due to being observed. chapter 4, children learn about health and healthy
•• Observation is burdensome and time- and lifestyles within the curriculum, and this learning
labour-intensive. includes physical activity and active lifestyles.
As with their lifestyles in general, increasing
children’s awareness of their physical activity
levels makes the notion of healthy active life-
Thus, you can choose from a number of mea- styles meaningful and relevant. This goal can be
sures when looking to monitor physical activity achieved through any of the following methods,
levels. As just outlined, all of the methods have which have been adapted and developed from
both strengths and limitations, and no single preexisting ideas (Cale & Harris, 2009).
method can be considered optimal in all situa-
tions. Therefore, we will always be faced with
a trade-off between practicality and accuracy Self-Report
when selecting a monitoring tool to use with
young people (Trost, 2007). Research, of course, The self-report questionnaire is often the easiest
requires an accurate measure of physical activ- method of physical activity monitoring to incor-
ity. As a result, given that all methods are subject porate into lessons. As appropriate, you can use
to limitations, it has been recommended that or adapt an existing questionnaire on paper (e.g.,
researchers use a combination of methods in PDPAR, 3DPAR, PAQ-C or PAQ-A, Teen Health
order to provide a more accurate and complete Survey). Many researchers, however, design their
picture of children’s activity levels. However, own questionnaires, and this option is also fea-
when teachers are choosing a measure of physi- sible for teachers and allows them to tailor the
cal activity for use with pupils, the accuracy that form and questions to their specific school con-
researchers try to achieve is not required; instead, text, pupils and needs. Pupils can even be asked
issues such as educational value, cost, feasibility to develop their own physical activity question-
and ease of use are more important. naires, which requires them to understand what
To inform decisions about which methods type of information is useful to establish.
to use, Trost (2007) has provided a useful sum- You can get a quick, simple indication of pupils’
mary of monitoring methods that addresses key physical activity levels by asking general ques-
attributes such as validity, affordability, ease of tions about their physical activity (Cale & Harris,
administration, potential for reactivity, and fea- 2009). Here is an example:
sibility with large numbers and various ages. In
addition, Dollman et al. (2009) have developed During a one-week period, how many
a decision flow chart to help both researchers times on average do you do the following
and practitioners select appropriate monitoring kind of physical activity?
methods. When monitoring physical activity in
schools as part of the curriculum, educational Vigorous activity: Involves lots of effort and
value is more important than some other attri- makes your heart beat fast—for example,
basketball, football, jogging, running, ener-

getic dancing, aerobics or circuit training.
Moderate activity: Makes you warm and
slightly out of breath but not exhausted—for
example, brisk walking, steady swimming,
cycling or dancing.
Light activity: Involves little effort—for exam-
ple, walking, bowling or snooker.
(Cale & Harris, 2009, p. 92)
Another approach would be to ask pupils

whether they do any of the specific physical
activities included in a predetermined list—and
if so, how often. The list should include a range
of activities suitable to the pupils’ age that can be
done both in and outside of school; it can even be
devised with pupils’ input. Options for indicating
how often the activities are done might include:
not at all, once a week, a few times a week, every
day or more. For primary-age children, the list of
activities might include any or all of the following:
walking, cycling, skipping, tag, chase, ball games,
swimming, dance and football. For secondary-age
children, the activities might include walking,
cycling, jogging, running, aerobics, circuits, yoga,
martial arts, swimming, dance, football, hockey,
rugby, basketball, badminton, tennis and skate- Heart Rate Monitoring
boarding or other street activities. To capture any
unlisted activities that pupils do, you can provide Heart rate monitors are now quite affordable
an ‘Other Activities’ line for them to fill in. and have been used frequently in physical edu-
Another idea is to ask pupils to keep a daily cation, notably to help pupils learn about how
physical activity diary for a specified period of exercise affects the body and about target heart
time, such as a week, a month or a unit of work. rate ranges. Of course, they can also be used to
The minimum information to record in the diary monitor pupils’ heart rates, and therefore their
each day would typically include the number, activity levels, either during lessons, over the
types and duration (in minutes) of physical course of a school day or for a more extended
activities engaged in. Upper-primary or second- period (e.g., a school week). Depending on how
ary children might also be asked to record the many devices are available for a given class, this
intensity of their activities (e.g., low or light, approach might be used for a selection of pupils
average or moderate, or vigorous or hard), as at any given time; then, with those pupils’ permis-
well as where the activities were performed and sion, the data could be shared and discussed with
with whom. This information can be recorded in the whole class.
either a free diary format or a more structured
one, examples of which can be seen in the web Pedometers and Accelerometers
resource for this chapter.
Pupils can also be encouraged to write a Pedometers and accelerometers can now be pur-
short narrative, profile or blog about their own chased easily and at relatively low cost, and they
physical activity levels and patterns (and possibly can be used with pupils in much the same way as
their experiences of particular activities). These heart rate monitors. Some electronic devices (e.g.,
accounts are likely to generate a range of physi- Fitbit) also provide additional information and
cal activity profiles that can be used to prompt feedback with which pupils can readily engage.
discussion. These devices, which consist of an accelerometer
that works with a digital app, go beyond mea- physical activity during a school day or week by
suring and self-monitoring physical activity to tracking his or her movements during lessons,
provide information, feedback and advice and breaks and lunchtimes and after school. The
to facilitate goal setting. Indeed, one review of information can then be shared and discussed
available options for self-monitoring identified as a small- or whole-group activity.
more than 80 such devices that can be used by
researchers, clinicians and members of the gen- Further advances in learning through moni-
eral public (Sanders et al., 2016). If you wish to toring include an increased focus on children’s
employ such devices with pupils, consider both sedentary behaviour. This focus is advocated for
their utility and their suitability (in terms of age a few reasons:
appropriateness, activity information provided
and messages advocated) and encourage pupils to •• increases in the amount of time that chil-
be discerning consumers and users of these tools. dren spend engaged in sedentary behaviour
(Salmon, Tremblay, Marshall, & Hume,
2011),
Observation
•• growing evidence of links between sedentary
Valuable information about physical activity can behaviour and health (Wilmot et al., 2012)
be obtained through direct observation without and
adopting a complicated system. Simple observa- •• recent physical activity guidelines focus on
tion forms can be prepared for recording and reducing sedentary time (see chapter 1).
coding the details of activity, including type,
intensity and duration. Pupils can be paired up Sedentary behaviour is often assessed by
and asked to observe and record the partner’s noting the amount of time that children spend
Teachers can guide pupils to reflect on their activity levels and to set targets to help adopt active lifestyles.
watching television or engaged in other screen- (and sedentary) behaviour and in how you use
based activities, such as using a computer or the resulting information. See the following case
playing video games (Loprinzi & Cardinal, 2011). study for one school’s approach to monitoring
Various methods have been used to measure physical activity, as well as some sample discus-
screen-based behaviour, including self- and proxy sion points.
reports, questionnaires, diaries and observa-
tion. Whilst screen time provides only a partial
picture of overall sedentary time—excluding, for Applying What You Learn
example, non-computer-based homework and
socialising—you can usefully incorporate screen- From Monitoring
time reports into existing physical measures. The Physical Activity
information gathered about pupils’ sedentary
behaviour can also be used to promote discussion Once you have obtained physical activity infor-
about inactivity and activity. mation, it can be used to prompt discussion,
In summary, you can be as creative as you wish reflection and further questions about physical
both in how you monitor pupils’ physical activity activity in general and about pupils’ activities
PHYSICAL ACTIVITY PASSPORT

One school in the East Midlands introduced an incentive scheme known as the Physical Activity Passport
as a way to both monitor and promote pupils’ physical activity during a summer term. All pupils were given
a passport, in which they collected stamps over a given period of time by participating in physical activities,
sport clubs, matches and events at school. The stamps (coloured stickers) were distributed by teachers
present at the various activities. Pupils also used their passport pages to record any other physical activi-
ties in which they took part, whether in or outside of school, and whether structured or unstructured. Upon
collecting a set numbers of stamps, pupils were rewarded for their participation with small to medium-size
gifts, such as a pen, a water bottle, a baseball cap, a piece of play or sport equipment (e.g., ball, flying
disc, skipping rope) or a leisure centre voucher. The passports were also used to prompt discussion during
physical education lessons; during tutor time with the class teacher; and during personal, social, health and
economic education lessons.
Discussion points: What are your views on the range of gifts offered? Could a focus on extrinsic rewards
such as gifts diminish the intrinsic value of physical activity?
At the end of the summer term, the school evaluated the scheme’s effects from the perspectives of both
pupils and teachers. With regards to pupils, more than 90 percent engaged with the scheme and collected
some stamps in their passports, and 75 percent gathered enough stamps for a small reward. In addition,
more than 60 percent reported that the scheme had encouraged them and their friends to do more activity
and made them more aware of which sports, clubs and activities were available to them, both in and out of
school. Furthermore, more than 90 percent of pupils said they felt that the scheme was a good idea, and
most indicated that they had enjoyed it and thought it should be run again. Responses from the teachers
were also positive; specifically, the majority felt that it should continue and reported it to be relatively easy
to implement, as well as fun and enjoyable.
Given the scheme’s initial success, the school is planning to run and possibly further develop the
scheme for next year. For example, teachers are considering introducing a Class Passport Challenge,
wherein the aim will be for classes or year groups to collect as many stamps as possible. Those with the
most stamps will be rewarded with a trip to a sporting event or other activity of their choice, such as bowl-
ing, ice skating, karting, paintballing or a visit to an aqua or leisure park. Another possible development is
to introduce a Family Passport Challenge to encourage involvement by parents and other family members.
Discussion points: What might be the pros and cons of incorporating the Class Passport Challenge or
a Family Passport Challenge? What other developments or improvements might be used to enhance the
scheme?
and lifestyles in particular. Of course, the amount

and depth of coverage will need to vary and be
adapted according to the pupils’ ages and abili-
ties. Here are some ways to use such information
to facilitate pupils’ learning:
•• To enhance pupils’ knowledge and under-

standing of physical activity—for example,
the importance of physical activity, what it
means to be physically active, how much and
what types of physical activity are recom-
mended for health, how physical activity is
affected by factors both within and beyond
an individual’s control, key constraints and
barriers to participation and how they can be
overcome, and what can be achieved collec-
tively and individually to improve physical
activity levels nationwide
•• To develop pupils’ personal physical activity
awareness and knowledge—for example,
about their current activity levels and pat-
terns, sedentary behaviour, interests and
preferences—and their self-evaluation skills, and preferences. You can use this understanding
so that they can understand, interpret, plan to inform the curriculum and the range of cur-
and make informed decisions about their ricular and extracurricular activities you offer; the
physical activity (Sample questions to ask types of initiatives and programmes you choose to
pupils are outlined in the web resource run in your particular school; and the community
under the heading Thinking About Your links you choose to continue or develop with local
Physical Activity.) leisure centres and sport (or other appropriate)
•• To facilitate pupils’ goal setting and self- clubs and organisations.
monitoring of physical activity—for exam-
ple, using the information as the basis for
setting realistic goals to increase or maintain Summary
their physical activity levels, reduce their
sedentary behaviour and work towards It is important to monitor children’s physical
meeting physical activity recommendations activity both because of its health benefits and
for young people (See chapter 1 and the because of concerns about low levels of partici-
Thinking About Your Physical Activity ques- pation in activity. Monitoring children’s physical
tions in the web resource for this chapter.) activity in schools raises pupils’ awareness and
•• To diagnose pupils’ activity needs for indi- understanding of their own levels and of recom-
vidual exercise prescription based on their mended levels of physical activity; it also helps
current physical activity levels and the extent with target setting and behaviour change. Numer-
to which they are meeting current physical ous monitoring methods exist—including self-
activity recommendations and proxy reports, heart rate monitoring, use of
•• To help pupils develop broader and more pedometers or accelerometers, and observation.
transferable skills (e.g., independent inquiry, Because each method has its own strengths and
critical reflection, problem solving, self- limitations, no single method is optimal for all
management) and cross-curricular skills and situations. Information can also be gathered
links between subjects (e.g., physical educa- through the use of health and physical activity
tion, science, literacy, numeracy, statistics) apps and computer-based physical activity ques-
tionnaires, providing that you carefully consider
The information gained from activity moni- their suitability and appropriateness for your
toring will enhance your understanding of your pupils. Monitoring efforts have expanded recently
pupils’ physical activity levels, patterns, interests to include children’s sedentary behaviours via
self- and proxy reports, questionnaires, diaries facilitate pupils’ learning by developing their
and observation. physical activity awareness and knowledge and
When choosing methods for monitoring, fac- their self-evaluation skills. It can also facilitate
tors to consider include educational value, cost, goal setting and self-monitoring of physical
and feasibility. Monitoring physical activity can activity.
6
Monitoring Physical
Fitness in Schools
Chapter Objectives
▶▶ explain the rationale proposed for monitoring children’s physical fitness,
▶▶ describe methods of monitoring children’s physical fitness that are
appropriate for use in schools and in the curriculum,

▶▶ identify ways to promote learning through monitoring children’s physi-
cal fitness,
▶▶ understand common issues and concerns associated with monitoring
children’s physical fitness and

▶▶ apply recommendations and practical ideas for the appropriate use of
fitness monitoring.
63
M onitoring children’s physical fitness in

schools is commonplace in secondary
schools and is even mandatory in some coun-
In schools, fitness testing can potentially serve
a number of purposes, including the following:
tries. However, its purpose, value and place in •• Promoting physical activity
the curriculum remain topics of much debate. •• Developing skills in goal setting, self-moni-
To help you understand this debate, this chapter toring and self-testing
examines controversial issues associated with •• Promoting learning and positive attitudes
fitness testing in schools. The chapter also pres- •• Motivating pupils
ents recommendations and practical ideas to
help you make informed decisions about fitness •• Evaluating fitness programmes
monitoring and employ effective and appropriate •• Identifying pupils with athletic potential
monitoring practices. •• Screening pupils for health issues
•• Diagnosing fitness needs for individual exer-
cise prescription and improvement
Defining Physical Fitness (Cale & Harris, 2009b, p. 59).
Physical fitness has been defined as a set

of attributes involving the ability to perform Methods of Monitoring
physical activity; it is often described in terms
of either health-related or performance-related Children’s Physical Fitness
(skill-related) components (Caspersen, Powell, &
Christenson, 1985). Health-related components of Children’s physical fitness can be monitored in
physical fitness are associated with specific health either the laboratory or the field; either way, the
outcomes (Pate, 1988) and comprise cardiorespi- monitoring is usually conducted through a range
ratory fitness, muscular strength and endurance, of standard fitness tests. In the field, fitness test-
flexibility and body composition. ing typically involves administering a battery of
simple tests that cover various components of
fitness, and this approach is the most practical
option for monitoring in schools.
Rationale for Monitoring Physical fitness includes both health-related
Children’s Physical Fitness components and performance-related (skill-
related) components. As the term implies,
Many reasons for monitoring children’s physical health-related components relate to health
fitness have been put forward over the years. For outcomes, and they include cardiorespiratory
example, researchers collect fitness data in order fitness, muscular strength and endurance,
to better understand children’s fitness levels, fit- flexibility and body composition. Performance-
ness phenomena and their demography; to estab- related aspects, on the other hand, include agility,
lish baseline measures for analysing the health- balance, coordination, power, reaction time and
related fitness of a group or population; and to speed; this type of fitness is sometimes referred
investigate the effects of training on children’s to as motor fitness. Some evidence suggests that
fitness. In the clinical setting, fitness monitoring performance-related components also relate to
allows practitioners to evaluate medical abnor- health; however, because they are influenced by
malities, assess symptoms associated with exer- physical ability, we focus here on health-related
cise, measure exercise capacity and individualise components assessed via field-based tests. The
physical activity programmes (Cale & Harris, following discussion covers some of the most pop-
2005). Indeed, the growing link between health- ular tests for each component of health-related
related fitness and health outcomes in children fitness (for a quick summary, see table 6.1).
(Lloyd, Colley, & Tremblay, 2010) has strength-
ened the rationale for monitoring children’s Cardiorespiratory Fitness
physical fitness and indicates potential value in
promoting and monitoring not only children’s Distance runs have been commonly used as a field
physical activity but also their physical fitness. measure of cardiorespiratory fitness in children.
Monitoring Physical Fitness in Schools 65
TABLE 6.1 Common Field Tests of Physical Fitness for Children

Fitness component Field tests
Distance or timed walk or run (e.g., 1 mile, 1.5 miles; 9 minutes, 12 minutes)
Cardiorespiratory fitness Step test
Multistage fitness test
Sit-ups or curl-ups (abdominals)
Progressive abdominal sit-up (curl) test
Muscular strength and endurance Push-ups or press-ups (triceps, pectorals)
Pull-ups (biceps)
Flexed-arm hang (biceps)
Sit-and-reach (hip)
Flexibility Shoulder stretch (shoulder)
Arm lift (shoulder)
Body mass index (BMI)
Body composition Skinfold thickness
Girth measures
Examples include the mile run or walk (in which forms curl-ups to a controlled and timed ‘bleep’
children complete the distance as quickly as pos- until unable to continue. Thus, like the progres-
sible) and the 9- or 12-minute distance run (in sive shuttle run, it is a maximal test; therefore,
which children run as far as they can in the given questions can be raised about its appropriateness
time). Another common method, the multistage for use with all children within curriculum time.
fitness or ‘bleep’ test, is a progressive shuttle run
that predicts maximum oxygen uptake. Because it
requires the individual to run to exhaustion (and
Flexibility
for other reasons outlined later in the chapter), The most common field measure of flexibility
this test has been the subject of questions about involves assessing the range of motion at the hip
its appropriateness for use with children, particu- joint by means of the sit-and-reach test. This test
larly its use with all pupils and within curriculum is common because poor flexibility in the lower
time (Association for Physical Education [afPE], back and hamstring region can cause low-back
2016; Cale, Harris, & Chen, 2014). pain. Other common flexibility tests include the
shoulder stretch and the arm lift, which assess
range of motion at the shoulder joint.
Muscular Strength and Endurance
Field tests of muscular strength and endurance Body Composition
involve resisting or moving part or all of one’s
body weight. The areas of the body most often In the field, body composition is typically esti-
tested for strength and endurance include the mated by using anthropometry, or measurement
stomach (abdominals) and the upper arms and of the body’s dimensions. One commonly used
chest (triceps, biceps and pectorals). They are measure is body mass index (BMI), which is
tested through exercises such as sit-ups, curl-ups, derived from the individual’s weight (body mass)
push-ups, press-ups, pull-ups and the flexed-arm and height. Another common measure is skinfold
hang. These tests usually involve performing as thickness, which indicates body fatness. In chil-
many repetitions as possible in a given time or dren, skinfold measurements are usually taken
before the muscles involved reach their limit. One from a few selected areas of the body—often the
example of the latter approach is the progressive triceps (back of the upper arm), biceps (front of
abdominal sit-up test, in which the individual per- the upper arm), subscapular (beneath the edge
Teachers can guide pupils to reflect on their fitness levels and to set targets to help adopt active lifestyles.
of the shoulder blade), suprailiac (just above the This critique will help inform your decisions and
hip bone), front thigh and medial calf. The sum practices with respect to fitness monitoring and,
of the skinfold measurements is then used as an in turn, your pupils’ experiences of and learning
indication of total body fat. When monitoring through monitoring.
children’s body composition, it is important to When looking to monitor pupils’ fitness, we
be aware of the sensitivities and potential issues must bear in mind a number of advantages and
of doing so (these concerns are addressed later disadvantages that are common to all fitness
in the chapter). tests and test batteries. Key advantages include
the following:
•• The tests are generally easy to administer

Learning Through Monitoring and time efficient.
Children’s Physical Fitness •• The tests are relatively safe and involve mini-
mal equipment and cost.
The educational worth of fitness monitoring can •• Scientific evidence supports many of the
be considered in terms of what young people tests and their use with children.
learn, both from the experience and from the
•• Much testing now emphasises the evaluation
resulting information, as well as the effects on
of health-related components.
their physical activity, fitness and attitudes (Cale,
2016). At the same time, as noted earlier, fitness •• Tests can provide useful information about
monitoring of children has generated debate children’s capabilities in a range of fitness
about a number of issues and concerns. There- components.
fore, before considering how fitness monitoring •• Many tests are supported by educational pro-
might be used to promote learning, let us consider grammes and attractive resources, materials
a brief critique of fitness testing in terms of the and software.
advantages, disadvantages, issues and cautions. (Cale & Harris, 2009b).
And here are some key disadvantages: within the curriculum. For example, fitness test-
ing is sometimes treated as an almost irrelevant
•• Field tests provide a relatively crude measure adjunct to the curriculum. In other cases, it domi-
of an individual’s physical fitness. nates or even constitutes the entire fitness educa-
•• Reliability and validity are questionable in tion programme. This imbalance is considered
some tests for use with children. particularly important if fitness testing comes at
•• Fitness test batteries with children fre- the expense of promoting the process of being
quently use norm-referenced standards active; providing activity-promoting activities; or
and criterion-referenced standards, which developing pupils’ knowledge and understanding
are subject to some limitations (this topic is of physical activity, physical fitness and the moni-
addressed later in the chapter). toring of these elements. This type of imbalance
•• Children’s performance on fitness tests is can give the impression that physical fitness is
influenced by many factors, such as envi- more important than health and physical activity,
ronmental conditions (e.g., temperature, which in turn can lead to overemphasis on fitness
humidity, wind speed and direction), test and performance and not enough on health and
procedures, lifestyle (exercise and nutrition), physical activity behaviour. In contrast, from the
motivation, intellectual and physical skill in point of view of public health and the promotion
test taking, heredity (genetic potential) and of physical activity, it has been argued that the
level of maturation (Cale & Harris, 2009b, goal should be to influence the process of physical
pp. 61–62). activity rather than the product of fitness (Cale
& Harris, 2009b). In fact, influencing the process
The influence exerted by each of these factors (activity) should exert a positive influence on the
varies, both between tests and between monitor- product (fitness).
ing sessions. Generally, however, heredity (genetic
potential) and maturation are reported to exert False Assumptions
the most influence on fitness test results (Cale &
Harris, 2009b). Concerns have also been raised about some
common assumptions underlying fitness and fit-
ness monitoring, the messages these assumptions
Concerns About Fitness might generate, and the possible consequences
Monitoring for pupils. First, there is little evidence to support
the commonly held view and rationale for fitness
As noted by Cale and Harris (2009b, p. 62), it
monitoring that it promotes healthy lifestyles and
has been claimed that ‘fitness tests simply deter-
physical activity, motivates young people, and
mine the obvious, at best only distinguishing
develops the knowledge and skills that are impor-
the mature and/or motivated from the imma-
tant to sustain engagement in an active lifestyle
ture and/or unmotivated’ and ‘between those
(Cale & Harris, 2009b). To the contrary, research-
“blessed” with “fit” genes at birth and those not
ers have expressed concerns that fitness testing
so blessed’. Although such disadvantages are not
can be counterproductive to achieving this goal.
necessarily problematic in themselves, they are
Specifically, it may be unpleasant, uncomfort-
clearly relevant when promoting learning through
able, embarrassing and seemingly meaningless
fitness monitoring—specifically, when interpret-
for many young people; moreover, scores can be
ing results and deciding what information, key
inaccurate, misleading, unfair and demotivating
messages and feedback to provide to pupils along
and therefore switch many individuals off of
with the test results. In addition, many of the
rather than onto activity (Cale & Harris, 2009b;
concerns raised about fitness monitoring relate
Keating, 2003; Rice, 2007; Naughton, Carlson, &
not to the tests or to monitoring per se but to
Greene, 2006). This concern led Cale and Harris
testing practices. In other words, they relate to
(2009a) to conclude that fitness testing may well
how monitoring is carried out, the purposes of
represent a misdirected effort in the promotion
monitoring and potential negative consequences
of healthy lifestyles and that time could therefore
for pupils.
be better spent otherwise.
Another commonly held inaccurate assump-
Mode of Implementation tion is that fitness in children primarily reflects
Concerns have been expressed over the way in the amount of physical activity in which they
which fitness monitoring is often implemented engage and, in turn, that those who do well on
fitness tests are active and that those who do problems in many countries, particularly among
poorly are inactive. In reality, the relationship adolescents and, more specifically, adolescent
between physical fitness and physical activity is girls. On this issue, Cale and Harris (2009b, p.143)
low among children, and a child’s activity level have argued that ‘it is not necessary to measure
cannot be judged from his or her fitness level any individual to tell them something that they
(Cale & Harris, 2009b). Whilst physical activity already know, and more importantly, no child
can, as noted earlier, make a positive and impor- needs to be measured to be helped to enjoy being
tant contribution to an individual’s fitness, physi- physically active’; moreover, ‘overemphasising
cal fitness is also influenced by other factors, such “fat” measurements may simply contribute a
as maturation and genetics (heredity). Indeed, mental health problem to a physical health issue’.
it can be problematic to link pupils’ fitness test
scores to their activity levels: ‘On the one hand, Interpretation and Use of Fitness
an active student who scores badly on a test may Monitoring Data
become disappointed, disillusioned, demotivated
and switched off activity because he/she feels it The practice of applying norm-referenced or
does not pay off. Equally, an inactive student who criterion-referenced standards when interpret-
scores well may be delighted with the result, con- ing fitness test results is common and has been
clude that everything is fine when it is not, and critiqued in more detail elsewhere (e.g., Cale
consequently, may not be motivated to change’ & Harris, 2005, 2009b). Normative standards
(Cale & Harris, 2009b, p. 65). involve comparing a child’s score with that of a
reference group, whereas criterion-referenced
Questionable Fitness Tests and Test standards are absolute and specify the minimum
levels of fitness thought to be required for health
Practices and for performing daily tasks. Criterion-refer-
In theory, fitness monitoring can be used to advo- enced standards are considered most attractive
cate safe and healthy practices, yet some fitness from theoretical, pedagogical and philosophical
test batteries and practices involve children in points of view because they clearly identify the
performing tests that arguably violate healthy existence of a level of fitness (below that needed
behaviour and, in the view of some observers, to be an elite athlete) that is sufficient to maintain
common sense (Cale & Harris, 2009b). For health. They are also informative in broadly cat-
example, questionable practices cited in one study egorizing individuals as either working towards,
included the use of maximal fitness tests (most meeting or exceeding minimum standards.
notably the multistage fitness test), the public At the same time, the use of criterion-refer-
posting of fitness test scores (thus allowing pupils enced and norm-referenced standards is subject
to compare performances) and the monitoring to limitations. For example, the validity of some
of pupils’ weight or body composition (Cale, criterion-referenced standards is questionable
Harris, & Chen, 2014). Concern about using the or unknown and may seem somewhat arbitrary;
multistage fitness test with children focuses on this could provide some pupils with little incen-
the fact that it was developed for use with elite tive to move towards meeting the stated desirable
adult populations, carries an element of risk and minimum levels of fitness. Furthermore, the use
can be overly public and misused, which in turn of arbitrary criterion-referenced standards could
can undermine the confidence of, and embar- lead to misclassification of pupils’ fitness levels.
rass, some youngsters (Cale, 2016). Displaying Norm tables are also limited in that they do not
fitness test scores in order to enable comparisons indicate desired levels of physical fitness or pro-
also seems inappropriate given the many factors vide diagnostic feedback about whether one’s
known to influence fitness test performance and fitness level is adequate; in addition, they imply
test scores such as environmental conditions, that ‘more is always better’.
heredity and level of maturation (Cale, Harris, As schools face increasing pressure to assess
& Chen, 2014). and demonstrate pupil progress across cur-
The third area of concern—the weighing and riculum subjects, including physical education,
measuring of children—is clearly a sensitive it seems (anecdotally) more commonplace to see
issue. Overemphasis on this practice could lead to baseline testing and fitness monitoring draw on
body dissatisfaction, the development of harmful various norm- and criterion- referenced stan-
relationships with food, and, in some cases, dis- dards. However, it is considered inappropriate
ordered eating. These are serious and increasing to use fitness monitoring simply to obtain fitness
test data or to grade pupils as a primary indicator In terms of developmental appropriateness, it

of their progress and achievement (Cale & Harris, is questionable whether fitness monitoring and
2009b). Not only does it represent a very narrow fitness testing are appropriate for primary-age
measure of achievement and reduce a complex children or for children under the age of nine. In
concept to raw figures, which is limiting in itself, this regard, in response to a recommendation to
but also it is likely to constitute a limiting learn- introduce fitness testing in primary schools, the
ing experience with undesirable consequences Association for Physical Education (afPE, 2015b)
for pupils. For example, it could lead to a loss of published a position statement declaring that it
interest in physical education and physical activ- does not support formal fitness testing in primary
ity; a ‘teaching to the test’ mentality; cheating; or schools; to the contrary, the group considers such
the undermining of confidence in pupils who find testing to be a retrograde step in terms of promot-
that, even with effort, they fail to achieve good ing healthy, active lifestyles.
grades or meet expectations due to the various Ensuring best practice when monitoring
factors beyond their control that influence fitness fitness requires training, guidance, support
test scores (Cale & Harris, 2009b). Furthermore, and opportunities for open and supportive
if fitness performances and scores are subject to professional dialogue (Cale, 2016), elements of
grading and comparisons, then testing may also which are provided in this chapter. In addition,
give pupils the false message that competition recommendations and guidelines for fitness
and excellence are necessary for health and fit- testing with young people have been published
ness. This message alone may deter some from by various authors and organisations over the
wishing to participate and thus hinder efforts to years. Examples include the American College
promote physical activity. of Sports Medicine; the American Alliance for
Health, Physical Education, Recreation and
Dance (now SHAPE America: the Society of
Fitness Monitoring Health and Physical Educators); the Association
Recommendations for Physical Education; Silverman et al. (2008);
Cale & Harris (2009b); and Cale, Harris, & Chen
These issues and concerns are not presented to (2014).
dissuade you from monitoring children’s fitness More recent recommendations have been
but to highlight the fact that positive outcomes informed by, adapted, or developed from previous
from monitoring (including learning) cannot be ones (e.g., Evans, 2007; Evans, Rich, Davies, &
taken for granted and that there are pitfalls to be Allwood, 2008; Cale & Harris, 2005) after taking
aware of when monitoring. Lloyd et al. (2010) into account some of the issues highlighted ear-
argue that fear of fitness assessment should not lier in this chapter. The earlier recommendations
be allowed to outweigh the potential benefits of focus specifically on fitness, whereas the latter
the information obtained and the pedagogical focus on monitoring within the curriculum more
value to pupils. Therefore, rather than being broadly, thus also covering the monitoring of
overly critical of fitness monitoring due to its health and physical activity. For ease, they have
limitations, we should reflect on and promote been combined and summarised here, as well
good pedagogical practice in this regard. as adapted and developed further in some parts.
Indeed, the consensus from many sources Collectively, the recommendations address the
seems to be that if fitness monitoring is used content, organisation and delivery of monitoring
appropriately, subjected to informed critique that practices and the general principles, messages,
accounts for its limitations, and incorporated as attitudes, values and philosophy that teachers
one component of a broad and holistic health should strive to adopt and promote in their
education programme, then it can serve as a approach to monitoring (Cale & Harris, 2009b;
valuable part of the curriculum and play a role in Cale, Harris, & Chen, 2014; Cohen, Voss, & Sand-
supporting healthy lifestyles and physical activity ercock, 2014).
(afPE, 2015a; Cale, 2016; Cale & Harris, 2009a;
Cale, Harris, & Chen, 2014; Lloyd et al., 2010; Recommendations for Overall
Rowland, 2007; Silverman, Keating, & Phillips,
2008). In order to meet these criteria, monitoring
Approach to Fitness Monitoring
should be developmentally appropriate; offer a Fitness (or any) monitoring should neither domi-
positive, educational experience for all learn- nate nor be conducted in isolation. Instead, it
ers; and help promote healthy, active lifestyles. should be fully and appropriately integrated into
a holistic health curriculum alongside coverage In order to conduct monitoring in a sensitive

of a comprehensive range of relevant health- fashion, avoid focusing on or highlighting size
related content. Monitoring should be broad and weight, which may dishearten, stigmatise or
and process oriented and should focus on both cause embarrassment or humiliation for some
health and activity. In addition, both teachers pupils (e.g., weighing and measuring to calcu-
and pupils should approach monitoring with a late BMI or using skinfold calipers in a public
critical attitude in order to raise their awareness space). In addition, consider carefully whether
of its advantages, disadvantages, limitations and some methods and procedures should be optional
potential issues. rather than compulsory. For example, weight and
More specifically, fitness monitoring should body composition can be addressed if dealt with
be used to promote health-related learning and sensitively, but public measurements of either
to promote pupils’ health, activity and fitness; should not be forced on pupils.
therefore, it should focus less on outcomes (i.e., Addressing these concerns should enable fit-
fitness results) and more on the process of moni- ness monitoring to be as positive, fun, varied,
toring and the associated learning (see the section meaningful and relevant as possible. In order
titled Applying What You Learn From Physical for pupils to build competence, confidence and a
Fitness Information). In addition, it should focus sense of control, they should be helped to under-
on the health-related components of fitness, stand and deal with their individual strengths
primarily those that involve pupils in physical and weaknesses in fitness and to feel good about
activity which develops: cardiorespiratory fitness, themselves regardless of their size, weight or
flexibility and muscular strength and endurance. fitness (or health or activity) status. Fitness
Body composition can also be addressed if dealt monitoring should never be administered at the
with sensitively; however, because measures of expense of lowering an individual’s self-concept
body composition are static, they are less useful or confidence.
in promoting physical activity. Before undertak-
ing fitness monitoring, consider carefully the Recommendations for Adopting
purpose of the monitoring, the pupils involved,
how they are likely to respond to and cope with
Alternative Approaches to Fitness
fitness testing, and which tests and procedures Monitoring
are appropriate and inappropriate. If concerns To ensure that fitness monitoring is positive,
arise, use alternative approaches. fun, varied, meaningful and relevant, we need
to move it beyond traditional methods. It should
Recommendations for Fitness include, for example, health and activity moni-
Monitoring Methods, Tests toring (see chapters 4 and 5), fitness monitoring
options, home tasks, varied resources and equip-
and Procedures
ment, self-monitoring and partner or peer (rather
Methods, tests and procedures should be selected than whole-group) monitoring, and promotion
carefully and sensitively and should be used in and development of goal-setting skills. We also
a manner that is inclusive and developmentally need to carefully consider the health informa-
appropriate—for example, avoiding maximal tion and messages provided alongside fitness
tests, avoiding or modifying tests designed for monitoring, including their validity, how they
adults, choosing measures carefully and offer- may be received and interpreted, and how they
ing choices of varying degrees of difficulty. The may invite young people to feel about themselves
approaches you use should also be pupil centred and their bodies.
(rather than activity centred), individualised In addition, fitness monitoring results should
and focused on personal improvement over time be interpreted, explained and communicated in
rather than on comparisons with others. These a meaningful way that helps pupils learn about
goals can be achieved by, for example, allowing maintaining and improving fitness. Pupils should
pupils to work independently and direct prac- be helped to review, interpret, and reflect on the
tices, providing pupils with personalised base- scores and to understand the scores’ limitations.
line scores and feedback for improvement, and The emphasis should be on encouraging pupils
minimising the public and comparative nature and helping them acquire and maintain fitness
of monitoring. levels that are appropriate for their personal
needs. If standards are used in interpreting

scores, they should be explained and should
be criterion referenced rather than normative.
Criterion-referenced standards are achievable by
the majority of pupils; they also reinforce the fit-
ness–health link and the notion that most young
people can be sufficiently fit and that a high level
of fitness is not necessary for most individuals.
Whilst all pupils should be given constructive
feedback, it is particularly important to pro-
vide individuals identified as ‘very low fit’ with
appropriate, sensitive and personalized support,
encouragement, guidance and targets. This feed-
back might involve suggesting activities or exer-
cises they can undertake in their leisure time (at
home or in the local community), communicat-
ing with parents, or, in extreme circumstances,
recommending that they see their GP. Further-
more, we should recognise home influences on
young people’s health, activity and fitness levels
in our evaluations and feedback and encourage
parents (via letters, newsletters and invitations
to events) to show interest in and support their
children’s health, physical activity and physical
fitness.
Finally, we should exercise caution in decid- resources outlining specific procedures for the
ing whether to implement test–retest monitoring tests.
procedures—for example, monitoring fitness at You can also choose from a number of formal
the beginning and again at the end of a unit of and commercial test batteries for physical fitness,
work or school year in order to identify changes. most of which measure common components of
Programmes and units are often too short (six health-related fitness and include many of the
to eight weeks) to see measurable changes, and same or similar tests, including some of those
failure to do so could have a demotivating effect. outlined earlier in this chapter and in the web
The practice can also be time consuming and resource. Thus, if you wish, you can adopt an
detract from learning time. existing commercial fitness test battery, either in
its entirety or by selecting certain components of
As noted in previous chapters, children learn it. Alternatively, of course, you can develop your
about health, physical activity and healthy and own tests and test batteries.
active lifestyles within the curriculum. As part of One well established test battery is Fitness-
this learning, it is relevant to increase children’s gram, which was developed by the Cooper Insti-
awareness of their physical fitness levels and help tute in the United States. This tool for physical
them reflect on these levels. Practical ideas to help fitness assessment, education and reporting
you deliver and promote learning through fitness addresses the five components of health-related
monitoring are provided in the next section of this fitness and uses criterion-referenced health
chapter and in the web resource. Specifically, the standards, referred to as ‘healthy fitness zones’,
discussion here presents ideas for using physical to determine whether a pupil falls in the ‘healthy
fitness information to promote learning, whereas zone’. Various iterations of Fitnessgram have been
the web resource includes a selection of fitness produced over the past 35 years, and the most
tests considered appropriate for use in schools recent version was released in 2017. The latest
and during curriculum time to engage pupils in software provides individualised data and reports
health-promoting physical activity. For each test that summarise a child’s performance on each
and testing component, the resource provides an component of fitness and gives opportunities for
overview and general guidance, as well as pupil interaction with the data, as well as personalised
A NEW APPROACH TO FITNESS TESTING
For many years, the physical education department at Meadows Secondary School had conducted formal fitness
monitoring of each year group at the start of the academic year. This process involved administering a standard
battery of fitness tests designed to measure cardiorespiratory fitness, muscular strength and endurance, flex-
ibility and body composition. However, the response from pupils to the monitoring was mixed, particularly for
the multistage fitness or ‘bleep’ test, which was used as the measure of cardiorespiratory fitness with all pupils.
Some of the more athletically able pupils were motivated by and enjoyed the test and saw it almost as a competi-
tive event in which they openly tried to beat their peers. For others, the test had the opposite effect, and some
pupils expended more energy in trying to avoid it than in taking it.
Similarly, teachers provided mixed views about the monitoring—particularly, the way in which it was imple-
mented—and most were increasingly questioning its purpose and value. Key concerns raised by the physical
education staff included the lack of learning and progression associated with the monitoring; the failure to anal-
yse, interpret and use the data (the same tests were simply repeated each year); the negative attitudes towards
the monitoring and the fact that many pupils saw no point in it; and the amount of time spent on the monitoring
at the beginning of each year. All in all, many teachers felt that incorporating fitness monitoring at this time and
in this way did not get the year off to the most positive and productive start.
Discussion points: Does it surprise you to read of mixed views from pupils and teachers about the fitness test-
ing in the PE programme? What are your own experiences and views of fitness testing in schools?
These concerns prompted the physical education department to conduct a thorough review of the fitness
monitoring practices. The discussions were informed by afPE’s health position paper (afPE, 2015a), as well as
other fitness monitoring literature and recommendations, and resulted in a lively and healthy debate. In response,
the department decided not to abandon fitness monitoring but to fundamentally change the way in which it was
approached and delivered within the curriculum. For the first time, pupils were put at the heart of the monitoring,
and careful consideration was given to their learning, experiences and needs.
Key learning outcomes were agreed on and embedded explicitly within the broader health curriculum along-
side outcomes related to the broader monitoring of health and physical activity. These outcomes focused on
developing pupils’ knowledge and understanding of fitness monitoring (and fitness per se) and encouraging a
critical attitude and approach towards monitoring; raising pupils’ awareness of the advantages, disadvantages,
limitations and potential issues associated with monitoring fitness; and ensuring an inclusive, individualised and
empowering approach to monitoring. In short, the department shifted away from having pupils simply perform
and towards helping them learn and develop broader knowledge and skills through fitness monitoring.
Discussion points: Why did the department decide not to abandon fitness testing? What are your views on the
department’s shift in its approach to fitness testing?
Here are some of the practical ideas that the department developed and incorporated in order to support the
new approach to fitness monitoring:
•• Asking pupils to collect and critique articles, media •• Inviting pupils to analyse and interpret their own (or
reports and messages about fitness over the course anonymous or fictitious) fitness data and consider
of a general health unit what messages, advice and actions would be appro-
•• Critiquing specific fitness tests with pupils in terms priate
of their utility, validity, appropriateness and appeal •• Organising and running a Get Fit and Active event to
for all young people provide a range of fun fitness and physical activity
•• Asking pupils to explore selected fitness tests to opportunities for pupils to choose from, as well as
familiarise themselves with the tests and understand various field-based measures of fitness, physical
and develop their own (or a partner’s) exercise tech- activity and health for them to participate in if they
nique wish (and involving pupils in planning and deliver-
•• Having pupils perform selected fitness tests of their ing the event, including assisting with fitness and
choice, record the results, help administer the tests activity sessions and field-based fitness tests, with a
and provide feedback on their peers’ technique focus on choice and engaging in various ways)
These ideas are in their first year of implementation, and the new approach will be reviewed in detail at the
end-of-year physical education meeting. Whilst there will no doubt be some changes and developments based on
lessons learned, indications to date suggest that the overall approach has been well received by both pupils and
teachers and has led to enhanced learning by all.
Discussion points: What advantages are offered by a pupil-centred, critical approach to fitness testing? What, if
any, disadvantages might there be?
72
feedback, positive reinforcement and suggestions •• To diagnose pupils’ fitness needs for indi-
about how to promote and maintain good fitness vidual exercise prescription as applicable
based on the assessment results. based on their current physical fitness levels
and the extent to which they are meeting
particular standards or norms
Applying What You Learn •• To promote broader and more transferable
From Monitoring Physical skills in pupils (e.g., independent inquiry,
critical reflection, problem solving, self-
Fitness management) and cross-curricular skills
and links between subjects (e.g., physical
As with information about health and physical education, numeracy, science)
activity, physical fitness data can be used in
various ways to promote learning. For example, The information you gain from fitness moni-
fitness information can be used to prompt dis- toring will enhance your understanding of your
cussion, reflection and general questions about pupils’ physical fitness levels, their responses to
physical fitness and about the relationships fitness monitoring and testing, and their fitness
between physical fitness, physical activity and ambitions. For example, you can use the infor-
lifestyles. Of course, the amount and depth of mation to inform both the curriculum and the
coverage should be adapted to pupils’ ages and content, nature, organisation and extent of any
abilities. Here are some possible ways to use the monitoring you decide to use in the future.
data to facilitate pupils’ learning:
•• To enhance pupils’ knowledge and under-
standing of physical fitness and the moni-
Summary
toring of physical fitness—for example,
Monitoring children’s physical fitness is com-
the components of health-related physical
monplace in schools but remains controversial.
fitness and their importance to health;
Reasons for monitoring children’s physical fitness
the value of monitoring physical fitness;
in schools include promoting physical activity;
methods of monitoring physical fitness;
enhancing learning and positive attitudes; and
how to conduct and evaluate monitoring in
developing pupils’ skills in goal setting, self-mon-
general, as well as specific fitness tests and
itoring and self-testing. Children’s physical fitness
procedures; factors that influence physical
can be monitored in schools through field-based
fitness and scores on fitness tests; and how
tests of health-related fitness. Your decisions
to improve physical fitness
about fitness monitoring should be informed by
•• To develop pupils’ awareness and knowledge a critique of fitness monitoring, which will help
of their own physical fitness (e.g., overall you address issues related to the purpose and
fitness levels, performance in certain compo- implementation of monitoring, as well as the
nents of fitness), their self-evaluation skills interpretation and use of monitoring data.
(e.g., ability to understand and interpret fit- If fitness monitoring is used appropriately,
ness levels and factors that influence them) subjected to informed critique and incorporated
and their views and attitudes towards fitness as just one component of a broad and holistic
monitoring (Sample questions to ask pupils health education programme, then it can serve as
are outlined in the web resource for this a valuable component of the curriculum and play
chapter under the heading Post-Monitoring a role in supporting healthy lifestyles and physi-
Physical Fitness Questions.) cal activity. Recommendations, guidelines and
•• To facilitate pupils’ goal setting and self- practical ideas are available to help you imple-
monitoring of physical fitness—for example, ment fitness monitoring and realise its potential
using the information as the basis for setting to facilitate pupils’ learning. With this guidance
realistic goals to maintain or, if appropriate, and support, you can adopt a healthy, activity-
increase their physical fitness promoting approach to fitness monitoring.
PART III
Health-Related
Learning in Physical
Education
7
Involving All Children
in Healthy, Active
Lifestyles
Chapter Objectives
▶▶ explain the rationale for involving all children in healthy, active lifestyles;
▶▶ identify the general philosophy, key principles and selected strategies
for involving children of all abilities in physical activity;

▶▶ understand general information about common health conditions in
young people (including asthma, diabetes and obesity) that is relevant

to the promotion of healthy, active lifestyles; and
▶▶ apply general and specific practical recommendations for involving
young people with asthma, diabetes and obesity in physical activity.
77
G iven the established health benefits of physi-

cal activity and the fact that some children,
including those with disabilities and medical
which should involve all children in physical
activity through the provision of positive, rel-
evant, meaningful and rewarding physical activity
conditions, face more barriers and challenges to experiences. Indeed, such provision should be a
participation than do others, this chapter focuses fundamental goal of all schools.
on helping all young people to lead healthy, active Vickerman (2010) suggests that this obligation
lifestyles. The chapter considers the rationale, has led to a plethora of philosophies, policies and
philosophy and key principles underpinning an practices for promoting entitlement and access to
equitable approach to the promotion of physical physical education and opportunities for physical
activity and pays special attention to recommen- activity. In line with Vickerman’s call for schools
dations and strategies for involving young people to meet their obligation to provide inclusive edu-
with conditions including asthma, diabetes and cation, the following inclusive philosophy is advo-
obesity in physical activity. cated when promoting healthy, active lifestyles:
•• Physical activity is for all.
Rationale for Involving All •• Physical activity is for life.

•• Everyone can benefit from physical activity.
Children in Healthy, •• Everyone has the right to positive physical
Active Lifestyles activity experiences.
•• Everyone can be good at physical activity.
Chapter 1 provides the rationale for promoting
•• Excellence is maintaining an active way of
healthy, active lifestyles among children and an
life.
overview of the many benefits of physical activity
(adapted from Cale and Harris, 2009, p.117).
for young people’s physical, psychological and
social health. This rationale and these benefits This philosophy can be implemented if schools
hold true for all young people, but engaging in and teachers critically examine their policies
appropriate physical activity may be particularly and practices for physical activity and physical
important and beneficial for some youngsters, education in light of their pupils and are com-
such as those with particularly low self-esteem, mitted and flexible in their approach. Speaking
physical competence or confidence; those who broadly about inclusive teaching and learning in
are overweight or obese; and those with other physical education, Vickerman (2010) notes that
common medical conditions. Specific benefits of the limiting factor for a child’s inclusion lies with
physical activity for children who have asthma or the teacher and that it is therefore important for
diabetes or who are obese are considered later in schools to adopt flexible approaches rather than
the chapter. In addition, in addressing the issue expecting all children to fit into existing struc-
of ‘striving to “include” in physical education and tures. Vickerman goes on to identify the following
sport’, Fitzgerald (2011, p. 158) identifies benefits critical factors for inclusion: high-quality learn-
beyond those associated with physical health and ing and teaching; equipping of teachers with the
cognitive and psychological factors. These ben- necessary knowledge, skills and understanding to
efits include opportunities for young people to support a wide range of children’s needs; and a
develop social skills and friendships, experience positive school culture and willingness to modify
decreased isolation, develop higher expectations, and adapt activities and environments.
meet more demanding challenges and enhance Vickerman (2010) also identified four key prin-
their appreciation of difference and equity. ciples for maximising the potential of all children
All of these benefits aside, inclusive education in physical education: entitlement, accessibility,
is also enshrined in both national and interna- inclusion and integrity. When applied to the
tional legislation. Therefore, schools have not context of healthy, active lifestyles, entitlement
only a moral and social obligation but also a legal involves acknowledging the fundamental right
one to promote inclusion, meet the needs of all of all children to access physical activity oppor-
pupils, remove barriers to learning and ensure tunities, whilst accessibility refers to teachers’
an inclusive environment and curriculum. This responsibility to ensure that all pupils gain their
obligation applies, of course, to the context of full entitlement by devising effective strategies,
school physical activity and physical education, adopting flexible approaches, and modifying
Involving All Children in Healthy, Active Lifestyles 79
and adapting activities as appropriate. Inclusion model may be attractive for some, overempha-
involves teachers first recognising the various sising it may turn many pupils off and leave the
physical activity needs of pupils and planning needs of many individuals unmet. In fact, the
appropriately to meet them. And the principle relevance and appeal of competitive sport and
of integrity is concerned with ensuring that team games have been questioned for some time
any strategies used, and any modifications or (Green, 2004; Fox & Harris, 2003; Haerens, Kirk,
adaptions made, are of equal worth and not Cardon, & De Bourdeaudhuij, 2011) on the basis
patronising or tokenistic. In this regard, it is that they fail to acknowledge young people’s lei-
recommended that you consult with pupils and sure lifestyles as well as trends towards a wider
involve them in decision making. range of noncompetitive recreational activities
in informal, individual and small-group settings
(Green, 2004).
Strategies for Involving Clearly, current participatory trends need to
be reflected in the physical activity opportunities
All Children in Healthy, provided to pupils. In this respect, we need to
Active Lifestyles take a broad approach to teaching about healthy,
active lifestyles that provides a range of physical
Having considered the general philosophy and activities and focuses on pupils’ development
key principles of involving all children in physi- in the cognitive, psychomotor, behavioural and
cal activity, let us now consider strategies for affective domains (Harris, 2000). In other words,
supporting the involvement of all children. In we need an approach that both develops pupils’
order to succeed, efforts to empower young knowledge, understanding and competence in
people to participate in healthy, active lifestyles a range of physical activities and contexts and
must include three key elements: appropri- promotes positive attitudes towards and partici-
ate content, appropriate context and effective pation in physical activity. Recreational activities
pedagogy (Elbourn & James, 2013). Appropriate that may be attractive and relevant to pupils
content is safe, explicit, progressive, relevant, well include swimming, cycling, dance, walking,
informed, inclusive, exciting and fun. Appropriate hiking, jogging and fitness activities (e.g., skip-
context, in turn, consists of a range of activities ping, aerobics, circuits, step, Pilates, boxercise,
through which healthy, active lifestyles can be Zumba, spin, aquatics and yoga).
promoted—for example, a variety of games and When choosing and delivering opportunities
dance or gymnastics activities, or a range of fit- for physical activity, ask the following questions:
ness or exercise activities (e.g., aerobics, circuits).
•• Why am I choosing this activity?
Effective pedagogy is, among other things, per-
sonalised, enabling and collaborative; moreover, •• Is it relevant and meaningful to my pupils?
it facilitates informed decision making and uses •• Is it accessible?
active learning strategies. •• Are any pupils likely to be marginalised?
•• Would any other activities be more inclusive
Content and Context and engaging?
It may seem obvious that in order to involve
all young people in physical activity, we must Pedagogy
provide content that is safe, explicit, progres-
sive, relevant, well informed, inclusive, exciting Regardless of the content and context, involving
and fun. However, many of the physical activity all pupils in healthy, active lifestyles also demands
opportunities provided in schools—and, nota- careful consideration of how physical activity is
bly, within physical education—are perceived taught—that is, of pedagogy. Clearly, the delivery
by many pupils as traditional, irrelevant, boring needs to be of high quality and marked by caring
and far from fun. For example, physical educa- teaching strategies; it should also be grounded in
tion continues to be dominated by a traditional a practical knowledge base and involve enjoyable,
sporting model that focuses on sport techniques, positive and meaningful physical activity experi-
competitive sport and team games (Tannehill, ences (Fox & Harris, 2003). Efforts to implement
2012; Green, 2009; Kirk, 2010). Although this this sort of teaching, however, have encountered
challenges. For one thing, limitations have been to meet these needs, you must understand young
recognised in the pedagogy traditionally applied people and their physical activity behaviour (and
to teaching about active lifestyles such as an over- experiences). And to do that, you must listen to,
emphasis on testing and training; furthermore, engage with and empower them, because they are
knowledge about effective PE-for-health pedago- the experts on themselves and should be given a
gies has been identified as a significant gap in voice (Cale, 2011).
the field (Armour & Harris, 2013; Haerens et al., Indeed, consulting with pupils and involving
2011). Indeed, in contrast to the considerable them in decision making is linked to the principle
interest expressed in developing health-focused of integrity discussed earlier (Vickerman, 2010)
curriculum activities, less attention has been and is now commonly advocated in physical activ-
paid to developing effective pedagogies (Armour ity and physical education contexts (MacPhail
& Harris, 2013). In the prevailing or traditional & Halbert, 2005; Tannehill, 2012; Vickerman,
pedagogical approach, the drivers are curriculum, 2010). Consultation with pupils is viewed as a
programmes and activities rather than the needs central success factor because it enables teachers
of learners. In contrast, effective PE-for-health and pupils to consider, at the planning stage, any
pedagogies put pedagogy and learners’ needs at differentiation that may be required (Vickerman,
the core (Armour & Harris, 2013). 2010). In fact, with respect to physical education,
Given the lack of knowledge about appropri- it has been proposed that young people should
ate pedagogies, it is perhaps not surprising that be involved more intimately in a ‘negotiated
concerns have been raised over the delivery of curriculum’ process that addresses both what is
education related to healthy, active lifestyles, both taught (i.e., content) and how it is taught (i.e.,
in schools generally and in physical education pedagogy) (Tannehill, 2012, p. 235) so that pupils
in particular. Just as concerns have been raised become partners in the development of a fully
about the content of physical activity offered to inclusive curriculum. At the same time, teach-
pupils, questions have also been asked about ers should not merely teach what pupils want
teachers’ ability and effectiveness in delivering but should find ways ‘to pull them in, motivate
that content and about the level of emphasis them to persevere, and provide them with what
placed on that delivery. More specifically, teach- is important, relevant, and worth their time and
ers have been criticised for adopting an approach energy to master’ (Tannehill, 2012, p. 237). In
that emphasises sport, performance and fitness summary, it is important to work with rather than
(Alfrey, Cale, & Webb, 2012; Harris & Leggett, at young people in the physical activity context,
2015a, 2015b; Puhse et al., 2011) and for focusing to respect their voices, and to avoid a ‘nannying’
on outcomes that are narrow. Such an approach is approach to promoting healthy, active lifestyles
problematic because it is likely to highlight some (Cale, 2011).
pupils’ inadequacies in the physical context, thus There is one final strategy for supporting the
heightening their awareness that their physical involvement of all pupils in physical activity
performance does not match up with that of linked to pedagogy—namely, to adopt a specific
their peers and potentially turning them off of model of inclusion. Various such models exist, but
physical activity. two are considered particularly useful and practi-
Thus, the key is to focus primarily on pupils cal: the inclusion spectrum and the STEP model.
and put their needs at the core, which begins with
establishing what those needs are. Only when you Inclusion Spectrum
understand young people’s physical activity needs,
interests, likes and dislikes—as well as their indi- The inclusion spectrum is an activity-centred
vidual physical and psychological characteristics approach to the inclusion of pupils with various
(e.g., level of fitness, physical limitations, self- abilities in physical activity (Stevenson, 2009).
esteem, confidence) and the barriers and other Whilst it was originally developed and adopted
factors that influence their participation—are in relation to people with disability, it promotes
you likely to succeed at promoting and influenc- meaningful involvement of all young people (with
ing their physical activity (Cale & Harris, 2009). or without disability) in physical activity. It is
Specifically, in order for pupils to feel successful based on the social model of disability, which
in any activity, you must meet the following set holds that barriers to young people’s participa-
of pupil needs: feeling competent, belonging, feel- tion result not from individual characteristics but
ing useful, feeling potent and feeling optimistic from attitudinal, economic and environmental
(Sagor, 2002, cited in Tannehill, 2012). In order factors.
Everyone is Everyone is
doing the same task, doing the same task,
without adaption but with changes
or modification. to rules, areas or
equipment.
Open Modified
activity activity Everyone
plays the
A group of same game,
people play Separate Inclusion Parallel but different
separately, activity spectrum activity groups play
e.g., preparing the game in
for a disability different ways
sport event. and at different
Disability levels.
sport activity
‘Reverse integration’ – non-disabled people

take part in disability sport activities.
Figure 7.1 The inclusion spectrum.

Based on Stevenson 2009.
E6847/Harris/fig 07.01/577672/kh/R3
In practice, the inclusion spectrum provides a more details, see the following discussion
simple structure for inclusion that can be used of the STEP model.)
flexibly with various activities and sports and with 3. Parallel: Pupils are grouped according to
pupils of varying abilities to provide a range of ability, and everyone does the same activ-
options and delivery methods. It consists of five ity but each pupil performs at an appro-
approaches to delivering physical activity that are priate level. For example, this approach
arranged in a continuum of participation; each might involve using different versions of
approach is designed to empower, deliver and the same activity, game or exercise (e.g.,
encourage full participation of all young people standing or seated volleyball; box or full
(see figure 7.1). push-up); a range of small-sided activities;
Here are the five approaches of the inclusion or ability-matched zones within a larger
spectrum. activity.
1. Open: All pupils do the same activity 4. Separate: A pupil or group of pupils does a
without adaption or modification or in purposefully planned activity that is differ-
their own way without conditions. For ent from what the rest of the class does—
example, this approach might include for example, practising an individual or
simple warm-up or cool-down activities, specific skill or preparing for a particular
inclusive games, or continuous activity group or team event.
that all pupils can perform and in which 5. Disability sport: This approach includes
individual differences are not so obvious. aspects of physical activity based on dis-
2. Modified: Everyone does the same activity ability sport. This ‘reverse integration’
with adaptions to appropriately challenge provides specific opportunities for pupils
and support the inclusion of all pupils. with disability and new challenges for
For example, adaptions might be made pupils without disability. Examples include
to the rules, space or equipment in order the disability sports of boccia, goalball and
to facilitate all pupils’ participation. (For sitting volleyball.
The appeal of the inclusion spectrum lies in ing all pupils’ involvement in physical activity. The
its simplicity and its underpinning by the social model holds that all pupils can be included and
model of disability. However, little research has challenged to progress if teachers appropriately
been carried out on its effectiveness, and it is sub- modify their delivery of activities. Changes can
ject to some limitations. For example, it has been be made in one or more of four areas indicated
suggested that the model does little to question by the STEP acronym: space, task, equipment
prevailing ‘normative practices’ (or to take teach- and people (see table 7.1). In this context, the
ers and coaches forward to a more complex and space is where the activity happens, the task is
demanding understanding of inclusion) and that what happens, the equipment is what is used,
implementing it effectively requires teachers to and the people are those who are involved. The
reinterpret and fully apply the philosophical prin- STEP model requires teachers to address each
ciples that underpin it (Fitzgerald, 2011, 2012). of these areas in the planning stage and ask the
following question: How can I change the space,
STEP Model task, equipment, or people (or some combination
of these factors) to involve all pupils?
Linked to the inclusion spectrum, the STEP
model is another simple framework for facilitat-
ACTIVITY FOR ALL

A primary school in the Midlands decided to focus on improving the health of its population by reviewing
the activity opportunities available to pupils during breaks and lunchtimes. School staff and governors con-
cluded that current activity opportunities were too limited and therefore were accessed by only a minority
of the pupils (mostly those who were healthier and more fit, able and active). In response, the staff were
particularly keen to ensure that every child, including those with disabilities and medical conditions (e.g.,
asthma, diabetes, obesity) could participate in activity opportunities.
To achieve this goal, the school decided to offer pupils a mixture of structured and unstructured activi-
ties during breaks and lunchtimes on Mondays, Wednesdays and Fridays. They also decided to permit
pupils to borrow equipment (e.g., balls, hoops, cones, skipping ropes); to provide volunteer supervision by
teaching assistants, parents and older ‘active buddy’ pupils for children undertaking playground activities
(e.g., hopscotch, throwing balls against targets on walls or the ground); and to organise activities, such as
walking (or jogging or skipping) around a series of cones, throwing beanbags and jumping over a series of
low hurdles.
Discussion points: Why do you think that both structured and unstructured activities were offered? What
are your views on involving older ‘active buddy’ pupils in this initiative?
The activities were offered during the entire summer term and resulted in an increased proportion of
children being active during breaks and lunchtimes. Children enjoyed the range of activities on offer and the
freedom to borrow equipment to make up and play their own activities. Teachers considered the initiative
successful in engaging most of the children with specific disabilities and health conditions (who previously
had been inactive during breaks and lunchtimes). Many parents of these children praised the initiative, and
some supported it by volunteering to assist on particular days of the week.
Discussion points: Why do you think that children with specific health conditions engaged with the initia-
tive? What are the benefits of involving parents in the initiative? What safeguarding concerns need to be
addressed when involving parents?
After the initiative was reviewed at a governors’ meeting, the school decided to continue it during the fol-
lowing autumn term and to encourage involvement by more parents and more of the older pupils. The gov-
ernors also decided to raise funds to pay for additional markings on the walls and grounds of the school
and for additional modified equipment, such as low hurdles and soft javelins.
TABLE 7.1 Options for Modifying Physical Activities Within the STEP
Framework
Where?
•• Size of playing area (more or less space)
•• Distance to be travelled
Space
•• Use of zoned activity or playing areas
•• Targets nearer or further away
•• Level (height; e.g., floor-based or seated versus ambulant)
What?
•• Easier or harder tasks or versions of activities
•• Specific and different roles (e.g., coach, official, performer)
Task •• Rotating roles
•• Different rules (e.g., allowing different places to start)
•• Different ways of taking part (e.g., seated, standing, lying)
•• Different targets
What is used?
Type Characteristic
•• Balls •• Size
•• Bats •• Shape
Equipment •• Rackets •• Weight
•• Cones or markers •• Softness
•• Beanbags •• Colour
•• Scarves •• Texture
•• Mats
With whom?
Type of participation Roles, groupings and space
•• Independent With:
•• In pairs, groups or teams •• Different or same roles
•• With friends •• Different or same ability
People •• With learning support assistant •• Different or same size
In:
•• Own space
•• Large space
•• Small space
•• Restricted space
•• Open space
Involving Children With noted earlier, schools have a legal responsibility

to ensure that all pupils have full access to educa-
Common Health Conditions tion, which includes school physical activity and
in Physical Activity physical education opportunities. Indeed, it is
now statutory in England to make arrangements
to support pupils with medical conditions, and
Throughout this book, we highlight the impor- statutory guidance is available to ensure that such
tance of promoting healthy, active lifestyles to pupils can access and enjoy the same opportuni-
all young people. For young people with certain ties as any other child, play a full and active role
common health conditions, however, physical in school life, remain healthy and achieve their
activity offers particular benefits. Furthermore, as potential (see Department for Education, 2015).
In that context, this section of the chapter

examines how to involve young people with the
following health conditions in physical activity:
asthma, diabetes and obesity. The section begins
by presenting key background information about
each condition, such as prevalence, symptoms
and benefits of physical activity in relation to the
condition. Alongside the benefits, however, we
must consider some important sensitivities likely
to affect an individual’s ability to participate,
as well as his or her enjoyment of and attitude
towards participation. These sensitivities are
taken into account in practical recommendations
for involving youngsters with such conditions in
physical activity.
Asthma
Asthma is a common condition affecting the
airways, or tubes, that carry air in and out of the
lungs. When a person with asthma comes into
contact with a trigger, the airways get irritated
and become narrower, thus making it difficult for
the person to breathe and leading to symptoms
such as chest tightness, wheezing, coughing and
Photo by Alan Edwards f2images.com

shortness of breath (British Heart Foundation,
2011; Asthma UK, 2016b). Asthma affects as
many as 334 million people of all ages in all parts
of the world; more specifically, the latest Inter-
national Study of Asthma and Allergies in Child-
hood (ISAAC) survey found that 14 percent of the
world’s children were likely to have had asthmatic
symptoms in the preceding year (Global Asthma
Network, 2014). In the United Kingdom, asthma
is reported to be the most common long-term Children with particular needs can be introduced
medical condition among children, affecting to a range of physical activities as part of a school’s
more than 1.1 million youngsters, which trans- physical education curriculum and extra-curricular
lates to about 1 in every 10 children and about programme.
2 pupils per school class (British Lung Founda-
tion, 2016).
Not all young people with asthma experience
all of the symptoms; moreover, the severity and •• Allergens, such as dust mites, pollen, bird
duration of symptoms vary, both between indi- feathers and animal dander and secretions
viduals and between attacks in the same person. •• Weather changes, such as cold winds, thun-
Youngsters with mild asthma may experience derstorms and decreases in temperature
symptoms only with certain triggers, whereas •• Expressions of emotion, such as amusement
those with severe asthma may experience per- (via laughter), anger, fear and stress
manent narrowing of the airways. •• Exercise or other physical activity, particu-
Major asthma triggers include the following: larly continuous aerobic exercise
•• Viral infections, especially of the respira- (British Heart Foundation, 2011, p. 38–39).
tory tract If a child’s asthma is often triggered by exercise,

•• Irritants, such as dust, air pollution, fumes then the condition may not be as well controlled
and smoke (including cigarette smoke) as it could be. Moreover, if exercise is the only
trigger, then the child may have exercise-induced does not work properly (Diabetes UK, 2016).
asthma, which involves the usual asthma symp- Insulin helps the glucose move from the blood
toms but begins during or after participation in into the body’s cells to be used as energy; without
exercise or physical activity. It can become more it, the body cannot use glucose. Diabetes can be
severe about 15 minutes after exercise ends, then either type 1 or type 2. In type 1, the immune
gradually improve. system attacks healthy body tissue in the pan-
It is not fully understood how physical activity creas, thus making it unable to produce insulin
triggers asthma symptoms, but some believe it is and leaving the body unable to move glucose out
associated with breathing in cold, dry air more of the bloodstream and into cells. This type of
quickly and forcefully than when not exercis- diabetes is often inherited and is not caused by
ing (British Heart Foundation, 2011). In some unhealthy lifestyle choices. Type 2 diabetes, on
people, the airways are sensitive to changes in the other hand, occurs when the body does not
temperature and humidity and react by getting produce enough insulin to function properly or
narrower. The treatment for exercise-induced when the body’s cells do not react to insulin; in
asthma is the same as for other kinds of asthma, either case, glucose stays in the blood and is not
and young people with this form of asthma can used as fuel for energy. Type 2 diabetes is often
still take part in physical activity, provided that associated with obesity and unhealthy lifestyle
they learn how to reduce their risk of experiencing choices and tends to be diagnosed in older adults.
symptoms and how to manage symptoms when In the United Kingdom, about 31,500 young
they do occur (Asthma UK, 2016a). people live with diabetes, and the vast majority
For children with asthma, physical activity have type 1 (Diabetes UK, 2015). In addition,
provides benefits over and above the general ones according to an international league table com-
highlighted in chapter 1. For example, the British piled by Diabetes UK and based on estimates
Heart Foundation (2011) and Asthma UK (2016a) from the International Diabetes Federation, the
note that physical activity can United Kingdom has the world’s fifth-highest
rate of diagnosis for type 1 diabetes in children
•• lead to improved cardiorespiratory fitness aged up to 14 years. Type 2 diabetes was first
(and reduced breathlessness at a given diagnosed in overweight girls of Pakistani,
exercise intensity), thereby providing extra Indian or Arabic origin in the United Kingdom
stamina for coping with asthma during in 2000 and in white adolescents in 2002, and
everyday activities; the number of young people with this condi-
•• improve respiratory muscle strength and tion is increasing as more become overweight
lung capacity, which exert both short- and and obese (British Heart Foundation, 2011). As
long-term positive effects on breathing and of now, there is no cure for diabetes, but both
asthma control; types can be managed and treated. Treatment
•• help young people maintain or attain a for type 1 diabetes involves taking insulin, either
healthy weight, which helps reduce the risk via injection or via an insulin pump; in addition,
of asthma attacks and other asthma symp- eating a healthy diet and getting regular physical
toms and may reduce the need for medica- activity are advised for overall good health (Brit-
tion to control asthma; ish Heart Foundation, 2011). Treatment for Type
•• boost the immune system, thus making 2 diabetes ranges from lifestyle adjustments to
asthma less likely to be triggered by coughs tablet medication and injections (British Heart
and colds; and Foundation, 2011).
Here are the main symptoms of diabetes in
•• positively influence mood (i.e., reduce stress young people:
and depression) and thereby reduce the risk
of stress-induced asthma. •• Passing more urine than normal
•• Increased thirst
Diabetes •• Extreme tiredness
•• Weight loss
Diabetes is a condition in which the amount of
glucose (sugar) in the blood is too high, either These symptoms are sometimes referred to as the
because the pancreas does not produce any or four Ts: toilet, thirsty, tired and thinner (Diabetes
enough insulin or because the insulin produced UK, 2014).
Physical activity provides a number of benefits Alarmingly, nearly 80 percent of children who
that are particularly relevant for young people are obese in their teens are likely to remain obese
with diabetes, including the following: as adults (National Institute for Health and Care
Excellence, 2015).
•• Helps young people maintain a healthy In considering these statistics, we must recog-
weight, which in turn helps control their nise that obesity and overweight differ from each
diabetes. other and that combining them (as is typically
•• Helps the body use insulin more efficiently done) inflates the figures and thus distorts the
and therefore may help reduce the amount picture to some degree. As explained by Cale and
taken and improve overall diabetes manage- Harris (2009), obesity is a clinical health condi-
ment. tion, whereas overweight is not; moreover, whilst
•• Helps lower blood-sugar levels, which may overweight can lead to obesity, it generally does
also help reduce the amount of insulin taken. not. Nonetheless, a significant number of young
people are obese and have difficulty attaining and
•• Improves overall diabetes control and helps
maintaining a healthy body weight. In addition,
prevent some of the complications asso-
many of the issues and benefits of physical activ-
ciated with diabetes in later life (British
ity apply equally to both obesity and overweight.
Heart Foundation, 2011, p. 109; Diabetes
Therefore, both are considered here.
UK, 2016).
Contributions to obesity can come from a
variety of factors. Whilst genetics can make
Obesity some young people more susceptible than
The World Health Organisation (2016) classifies others, this factor alone is not sufficient; nor
individuals with a body mass index (BMI) of 25 does it constitute the main cause. Both obesity
or more as overweight and those with a BMI of itself and the increase in obesity more likely
30 or more as obese. BMI is determined by divid- result from behavioural factors (i.e., changes in
ing the square of an individual’s height in metres physical activity, diet and eating patterns) and
into his or her weight in kilograms. To account environmental factors (e.g., access to physical
for growth patterns by age and gender, a child’s activity opportunities, increased availability and
BMI is compared with BMI centiles in published affordability of certain types of food) (Cale &
growth charts; children above the 95th centile Harris, 2009, p. 140). Thus obesity is undoubt-
are classified as obese (HM Government, 2016). edly facilitated by obesogenic environments—
Using BMI as a measure of obesity is subject to that is, environments that encourage people to
some limitations as it does not, for example, take eat unhealthily and fail to exercise sufficiently.
account of different stages of physical maturity, Examples include places that encourage driving
and the classification of obesity in children is rather than walking, buildings with lifts and
controversial as they are still growing and have escalators prominently sited and stairs hidden
not reached full physical maturity. Despite these away, and public places dominated by shops that
caveats, BMI is used as a measure of obesity as sell calorie-dense foods.
it is relatively simple and low in cost. Such environments encourage people to live
As noted in chapter 1, concerns over the with an unhealthy energy balance. The energy bal-
increased prevalence of obesity among children ance equation explains the relationship between
and adolescents have been raised in recent energy intake (what we eat and drink, or calories
decades. In fact, the World Health Organisation consumed), energy expenditure (what we expend
(2016) has reported that the number of infants in daily living and physical activity, or calories
and young children considered overweight or burned) and body weight:
obese increased by 10 million globally between
Energy intake = energy expenditure → stable
1990 and 2013, to a current total of 42 million.
weight
Recent figures in England indicate that nearly a
third of children aged 2 to 15 years are overweight Energy intake > energy expenditure → weight
or obese and that the obesity rate is 16 percent gain
among boys and 15 percent among girls (Health Energy intake < energy expenditure → weight
and Social Care Information Centre, 2015b). loss
Put simply, then, individuals gain weight when presented here have been informed by or adapted
their energy intake exceeds their energy expendi- or developed from recommendations published
ture. However, energy imbalance is not a straight- previously by various authors and organisations
forward physical issue, because relationships (e.g., Association for Physical Education, 2016;
with food and drink are complex and are affected Asthma UK, 2016a; British Heart Foundation,
by behaviour, environment, genetics and culture. 2011; Cale & Harris, 2009, 2013; Department of
Young people who are overweight or obese can Health, 2007; Diabetes UK 2014, 2016; Evans,
gain numerous benefits from physical activity; 2007; National Institute for Clinical Excellence,
specifically, it can 2006; National Institute for Health and Care
Excellence, 2015).
•• increase lean body mass (total mass or Collectively, these recommendations will help
weight minus body fat) and energy expen- you respond appropriately to pupils with health
diture (energy or calories used for functions conditions; promote appropriate messages; and
such as breathing, digestion and move- enable all pupils to engage in safe, effective
ment), thereby helping achieve and main- and enjoyable physical activity both within and
tain energy balance (equilibrium between beyond school. All of the recommendations relate
energy intake and energy expenditure) and to physical activity or physical education; they do
preventing weight gain; not touch on general guidance or requirements
•• improve a young person’s metabolic profile for supporting pupils with medical conditions
(e.g., produce favourable changes in blood across the whole school (e.g., developing indi-
cholesterol levels and increase insulin sen- vidual health care plans or equivalents, consulting
sitivity); with other professionals and parents, managing
•• help protect against or manage other health medicines, keeping records, establishing emer-
problems and conditions associated with gency procedures). You should, of course, follow
obesity (e.g., high blood pressure, type 2 whole-school policies, practices and require-
diabetes, asthma); ments in line with statutory duty and guidance,
•• improve psychological well-being and help as applicable (see for example, Department for
young people feel good about themselves and Education, 2015).
Here are the general recommendations:
•• help prevent or reverse the downward spiral
into inactivity due to associated health •• Pupils should be encouraged to adopt and
difficulties and complications that make maintain regular physical activity both in
participation more difficult (British Heart school (in both curricular and extracurricu-
Foundation, 2011; Cale & Harris, 2009). lar physical education) and beyond school;
they should also be made aware of the
importance and specific benefits of physical
Recommendations for activity for them.
Involving Children With •• Pupils and their health conditions should not
be seen as problems. In fact, provided that
Asthma, Diabetes and their conditions are appropriately controlled
Obesity in Physical Activity and managed, young people with asthma,
diabetes or obesity should be able to readily
Recommendations for involving young people engage in and reap the benefits of regular
with asthma, diabetes and obesity in physical physical activity.
activity can be either condition specific or gen- •• Most young people are aware of their own
eral—that is, applying to all pupils with health capabilities and limitations in the realm of
conditions. This section begins with general physical activity and know how to manage
recommendations, then offers condition-specific their conditions, especially in the case of
recommendations that address factors such as older pupils. Communicate and consult with
clothing, preparation, organisation, environment, pupils to establish what they can and cannot
and the nature (i.e., type, duration and intensity) do in terms of participation, as well as what
of physical activities. All of the recommendations they enjoy doing; involve them in decision
making. Wherever possible, physical activ- Practical Recommendations

ity opportunities and guidance should be
personalised to pupils’ abilities, the severity
for Children With Asthma
of their conditions, their fitness levels or Pupils should be dressed appropriately for
other limitations, and their preferences. This the activity and conditions. For example, cold
personalisation helps ensure that opportuni- weather is likely to trigger symptoms of asthma
ties are accessible and appropriate and that because it can irritate sensitive airways. When
pupils’ experiences are safe and enjoyable. it is cold, therefore, pupils with asthma should
•• Pupils should refrain from participating in cover their chest and throat and possibly wear
physical activity if they feel unwell, and they a scarf around the nose. When it is particularly
should stop physical activity if they feel pain, cold, and where possible, exercising indoors may
weakness or dizziness. be advisable. In addition, prior to any energetic
•• Young people with health conditions may activity, sufficient time should be allowed for
lack self-esteem, confidence and a sense a thorough warm-up in which the intensity is
of control; they may also experience self- increased gradually in order to reduce the risk
consciousness, embarrassment or feelings of exercise-induced asthma. The warm-up should
of alienation. However, a sensitive, caring last at least 10 minutes and involve activities in
and inclusive approach can help them feel which the intensity can be controlled by the indi-
confident, valued, accepted and able to enjoy vidual. Afterwards, give the pupil sufficient time
and achieve within the context. to cool down by gradually reducing the intensity
of activity. This approach slows the change in
•• All pupils should be helped to feel good about
temperature of the air entering the airways.
themselves and their bodies; to understand
Individuals with asthma are also likely to fare
and deal with their individuality, strengths
better with interval-type or intermittent physical
and weaknesses; and to be proud of who they
activities (i.e., those that require bursts of activity
are. Pupils should be encouraged and helped
interspersed with activity of a lower intensity)
to like themselves and their bodies and to
than with continuous or endurance activities.
celebrate being special. See the chapter 7
Examples of interval-type activities include relay
web resource for more information about
races, short sprints with recovery periods, chas-
how to involve children of all sizes in physi-
ing and tag games, and more formal team and
cal education and physical activity.
individual games. Such activities can help pupils
develop aerobic endurance, thereby strengthen-
ing their respiratory muscles and improving their
cardiopulmonary function and general physical
condition. Specific activities that may work well
include racket-and-net games (e.g., badminton,
table tennis, possibly short tennis) and strik-
ing and fielding games (e.g., cricket, rounders).
Racket-and-net games involve less distance to
cover and can generally be played at a slower
pace and lower intensity. Striking-and-fielding
games include short breaks following bouts of
activity, and the pace and positions can be altered
to suit various needs and abilities. Some pupils
may struggle to participate in full team games,
in which case you can use modified versions
informed by the STEP model outlined earlier
(e.g., reducing the playing area or putting more
players on each team); for further possible modi-
fications, see table 7.1.
In contrast, continuous physical activities
(e.g., running for more than six minutes) require
extended energy output and are much more likely
to trigger exercise-induced asthma. Therefore,
they may need to be avoided in some cases, par- to recognise how they respond to different types
ticularly in cold weather. If continuous activities of physical activity and to use that knowledge to
are included, they should be performed at a gentle make informed adjustments to their food and
pace, and the duration should be increased gradu- insulin, with support as appropriate.
ally. In particular, swimming is associated with Pupils with diabetes should also be encouraged
better lung function and a lower risk of asthma to eat and drink both during and after physical
symptoms because of the warm and humid air activity in order to replace the glucose (energy)
and is therefore considered to be one of the best used; this is especially true if the activity is strenu-
forms of physical activity for individuals with ous or prolonged (60 minutes or longer). In terms
asthma. Gymnastics and dance activities are of liquid consumption, water or sugar-free squash
also suitable for young people with asthma as is fine for activity lasting less than an hour, but
they lend themselves to brief bursts of activity of for longer activities fruit juice or sugar-containing
varied intensity, make less aerobic demand, and squash or drinks are recommended. After swim-
are therefore to be encouraged. If you are look- ming, pupils may need to eat more carbohydrates
ing to involve pupils in outdoor and adventurous than normal because extra energy is likely to be
activities, take care because some of these activi- needed in order to maintain body temperature.
ties may cause asthma symptoms due to factors If a pupil’s blood glucose level is too low
such as the environment, the weather or pupils’ (i.e., below 4 millimoles per litre, or mmol/L),
emotional state arising from the activity. More- then he or she should not be physically active
over, Asthma UK (2016b) recommends that young until the level has been treated—for example,
people with asthma seek medical advice from a by consuming fast carbohydrate in the form of
GP before taking part in any adventure sport. biscuits or a sugary drink followed by long-acting
carbohydrate from a sandwich, banana or cereal
Practical Recommendations bar. The goal is to achieve a blood sugar level of
5 mmol/L or more before the pupil begins any
for Children With Diabetes planned activity in order to reduce the risk of an
Pupils whose diabetes is controlled should be incident of hypoglycaemia. Similarly, if a pupil’s
able to take part in any form of physical activity, blood glucose level is too high (i.e., 14 mmol/L
and a variety of activities should be encouraged. or more), then the pupil should wait until the
These pupils should, however, start slow and level comes down before taking part in physical
gradually increase the amount of physical activity activity. The reason is that exercise triggers the
that they perform within a single session. Aerobic release of stored glycogen from the liver, which
or continuous activities are recommended—for causes blood glucose levels to rise; this process
example, walking, jogging, cycling, swimming, may continue if insulin levels are inadequate
skipping and dancing—because they allow pupils and the muscles are unable to use the glucose.
to control the duration and intensity which helps Although relatively rare, this development can
them manage their response to the increased cause exercise-induced hyperglycaemia.
demand on their bodies.
In order to allow pupils with diabetes to plan
appropriately, they should be informed in advance
Practical Recommendations
about the nature of the physical activity to be for Children Who Are Overweight
performed (e.g., duration and intensity). A child’s or Obese
preparations for activity will vary depending on
when the child last took insulin; the timing, type For these pupils, careful consideration must be
and duration of the activity; when the child last given to policies related to kit, clothing, changing
ate; and the child’s blood glucose level (Diabetes and showering. These policies should be sensi-
UK [2014] recommends that young people check tive to pupils’ feelings about what they wear and
their blood glucose level before participating in about changing in front of others; where pos-
any physical activity). For example, planning sible, such policies should also be flexible and
might involve eating a snack beforehand, having accommodating. For example, private changing
snacks available, or altering an insulin dose. facilities should be provided where possible and
Be sure to check that pupils with diabetes have pupils should be permitted to wear clothing in
prepared themselves as needed before they take which they feel most comfortable (e.g., tracksuit
part in any physical activity. Also encourage them bottoms; T-shirts for swimming).
In terms of activities, incorporate physical rowing) that put less stress on the bones and
activities that involve everyone (e.g., simple joints and are also easier and more comfortable
warm-ups, circle or other games, activities that to perform. Non-weight-bearing activities are
involve social integration and interaction) to help particularly appropriate because the body weight
pupils socialise and make friends. Where possible, is supported, thus making movement easier and
physical activities should be varied frequently reducing the risk of injury.
to avoid overuse or fatigue of the same muscle In addition, such pupils should be encouraged
groups and joints. Pupils should also be encour- to engage in physical activities that promote and
aged to incorporate variety when participating in improve muscular strength (and increase fat-free
physical activity on their own. mass and muscle tone) and muscular endur-
Pupils who are overweight or obese will find ance. These activities also improve balance and
it particularly difficult and uncomfortable to coordination, thus making it easier for pupils to
participate in high-intensity, continuous activities carry out everyday tasks and lead a more active
(e.g., running and jumping), and such activities lifestyle. Examples include climbing and swing-
should not be forced on overweight or obese ing for younger pupils and circuits or resistance
pupils. The reason is that obese children tend to exercises for older age groups. If using fixed
have lower levels of fitness, especially cardiore- resistance equipment, however, all pupils should
spiratory fitness, than do their same-age peers of avoid intense or maximal resistance work. For
more typical weight. They are also more prone specific guidelines on resistance training, consult
to overheating due to the insulating property of Safe Practice in Physical Education, School Sport
fat and therefore tend to have poor tolerance for and Physical Activity from the Association for
exercise. To reduce the risk of overheating, pupils Physical Education (afPE) (2016).
should be encouraged to drink water before, Pupils who are overweight or obese may also
during and after physical activity. have other orthopaedic problems, such as back
The principal type of activity for overweight pain and poor posture (e.g., slouching, rounded
or obese pupils should be aerobic or continuous shoulders, excessive curving of the lower back).
activity (of low to moderate intensity), which To address these issues, incorporate physical
involves working the large muscle groups for a activities that promote and improve balance and
sustained period of time. This type of activity posture wherever feasible. Possibilities include
increases pupils’ energy expenditure and helps dance and gymnastics activities and circuits
improve their fitness and exercise tolerance. involving various exercises—for example, the
Pupils with larger bodies and more body weight flamingo balance or working postural muscles
may be less movement efficient in certain activi- such as the shoulders (trapezius, rhomboids) and
ties (e.g., running, balancing, rolling) and thus back (erector spinae) in shoulder squeezes and
may find them particularly demanding. There- back lifts, respectively. Some pupils, particularly
fore, physical activity may at first need to be of those who are severely obese, will likely have dif-
very low intensity, then progress gradually to a ficulty with floor-based activities and with moving
maintenance level of low to moderate intensity. from lying to upright positions; therefore, these
Emphasise a gradual increase in the difficulty, activities may need to be avoided or minimised
duration and frequency rather than in the inten- for obese pupils.
sity. For most pupils who are obese, games are
Pupils who are overweight or obese are likely suitable and should be encouraged because they
to struggle with managing their body weight typically involve intermittent or short bouts
and to have difficulty with activities that are of physical activity and include rest periods.
high impact or require carrying or lifting the However, they should be managed sensitively
body—for example, running, jumping and taking (especially team games) to ensure that all pupils
weight on the hands. Obese children also face are appropriately included and accepted within
greater risk of orthopaedic injury (e.g., fracture) the group. To make appropriate modifications
and may experience orthopaedic problems (e.g., to games and activities, use the STEP model to
knock knees, flat feet). Therefore, they should be accommodate individual body sizes and various
encouraged to engage in low-impact activities levels of exercise tolerance and movement effi-
(e.g., walking, stepping) and non-weight-bearing ciency. Modifications might include, for example,
activities (e.g., swimming, aqua aerobics, seated reducing the size of the playing area, increasing
aerobics, seated multigym work, cycling, indoor the number of players or performers or using
equipment that is differently weighted or differ- school or the shops, using the stairs instead of
ently sized. the lift, and assisting with tasks around the home
Also take care in selecting the physical activi- (e.g., housework, gardening). At the same time,
ties, tasks, positions and responsibilities allocated they should be encouraged to reduce the amount
to pupils in order to reduce the risk of anyone of time they spend in sedentary activities, such
feeling disheartened or embarrassed or being as watching television, playing computer or video
excluded or subject to teasing, ridicule or iso- games and surfing the web.
lation from peers. For example, pupils should
not be subjected to assault courses that involve
squeezing through or jumping over equipment; Summary
unfair races (e.g., those in which some pupils
are clearly advantaged by their physique); public Whilst general health benefits of physical activity
displays; activities or games involving constant apply to all children, certain additional benefits
running or jumping; or routinely or frequently apply to children with disabilities and specific
being assigned to inactive or lower-status roles health conditions such as asthma, diabetes and
or positions (e.g., scorer, goalkeeper, equipment obesity. Inclusive education is enshrined in legis-
helper). With these concerns in mind, and in the lation and requires schools to involve all children
interest of safety, you should also carefully con- in positive, relevant, meaningful and rewarding
sider your grouping procedures. For example, physical activity experiences. This requirement
weight and size should be taken into account is underpinned by an inclusive philosophy, key
when grouping pupils for partner or group tasks principles (of entitlement, accessibility, inclusion
and activities (e.g., marking, defending or tackling and integrity), high-quality learning and teaching,
in games; supporting or doing partner or group commitment and a willingness to be flexible. In
balancing in gymnastics). For these reasons, it is order to meet the goal of involving and empower-
not recommended that you allow pupils to freely ing young people in healthy, active lifestyles, we
pick their own teams. must provide appropriate content in appropriate
Some pupils demonstrate skill and aptitude contexts through effective pedagogy. This work
for particular activities, especially in techniques includes providing a range of physical activities in
involving small-muscle groups or activities or a range of contexts and adopting caring teaching
athletic events demanding muscular strength. strategies, pupil-centred approaches and specific
Teachers should establish which activities their models of inclusion.
pupils show aptitude for and actively promote Common health conditions in young people
and encourage participation in these options. include asthma, diabetes and obesity. Each of
Pupils’ achievements and successes in physical these conditions is marked by certain triggers,
activity are likely to exert a positive influence on causes, symptoms, complications and consid-
their confidence and self-esteem (which often erations. Fortunately, pupils with each condi-
pose challenges for youngsters) and therefore tion can also benefit from physical activity. By
encourage them to continue participating. Pupils implementing key recommendations for involv-
should also be encouraged to participate in as ing young people with such health conditions
much routine physical activity as possible beyond in physical activity, you can enable all pupils to
school in order to increase their total energy engage in and achieve through safe, effective and
expenditure—for example, walking or cycling to enjoyable physical activity.
8
Health-Related
Learning for
5- to 7-Year-Olds
Chapter Objectives
▶▶ identify appropriate health-related learning outcomes and contexts
for 5- to 7-year-olds;
▶▶ implement a variety of approaches to assess the health-related learn-
ing of 5- to 7-year-olds;
▶▶ describe methods for monitoring the health, activity and fitness of 5- to
7-year-olds; and
▶▶ create long-, medium- and short-term plans for health-related learning
for 5- to 7-year-olds.
93
C hildren need to begin learning how to lead a

healthy, active lifestyle at an early age, and
this education should be formally structured
ing outcomes for 5- to 7-year-olds; the outcomes
are presented in four categories—safety issues,
exercise effects, health benefits and activity pro-
and accessible to all pupils. The learning can be motion—to help clarify the scope and progression
organised in multiple ways, including through of the learning.
PE lessons and focused topics. This chapter The learning content detailed in table 8.1 can
proposes health-related learning approaches for be taught in a number of contexts. One approach
5- to 7-year-olds and provides you with guid- is to integrate it into or permeate it through
ance for assessing this learning. It also suggests curriculum PE (e.g., during the teaching of
methods for monitoring the health, activity and dance, games and gymnastics lessons). Another
fitness of 5- to 7-year-olds, such as simple health approach, which is particularly appropriate for
behaviour questionnaires, activity diaries and the 5- to 7-year-old age group as it aligns with the
fitness-related activities. Finally, the chapter pro- holistic approach to education often adopted in
vides sample schemes, units of work and lesson primary schools, is to teach health-related content
plans to help you create health-related learning in thematic or topic-based blocks or units of work
plans that ensure a comprehensive, coherent and with titles such as Healthy Me. A third option is
meaningful approach to this important aspect of to combine the first two approaches. Limitations
the curriculum. in these approaches (discussed in chapter 3) can
be addressed by ensuring that learning outcomes
integrated into or permeated through curriculum
Health-Related Learning PE are not lost and do not take second place to
other learning (e.g., skill development). In addi-
Outcomes and Contexts tion, in order to ensure consistency and coherence
of health messages, learning outcomes taught
As detailed in chapter 3, approaches to health- in thematic or topic-based (or project-based)
related learning for the 5- to 16-year-old age group segments should be connected closely with the
were debated and agreed on in England in 2000 content and delivery of related subjects (e.g., PE;
by a working group comprising representatives science; personal, social, health and economic
of national PE, sport and health organisations. [PSHE] education) and with relevant extracur-
Table 8.1 presents specific health-related learn- ricular and community activity experiences.

•• Identify and adhere to safety rules and practices (e.g., changing clothes for PE lessons; tying
long hair back; not wearing jewellery; sitting and standing with good posture; wearing footwear
Safety issues when skipping with a rope; not running fast to touch walls).
•• Explain that activity starts with a gentle warm-up and finishes with a calming cool-down.
•• Recognise, describe and feel the effects of exercise, including changes to
•• breathing (e.g., it becomes faster and deeper),
•• heart rate (e.g., heart pumps faster),
•• temperature (e.g., person feels hotter),
Exercise effects
•• appearance (e.g., person looks hotter),
•• feelings (e.g., person feels good, more energetic, tired) and
•• external body parts (e.g., arm and leg muscles are working).
•• Explain that the body uses food and drink to release energy for exercise.
•• Explain that regular exercise improves health by
Health benefits •• helping one feel good (e.g., happy, pleased, content) and
•• helping body parts (e.g., bones, muscles) grow, develop and work well.
•• Identify when, where and how they can be active at school (both in and out of lessons).
Activity promotion
Health-Related Learning for 5- to 7-Year-Olds 95
More specifically, the learning outcomes ated on the school website to advertise physical
related to safety issues can be taught in PE lessons activity opportunities both at school and within
and should be cross-referenced to related areas a five-mile radius of the school; this section can
of the curriculum such as PSHE education, in also be used to connect and support pupils (and
which 5- to 7-year-olds are taught rules for and families) involved in these activities.
ways of staying physically and emotionally safe
(PSHE Association, 2014). The outcomes related
to exercise effects can be taught in PE lessons and Assessing Health-Related
cross-referenced to learning in related subjects Learning
such as science. The outcomes related to health
benefits can be taught in PE lessons and are also Health-related learning can be assessed via writ-
relevant to elements of PSHE education (e.g., ten, spoken and active responses to questions,
knowing what constitutes a healthy lifestyle) tasks and tests. In terms of focus, assessment
(PSHE Association, 2014) and therefore can be can address affective, behavioural and cognitive
taught within thematic topics or projects (e.g., (ABC) learning outcomes; for more on ABC out-
Healthy Me) with explicit links to learning in PE. comes, see chapter 3. Affective and behavioural
And the outcomes related to activity promotion outcomes for 5- to 7-year-olds can be assessed via
can be taught in PE lessons and also align with a teacher observation of effort and commitment in
whole-school approach to health (including the PE lessons, as well as participation records for
promotion of physical activity) and therefore PE lessons and extracurricular activities (using
can be taught within thematic topics or projects ratings such as excellent, good, satisfactory or
(e.g., Healthy Me) with explicit links to learning adequate, and low or inadequate). Cognitive
in PE. In keeping with a whole-school approach outcomes can be assessed through question-and-
to health and physical activity promotion, infor- answer episodes and through practical and active
mation about activity opportunities on offer in tasks. Active assessment tasks are particularly
the school and in the local community can be encouraged because they increase activity levels
communicated to pupils and their families via in PE lessons (for more about active assessment,
newsletters, posters, parent mail, parent consul- see chapter 3). Table 8.2 presents a range of meth-
tations, assemblies and the school website. For ods for assessing the recommended health-related
example, a Where to Be Active section can be cre- learning outcomes for 5- to 7-year-olds.
TABLE 8.2 Methods of Assessing Health-Related Learning

in 5- to 7-Year-Olds
Health-related Methods of assessing health-related
learning category Health-related learning outcomes learning outcomes
•• Identify and adhere to safety rules and •• Observe adherence to safety rules and
practices (e.g., changing clothes for PE practices.
lessons; tying long hair back; not wearing •• Ask pupils questions, such as:
jewellery; sitting and standing with good •• Why do we change for PE?
posture; wearing footwear when skipping with
•• What rules help us keep safe in PE?
a rope; not running fast to touch walls).
•• What do we do at the beginning of a PE
•• Explain that activity starts with a gentle
lesson to prepare for energetic activity?
warm-up and finishes with a calming cool-
down. •• What do we do at the end of a PE lesson to
Safety issues recover from being energetic?
•• Involve pupils in active assessment tasks, such
as:
•• Show me how to sit with good posture (i.e.,
back tall, shoulders down, chest out, face
forward).
•• Demonstrate standing with good posture
(i.e., feet apart, hips square, back tall,
shoulders down, chest out, face forward).
(continued)

•• Recognise, describe and feel the effects of •• Ask pupils questions, such as:
exercise, including changes to •• What happens to your breathing when you
•• breathing (e.g., it becomes faster and exercise?
deeper), •• What happens to your heart rate when you
•• heart rate (e.g., heart pumps faster), exercise?
•• temperature (e.g., person feels hotter), •• What happens to your body temperature
•• appearance (e.g., person looks hotter), when you exercise?
•• feelings (e.g., person feels good, more •• How do you feel when you exercise?
energetic, tired) and •• What happens to your body parts (e.g., arm
Exercise effects
•• external body parts (e.g., arm and leg and leg muscles) when you exercise?
muscles are working). •• Where do you get energy to exercise?
•• Explain that the body uses food and drink to •• Involve pupils in active assessment tasks, such
release energy for exercise. as:
•• Show me how you can make your heart
pump faster.
•• Show me some activities to make your
breathing faster.
•• Demonstrate activities that you enjoy doing.
•• Explain that regular exercise improves health •• Ask pupils questions, such as:
by •• How does being active help you be healthy?
•• helping one feel good (e.g., happy, pleased, •• How do you feel when you exercise?
content) and •• Do you like being active by yourself?
•• helping body parts (e.g., bones, muscles) •• Do you like being active with others?
grow, develop and work well.
Health benefits •• How does exercise help parts of the body
(e.g., bones, muscles) work well?
as:
•• Show me an activity that helps you feel good.
•• Demonstrate activities or exercises that help
your bones and muscles become stronger.
•• Identify when, where and how they can be •• Observe informal activity (e.g., in the hall or on
active at school (both in and out of lessons). the playground) before and after school and
•• Use opportunities to be active, including at during breaks and lunchtimes.
break times. •• Record involvement in formal activities and
clubs before, during and after school.
•• Have pupils pair up and tell their partners what
activities they do at school, with whom, and
what they think of each activity.
•• Ask pupils questions, such as:
•• When and where can you be active on school
days?
Activity promotion •• Do you know how to join school activities?
•• Who is active before school, during breaks,
at lunchtimes and after school? Also, what
do you do? Where and with whom?
as:
•• Mime an activity that you can do at school;
ask a partner to guess what the activity is.
•• Show me a poster in the classroom (or
school) about school activities or clubs.
•• Demonstrate where to find information about
school activities and clubs.
96
Monitoring Health, Activity low-cost opportunities to consume healthy meals

and drinks and to be active.
and Fitness
The rationale for monitoring children’s health, Monitoring Activity
activity and fitness has been strengthened in
recent years both by increased concern about As described in chapter 5, children’s physical
children’s physical, mental and social health activity can be monitored through a number of
and by the trend towards sedentary living that methods. Appropriate methods for 5- to 7-year-
marks a more technologically advanced world. olds include proxy reports (in which parents or
These issues are addressed in detail in part I of teachers report children’s activity via a simple
this book, whereas part II covers developmen- form) and direct observation of children’s activ-
tally and pedagogically appropriate approaches ity (in which the type, intensity and duration of
to monitoring within the curriculum in order to activity are recorded on a coding form or hand-
promote healthy, active lifestyles among children. held device). Direct observation is considered a
The following examples are appropriate for use particularly appropriate method for capturing
with 5- to 7-year-olds. the sporadic and transitory nature of young
children’s activity.
Whilst obtaining a precise measure of physical
Monitoring Health activity is important for research purposes, it is
We can help young children become more aware less crucial for teachers, whose main concerns
of their lifestyles by using health behaviour ques- relate to the educational value of the monitoring
tionnaires (see chapter 4) that ask simple ques- experience and its ease of use, feasibility and cost.
tions such as the following: From a pedagogical perspective, it is considered
more important to ensure that pupils enjoy, learn
•• Do you eat fruits and vegetables each day? and benefit from the monitoring experience than
Where do you do this? to focus unduly on the precision of the method
•• Do you drink water each day? Where do you (Cale & Harris, 2009b). This learning can include
do this? gaining insight into when, where and how they
•• Are you active every day? Where do you do can be active in the school setting, which reflects
this? the activity promotion outcomes for 5- to 7-year-
olds shown in table 8.1.
Responses to these questions can trigger Children’s awareness of their physical activity
discussions about ways to become and remain levels can be increased by asking them to reflect
healthy. When conducting such discussions, be on how active they are. For example, young pupils
sensitive to the fact that young children have no can be encouraged to talk, or write a short story,
control over major factors that influence their about what physical activity they do and where
health—for example, genetics, environment (e.g., they do it; their responses can then be used to
pollution, poverty) and family modelling. In addi- prompt discussion about healthy, active lifestyles.
tion, they have only limited control over other key Another approach is to present young pupils with
factors, including what they eat and drink and a predetermined list of activities (e.g., walking,
how active they are. So, whilst young children can cycling, skipping, tag or chase, ball games, swim-
learn about what constitutes a healthy lifestyle (as ming, dance, football) and ask them to tick those
advocated in national curricula), they cannot be that they do and write or talk about where they
held responsible for—and should not be made to do them. You can also incorporate questions
feel guilty about—the lifestyle they lead or their about sedentary behaviour into discussions about
state of health. Furthermore, leading a healthy healthy lifestyles. This approach links with the
lifestyle can cost more in terms of purchasing UK-wide physical activity guideline that children
healthy foods and drinks and accessing physical and young people should minimise the amount
activity opportunities (e.g., after-school or holiday of time spent being sedentary (for more informa-
clubs) that require payment. As a consequence, tion about these guidelines, see chapter 1). Young
young children from low-income families may children’s responses to questions such as ‘Do you
be disadvantaged in comparison with their peers sometimes sit down for a long time?’ and ‘Where
and, where possible, should be offered free or do you sit down for a long time?’ can be used to
Primary school teachers can help young children to learn about the physical, mental and social health benefits of
being active.
promote discussion about how it might be pos- (afPE; 2015) has published a position statement
sible to fit more activity into the day. declaring that it does not support formal fitness
testing in primary schools; moreover, it views
such testing as a retrograde step in terms of
Monitoring Fitness promoting healthy, active lifestyles. The main
As discussed in chapter 6, fitness testing is contro- reasons cited for this stance are that fitness test-
versial in a school setting, and before using it with ing does not necessarily constitute a good use of
children we must consider a number of issues and the limited curriculum time in primary schools;
limitations. Fitness monitoring can be considered that it is not proven effective for promoting active
a valuable component of the curriculum if it is lifestyles; that it can be dull, dreary and dreaded,
developmentally appropriate; offers a positive, especially by the very children whom we want to
educational experience for all learners; and helps be more active; and that fitness test scores can be
promote healthy, active lifestyles (Association for misleading and do not accurately reflect physical
Physical Education [afPE], 2015; Cale, 2016; Cale activity levels (afPE, 2015).
& Harris, 2009a, 2009b; Cale, Harris, & Chen, It is nevertheless useful to help young children
2014; Lloyd, Colley, & Tremblay, 2010; Rowland, understand that fitness is developed by being
2007; Silverman, Keating, & Phillips, 2008). It is physically active. This understanding aligns with
questionable, however, whether fitness tests are the goal of influencing the process (being active)
developmentally appropriate for children under rather than the product (fitness) (Cale & Harris,
the age of nine, given that many fitness tests 2009b); it also reinforces the message that being
require maximal effort to exhaustion and were active helps improve one’s fitness and promotes
designed for use with older children or adults. good health. To facilitate such understanding,
Indeed, the Association for Physical Education young pupils can be encouraged to write a short
FIVE A DAY
As part of a PhD study, a teacher in a state primary school in the Midlands investigated the effects of a
physical activity intervention on the learning and physical activity behaviour of children aged 5 to 11. The
intervention consisted of five minutes of physical activity every day for a school term (10 weeks), as well as
delivery of associated health messages. It was facilitated by class teachers, who were involved in designing
the intervention and contributed suggestions for activities that would be appealing, accessible and man-
ageable. Ideas included walking, jogging, skipping and jumping; throwing, catching and kicking a ball; and
playground games and movement to music. The health messages included the following: activity can help
you be healthy, being active is fun, be active for an hour a day, some activity is better than none, everyone
can be active, you don’t need any particular skills, activity can help you feel good about yourself, and activ-
ity can help you make new friends. The intervention occurred within the curriculum and at a time and place
each day that was considered appropriate by the class teachers.
Discussion points: What are the advantages of involving class teachers in designing the intervention? In
what ways can activities be made accessible to all pupils?
The children’s learning was measured by means of literacy and numeracy tests (which were conducted
routinely in the school) and a questionnaire designed to assess children’s knowledge and understanding
of health, activity and fitness. The children’s physical activity behaviour was monitored via physical activity
diaries and accelerometer data (from a selected sample of pupils). In addition, the class teachers kept jour-
nals to record information related to the feasibility of the intervention and pupils’ responses to it. Data from
all of these sources were collected before and after the intervention, and comparisons were made between
control and intervention classes.
Discussion points: What are your views on the methods used to measure the children’s learning and
physical activity behaviour? What are the pros and cons of an experimental research design involving con-
trol and intervention classes?
The findings suggested that the intervention succeeded in developing children’s knowledge and under-
standing of health, activity and fitness and that it increased children’s physical activity during the period of
the intervention and for a short time afterwards. However, it had no significant effect (positive or negative)
on children’s literacy and numeracy. Teachers reported that the intervention was enthusiastically received in
the first few weeks of the term but that some children’s motivation fell off after this time, especially among
the 9- to 11-year-olds, and it proved challenging to maintain their interest in the activities offered.
Discussion points: Are the findings what you expected them to be? What were the study’s limitations?
Could this type of intervention be implemented in other primary schools?
story or create a drawing about what fitness school approach to the promotion of health,
means to them and how they can become more including physical activity (see chapter 2), and
active, more fit and healthier. can be taught within a number of contexts—for
example, integrating it into or permeating it
through curriculum PE (e.g., teaching it through
Health-Related Learning dance, games and gymnastics) and teaching it in
thematic or topic-based blocks or units of work.
Plans for 5- to 7-Year-Olds Learning outcomes that are integrated into or
permeated through curriculum PE should not
Long-term health-related plans generally take the be lost or allowed to take second place to other
form of a scheme of work over a number of years. learning (e.g., skill development), and outcomes
In the case of 5- to 7-year-olds, the duration of the addressed through topics or projects should relate
scheme of work is two academic years. Ideally, closely to the content and delivery of curriculum
the health-related learning sits within a whole- PE and related subjects (e.g., science).
Sample Health-Related Scheme of Work for 5- to 7-Year-Olds

The health-related learning identified in this example spans two academic years and is taught through
a combination of curriculum PE and a topic-based project called Healthy Me. This learning sits within
a whole-school approach to health that prioritises the promotion of physical activity, healthy eating
and emotional well-being.
HEALTH-RELATED LEARNING CATEGORY: SAFETY ISSUES
HEALTH-RELATED LEARNING OUTCOMES METHODS OF ASSESSING HEALTH-

•• Identify and adhere to safety rules and prac- RELATED LEARNING OUTCOMES
tices (e.g., changing clothes for PE lessons; •• Observe adherence to safety rules and prac-
tying long hair back; not wearing jewellery; tices.
sitting and standing with good posture; •• Ask pupils questions such as the following:
wearing footwear when skipping with a
rope; not running fast to touch walls). –– Why do we change for PE?
•• Explain that activity starts with a gentle –– What rules help us keep safe in PE?
warm-up and finishes with a calming cool- –– What do we do at the beginning of a PE
down. lesson to prepare for energetic activity?
–– What do we do at the end of a PE lesson
HEALTH-RELATED LEARNING CONTEXT to recover from being energetic?
These learning outcomes are taught in PE lessons •• Involve pupils in active assessment tasks
and cross-referenced to PSHE education in which such as the following:
pupils are taught rules for and ways of keeping
–– Show me how to sit with good posture
physically and emotionally safe (PSHE Association,
(back tall, shoulders down, chest out, face
2014).
forward).
–– Demonstrate standing with good posture
(feet apart, hips square, back tall, shoul-
ders down, chest out, face forward).
HEALTH-RELATED LEARNING CATEGORY: EXERCISE EFFECTS
HEALTH-RELATED LEARNING OUTCOMES HEALTH-RELATED LEARNING CONTEXT

•• Recognise, describe and feel the effects of These learning outcomes are taught in PE lessons
activity, including changes to and cross-referenced to learning in science.
–– breathing (e.g., it becomes faster and METHODS OF ASSESSING HEALTH-
deeper),
RELATED LEARNING OUTCOMES
–– heart rate (e.g., heart pumps faster),
•• Ask pupils questions such as the following:
–– temperature (e.g., person feels hotter),
–– What happens to your breathing when
–– appearance (e.g., person looks hotter),
you exercise?
–– feelings (e.g., person feels good, more
–– What happens to your heart rate when
energetic, tired) and
you exercise?
–– external body parts (e.g., arm and leg
–– What happens to your body temperature
muscles are working).
when you exercise?
•• Explain that the body uses food and drink to
–– How do you feel when you exercise?
release energy for activity.
–– What happens to your body parts (e.g., –– Show me how you can make your heart
arm and leg muscles) when you exercise? pump faster.
–– Where do you get energy to exercise? –– Show me some activities to make your
•• Involve pupils in active assessment tasks breathing faster.
such as the following: –– Demonstrate activities that you enjoy
doing.
HEALTH-RELATED LEARNING CATEGORY: HEALTH BENEFITS

Explain that regular activity improves health by RELATED LEARNING OUTCOMES
•• helping one feel good (e.g., happy, pleased, •• Ask pupils questions such as the following:
content) and –– How does being active help you to be
•• helping body parts (e.g., bones, muscles) healthy?
grow, develop and work well. –– How do you feel when you exercise?
HEALTH-RELATED LEARNING CONTEXT –– Do you like being active by yourself?
These learning outcomes are addressed within –– Do you like being active with others?
the Healthy Me project that covers related PSHE –– How does exercise help parts of the body
education content (e.g., knowing what constitutes (e.g., bones, muscles) work well?
a healthy lifestyle) (PSHE Association, 2014) and are •• Involve pupils in active assessment tasks
cross-referenced to learning in PE. such as the following:
–– Show me an activity that helps you feel
good.
–– Demonstrate activities or exercises that
help your bones and muscles become
stronger.
HEALTH-RELATED LEARNING CATEGORY: ACTIVITY PROMOTION

•• Identify when, where and how they can be RELATED LEARNING OUTCOMES
active at school (both in and out of lessons). •• Observe informal activity (e.g., in the hall
•• Use opportunities to be active, including at or playground) before and after school and
break times. during breaks and lunchtimes.
•• Record involvement in formal activities and
HEALTH-RELATED LEARNING CONTEXT clubs before, during and after school.
These learning outcomes are addressed within •• Have pupils pair up and tell their partners
the Healthy Me project and cross-referenced to what activities they do at school, with whom,
learning in PE. In particular, they align with a whole- and what they think of them.
school approach to health, including the promo-
•• Ask pupils questions such as the following:
tion of physical activity. Information about activity
opportunities on offer in the school and in the local –– When and where can you be active on
community is communicated to pupils and their school days?
families via newsletters, posters, parent mail, parent –– Do you know how to join school activi-
consultations, assemblies and the school website. ties?
–– Who is active before school, during –– Show me a poster in the classroom (or
breaks, at lunchtimes and after school? school) about school activities or clubs.
What do you do? Where, and with whom? –– Demonstrate where to find information
•• Involve pupils in active assessment tasks about school activities and clubs.
such as the following:
–– Mime an activity that you can do at
school; ask a partner to guess what the
activity is.
Medium-term plans for health-related learning generally take the form of units or blocks of work
that last for a school term (usually 10 to 14 weekly lessons) or part of a term (usually 4 to 7 weekly
lessons). This learning is likely to be situated within the subject of PE or in thematic or topic-based (or
project-based) units or blocks of work.
Sample Health-Related Unit of Work for 5- to 7-Year-Olds

The following example presents a four-lesson, topic-based unit called Healthy Me and outlines selected
learning outcomes for health benefits and activity promotion for 6- and 7-year-olds. It also covers learn-
ing activities to address the outcomes, as well as suggested methods for assessing pupils’ learning. The
learning in this unit is cross-referenced to related learning in PE.
HEALTH-RELATED LEARNING OUTCOMES: LESSONS 1 AND 2
HEALTH BENEFITS •• Ask: How does being active help you be

healthy?
•• Explain that regular activity improves health
Encourage pupils to think about a range
by
of physical, mental and social benefits—for
–– helping you feel good (e.g., happy, example, feeling good, enjoying playing
pleased, content) and with friends, having a healthy and efficient
–– helping body parts (e.g., bones, muscles) heart and strong arm and leg muscles.
grow, develop and work well. •• Over two lessons, involve pupils in a range
of simple whole-body activities, such as
HEALTH-RELATED LEARNING ACTIVITIES walking, jogging, moving to music, skipping,
•• Ask: What do you think health means? hopping and galloping.
Encourage pupils to think about physical, In the second lesson, arrange for some of
mental and social health—that is, body and these activities to be done with peers and
mind working well, feeling happy or good encourage social interaction (e.g., chatting
and enjoying time with family and friends. whilst walking, skipping with a long rope in
•• Ask: What can you do to be healthy? small groups).
Encourage pupils to think about a range •• Afterwards, ask: Which activities did you like
of behaviours associated with good physical, best? What did you like about them? Did
mental and social health. Examples include you enjoy the activities you did by yourself?
being active, eating and drinking healthy What did you enjoy or not enjoy about it?
foods and drinks, getting a good night’s Did you enjoy the activities you did with
sleep, having fun and playing with family others? What did you enjoy or not enjoy
and friends. about it?
ASSESSMENT OF HEALTH-RELATED –– How does exercise help parts of the body

LEARNING (e.g., bones, muscles) work well?
•• Towards the end of the unit of work, involve
•• Towards the end of the unit of work, ask
pupils in active assessment tasks such as the
pupils questions such as the following:
following:
–– How does being active help you be
–– Show me an activity that helps you feel
healthy?
good.
–– How do you feel when you exercise?
–– Demonstrate activities or exercises that
–– Do you like being active by yourself? help your bones and muscles become
–– Do you like being active with others? stronger.
ACTIVITY PROMOTION In the second of the two lessons, encour-

age pupils to make up their own games and
•• Identify when, where and how they can be activities by using markings on the ground
active at school (both in and out of lessons). or walls (e.g., lines, circles, targets) and
•• Use opportunities to be active, including at simple equipment such as cones and mark-
break times. ers.
•• Afterwards, ask: Which playground activities
HEALTH-RELATED LEARNING ACTIVITIES did you like best? What did you like about
•• Ask: Where and when can you be active at them? Did you enjoy making up your own
school? activities or games? Was there anything that
Encourage pupils to think about informal you did not enjoy about it? What could have
activity opportunities (e.g., in the hall or made it more enjoyable?
playground) before and after school; during
breaks and lunchtimes; and during PE les- ASSESSMENT OF HEALTH-RELATED
sons and activities and clubs before, during LEARNING
and after school. Also prompt pupils to con- •• Towards the end of the unit of work, ask
sider active travel to and from school, such pupils questions such as the following:
as walking or scooting.
–– When and where can you be active on
•• Ask: How can you join in with these activi- school days?
ties?
–– Do you know how to join school activi-
Encourage pupils who are involved in ties?
before-school, lunchtime and after-school
–– Who is active before school, during
clubs to talk about how they joined and how
breaks, at lunchtimes and after school?
it felt to do so. Also, discuss ways of joining
What do you do? Where, and with whom?
in with informal activity opportunities in the
hall or playground at various times of the •• Also have pupils pair up and tell their part-
school day. ners what activities they do at school, with
whom, and what they think of them.
•• Ask: Which activities do you already join in
with? •• Where possible during the unit of work, do
the following:
Provide prompts about active travel to
school, informal play, PE lessons and formal –– Observe the pupils’ informal activity (e.g.,
clubs and activities. in the hall or playground) before and after
school and during breaks and lunchtimes.
•• Over two lessons, involve pupils in a selec-
tion of activities available at school, includ- –– Record pupils’ involvement in formal
ing playground games such as tag and activities and clubs before, during and
hopscotch. after school.
•• Towards the end of the unit of work, involve –– Show me a poster in the classroom (or
pupils in active assessment tasks such as the school) about school activities and clubs.
following: –– Demonstrate where to find information
–– Mime an activity that you can do at about school activities and clubs.
school; ask a partner to guess what the
activity is.
Short-term plans for health-related learning generally take the form of lesson plans with specific
health-related learning outcomes that sit within units or blocks of work. The following example is a
lesson plan for 5- to 6-year-olds that outlines selected learning activities for exercise effects, as well as
learning activities to address the outcomes and suggested methods of assessing the learning.
HEALTH-RELATED LEARNING OUTCOMES
EXERCISE EFFECTS very hard.) What do you think will happen to

your heart rate after we do some energetic
•• Recognise, describe and feel the effects of activity? (Become faster, quicker, harder.)
activity, including changes to
•• Ask pupils to jog to touch all four corners
–– breathing (e.g., it becomes faster and of the area, in any order, while being careful
deeper), not to jog into other people.
–– heart rate (e.g., heart pumps faster), •• When they return to the centre, ask pupils
–– temperature (e.g., person feels hotter), to put a hand over their heart again. Ask:
–– appearance (e.g., person looks hotter) How hard is your heart working now? (Faster,
and quicker, harder.) How do you feel now?
(Tired, out of breath, hot.)
–– feelings (e.g., person feels good, more
energetic, tired). •• Ask pupils to run on the spot, starting slowly
and getting gradually faster (going up from
HEALTH-RELATED LEARNING ACTIVITIES first gear to fifth gear).
•• Starting in the centre of the learning area •• Afterwards, ask pupils to put a hand over
(either indoors or outdoors), ask pupils their heart again. Ask: How hard is your
to put a hand on their chest to feel their heart working now? (Much faster, quicker, or
breathing. Ask: How would you describe harder.) How do you feel now? (Tired, good,
your breathing at the moment? (Sample very hot, sweaty.)
answers: gentle, slow.) What do you think •• Ask pupils to show you an activity that
will happen to your breathing after we do makes their heart work steadily (not fast and
some activity? (Become faster, quicker, not slow). Then ask them to demonstrate an
harder.) activity that makes their breathing slow.
•• Ask pupils to walk to touch all four corners •• Afterwards, prompt: Describe your breath-
of the area, in any order, while being careful ing (slow, calm). Describe your heart rate
not to walk into other people. (slow, calm, quiet). How do you feel now?
•• When they return to the centre, ask: How (OK, good, relaxed, calm, a little tired.)
would you describe your breathing now?
(Faster, quicker, harder.) How do you feel? ASSESSMENT OF HEALTH-RELATED
(Okay, a little out of breath, warm.) LEARNING
•• Put your hand over your heart to feel it work- •• What happens to your breathing when you
ing. Can you feel a pulse? How hard is your exercise?
heart working at the moment? (Slowly, not
•• What happens to your heart rate when you

exercise?
•• What happens to your body temperature
when you exercise?
•• What happens to your body parts (e.g., arm
and leg muscles) when you exercise?
•• Show me how you can make your heart
pump faster (or slower).
•• Show me some activities you can do to
make your breathing faster (or slower).
•• How do you feel when you exercise (or after
you have exercised)?
An assessment form associated with this lesson is
provided in the web resource for this chapter.
Summary good way to start is to develop health-related

learning plans that include relevant outcomes for
If you take a structured, progressive approach to successive age groups. The learning can then be
children’s learning about leading a healthy, active organised, taught and assessed in multiple ways
lifestyle, then you can engage pupils with this and can incorporate the monitoring of children’s
important aspect of the curriculum in a way that health, activity and fitness through methods that
is comprehensive, coherent and meaningful. This are developmentally appropriate and pedagogi-
sort of approach needs to be evident at all stages cally desirable.
of schooling and be accessible to every pupil. A
9
Health-Related
Learning for
7- to 11-Year-Olds
Chapter Objectives
▶▶ implement a variety of approaches to assess the health-related learn-
ing of 7- to 11-year-olds;
▶▶ describe methods for monitoring the health, activity and fitness of 7- to
11-year-olds; and
107
C hildren’s learning about leading a healthy,

active lifestyle should be formally struc-
tured, progressive and accessible to all pupils.
connected closely with the content and delivery
of related subjects (e.g., PE; science; personal,
social, health and economic [PSHE] education)
The learning can be organised in multiple ways, and with extracurricular and community activity
including through PE lessons and focused topics. experiences.
This chapter proposes health-related learning More specifically, the learning outcomes
approaches for 7- to 11-year-olds and provides related to safety issues can be taught in PE lessons
you with guidance for assessing this learning. It and should be cross-referenced to related areas of
also suggests methods for monitoring the health, the curriculum such as PSHE education, in which
activity and fitness of 7- to 11-year-olds, such as 7- to 11-year-olds are taught about keeping them-
health behaviour questionnaires, activity diaries selves and others safe (e.g., protecting themselves
and developmentally appropriate fitness tests and from dehydration and sunburn) (PSHE Asso-
fitness-related activities. Finally, the chapter pro- ciation, 2014). The outcomes related to exercise
vides sample schemes, units of work and lesson effects can be taught in PE lessons and also lend
plans to help you create health-related learning themselves to cross-curricular links with related
plans that ensure a comprehensive, coherent and subjects such as science. The outcomes related to
meaningful approach to this important aspect of health benefits can be taught in PE lessons and
the curriculum. are also relevant to PSHE education (e.g., learn-
ing to make informed choices and beginning to
understand the concept of a balanced lifestyle)
Health-Related Learning (PSHE Association, 2014) and therefore can be
taught within thematic topics or projects (e.g., Be
Outcomes and Contexts Healthy and Active) with explicit links to learn-
ing in PE. And the outcomes related to activity
As detailed in chapter 3, approaches to health- promotion can be taught in PE lessons and also
related learning for the 5- to 16-year-old age group align with a whole-school approach to health
were debated and agreed on in England in 2000 (including the promotion of physical activity) and
by a working group comprising representatives therefore can be taught within thematic topics or
of national PE, sport and health organisations. projects (e.g., Be Healthy and Active) with explicit
Table 9.1 presents specific health-related learn- links to learning in PE.
ing outcomes for 7- to 11-year-olds; the outcomes In keeping with a whole-school approach to
are presented in four categories—safety issues, health and physical activity promotion, infor-
exercise effects, health benefits and activity pro- mation about activity opportunities on offer in
motion—to help clarify the scope and progression the school and in the local community can be
of the learning. communicated to pupils and their families via
The learning content detailed in table 9.1 can newsletters, posters, parent mail, parent consul-
be taught in a number of contexts. One approach tations, assemblies and the school website. For
is to integrate it into or permeate it through cur- example, a Where to Be Active section can be cre-
riculum PE (e.g., during the teaching of athletics, ated on the school website to advertise physical
dance, games, gymnastics, outdoor education activity opportunities both at school and within
and swimming lessons). Another approach is a five-mile radius of the school; this section can
to teach health-related content in thematic or also be used to connect and support pupils (and
topic-based blocks or units of work with titles families) involved in these activities.
such as Be Healthy and Active. A third option is
to combine the first two approaches. Limitations
in these approaches (discussed in chapter 3) can Assessing Health-Related
be addressed by ensuring that learning outcomes
integrated into or permeated through curriculum Learning
PE are not lost and do not take second place to
other learning (e.g., skill development, tactical Health-related learning can be assessed via writ-
understanding). In addition, in order to ensure ten, verbal and active responses to questions,
consistency and coherence of health messages, tasks and tests. In terms of focus, assessment can
learning outcomes taught in thematic or topic- address affective, behavioural and cognitive (ABC)
based (or project-based) segments should be learning outcomes; for more on ABC outcomes,

•• Explain the need for safety rules and practices (e.g., adopting good posture at all times; being
hygienic; changing clothes and having a wash after energetic activity; wearing footwear as
appropriate; following rules; protecting against cold weather; avoiding sunburn; lifting safely; using
space sensibly [not bumping into others]).
Safety issues
•• Identify the purpose of warming up and of cooling down and recognise and describe the parts of a
warm-up and of a cool-down: exercises for the joints (e.g., arm circles), whole-body activities (e.g.,
jogging, skipping without a rope) and stretches for either the whole body (e.g., reaching long and
tall) or parts of the body (e.g., lower-leg or calf muscles).
•• Explain and feel the short-term effects of exercise:
•• Breathing rate and depth increase to provide more oxygen to working muscles.
•• Heart rate increases to pump more oxygen to working muscles.
•• Temperature increases because working muscles produce energy in the form of heat; as that
heat is transferred to the body’s surface (skin) to control body temperature, the skin can become
moist, sticky and sweaty.
Exercise effects •• Appearance can become flushed due to blood vessels widening and getting closer to the surface
of the skin.
•• Feelings and moods can vary (e.g., having fun, feeling good among friends).
•• Explain that the body needs a certain amount of energy every day in the form of food and drink in
order to function properly (e.g., for normal growth, development and daily living) and that body
fat increases if more calories are taken in than are needed (e.g., for breathing, growing, sleeping,
eating, moving, exercise).
•• Explain that activity strengthens bones and muscles (including the heart) and helps keep joints
flexible.
•• Explain that activity can help one feel good about oneself and can be fun and social (e.g., involves
Health benefits sharing experiences and cooperating with others).
•• Explain that regular activity enables one to perform daily activities more easily.
•• Identify when, where and how they can be active, both in school and outside of school.
Activity promotion •• Make decisions about which physical activities they enjoy and explain that individuals have different
feelings about the types and amounts of activity they do.
•• Use opportunities to be active for 30 to 60 minutes a day (with rest periods as necessary),
including lessons, playtimes and club activities.
see chapter 3. Affective and behavioural outcomes

for 7- to 11-year-olds can be assessed via teacher
Monitoring Health, Activity
observation of effort and commitment in PE les- and Fitness
sons, as well as participation records for PE les-
sons and extracurricular activities (using ratings The rationale for monitoring children’s health,
such as excellent, good, satisfactory or adequate, activity and fitness has been strengthened in
and low or inadequate). Cognitive outcomes recent years both by increased concern about
can be assessed through question-and-answer children’s physical, mental and social health
episodes and through practical and active tasks. and by the trend towards sedentary living that
Active assessment tasks are particularly encour- marks a more technologically advanced world.
aged because they increase activity levels in PE These issues are addressed in part I of this
lessons (for more information about active assess- book, whereas part II covers developmentally
ment, see chapter 3). Table 9.2 presents a range of and pedagogically appropriate approaches to
methods for assessing the recommended health- monitoring within the curriculum in order to
related learning outcomes for 7- to 11-year-olds. promote healthy, active lifestyles among children.
TABLE 9.2 Methods of Assessing Health-Related Learning
in 7- to 11-Year-Olds
•• Explain the need for safety rules and practices •• Ask pupils questions such as:
(e.g., adopting good posture at all times; being •• Why is good posture important?
hygienic; changing clothes and having a wash •• Why do we change for activity?
after energetic activity; wearing footwear as
•• Why do we wash after energetic activity?
appropriate; following rules; protecting against
cold weather; avoiding sunburn; lifting safely; •• Why is it sensible to wear trainers for activities
using space sensibly [not bumping into others]). such as jumping and playing games?
•• Identify the purpose of warming up and of •• Discuss with a partner some rules in PE and
cooling down and recognise and describe the sport. Why do we have rules?
parts of a warm-up and of a cool-down: exercises •• Talk with a partner about how to avoid feeling
for the joints (e.g., arm circles), whole-body cold in the winter.
activities (e.g., jogging, skipping without a rope) •• Talk with a partner about how to avoid getting
and stretches for either the whole body (e.g., sunburnt.
Safety issues reaching long and tall) or parts of the body (e.g., •• Why do we warm up?
lower-leg or calf muscles).
•• What is a cool-down, and what is it for?
•• Talk with a partner about the types of exercises
included in a warm-up (or cool-down)?
•• Involve pupils in active assessment tasks such
as:
•• Show me how to walk with good posture.
•• Demonstrate how to lift something heavy.
•• Show me some activities to warm up your
whole body.
•• Show me an exercise for your shoulders (or
hips).
•• Demonstrate a whole-body stretch.
•• Explain and feel the short-term effects of •• Ask pupils questions such as:
exercise: •• How does your breathing change when you are
•• Breathing rate and depth increase to provide active?
more oxygen to working muscles. •• Why does it do this?
•• Heart rate increases to pump more oxygen to •• Why does your heart rate change when you are
working muscles. active?
•• Temperature increases because working •• What happens to your body temperature when
muscles produce energy in the form of heat; you are active, and why?
as that heat is transferred to the body’s surface •• Why do we sometimes sweat when we are
(skin) to control body temperature, the skin active?
can become moist, sticky and sweaty.
•• Talk with a partner about why our appearance
•• Appearance can become flushed due to blood can change when we do energetic activity.
vessels widening and getting closer to the
Exercise effects •• How do you feel when you are active (e.g.,
surface of the skin.
jogging, dancing, playing games)?
•• Feelings and moods can vary (e.g., having fun,
•• What does the body need energy for? Where
feeling friendly).
does this energy come from?
•• Explain that the body needs a certain amount of
•• How much food and drink does the body need?
energy every day in the form of food and drink
in order to function properly (e.g., for normal •• What can happen if the body has too much (or
growth, development and daily living) and that too little) food and drink?
body fat increases if more calories are taken in •• Involve pupils in active assessment tasks such
than are needed (e.g., for breathing, growing, as:
sleeping, eating, moving, exercise). •• Show me how you can increase your heart rate
and breathing rate.
•• Demonstrate some activities that make you
warm (or hot).
110
•• Explain that activity strengthens bones and •• Ask pupils questions such as:
muscles (including the heart) and helps keep •• How does being active strengthen bones and
joints flexible. muscles?
•• Explain that activity can help one feel good about •• How can being active help you in everyday life?
oneself and can be fun and social (e.g., sharing •• How does activity help you achieve and
experiences and cooperating with others). maintain a healthy weight?
•• Explain that regular activity permits one to •• Talk with a partner about activities that you
perform daily activities more easily. like, how they make you feel, and why you like
Health benefits •• Explain that being active helps one maintain a them.
healthy body weight. •• Name some activities in which you must work
together to do well.
as:
•• Show me an activity that strengthens bones
and muscles.
•• Demonstrate exercises that help keep your
joints flexible.
•• Monitor their current levels of activity (e.g., daily, •• Observe informal activity before and after school
twice weekly). and during breaks and lunchtimes.
•• Identify when, where and how they can be active, •• Record involvement in formal activities and clubs
both in school and outside of school. before, during and after school.
•• Make decisions about which physical activities •• Have pupils keep an activity diary for one school
they enjoy and explain that individuals have day and one weekend day (recording all activity
different feelings about the types and amounts of both at school and outside of school).
activity they do. •• Have pupils show a partner their activity diary
•• Use opportunities to be active for 30 to 60 and discuss how much activity they did each day,
minutes a day (with rest periods as necessary), where they did it, and with whom. Ask: Were you
including lessons, playtimes and club activities. active for an hour per day on these days?
•• Discuss how to fit an hour of activity into a day.
Ask questions such as:
•• When and where can you be active, both in
Activity
school and outside of school?
promotion
•• Talk with a partner about which activities you
enjoy and which are your favourites. Are there
any activities that you do not like so much? If
so, what are they, and what do you not like about
them?
as:
•• Show me where I can find out about activities
outside of school.
•• Mime one of your favourite activities (without
equipment).
•• Form a circle and take turns miming your
favourite activities; after each mime, everyone
copies it.
111
The following examples are appropriate for use in comparison with their peers and, where pos-
with 7- to 11-year-olds. sible, should be offered free or low-cost opportu-
nities to consume healthy meals and drinks and
to be active.
Monitoring Health
We can help children become more aware of their Monitoring Activity
lifestyles by using health behaviour question-
naires that offer a selection of responses (e.g., As described in chapter 5, children’s physical
always, sometimes, never) to questions such as activity can be monitored through a number of
the following: methods. Appropriate methods for 7- to 11-year-
olds include proxy reports (in which parents or
•• Do you eat fruits and vegetables every day? teachers report children’s activity via a simple
•• Do you drink water every day? form) and direct observation of children’s activ-
•• Are you active for about an hour every day? ity (in which the type, intensity and duration of
activity are recorded on a coding form or hand-
The web resource for chapter 4 provides an held device). Pupils aged 7 to 11 years can also
example of a health behaviour questionnaire be asked to keep a physical activity diary for a
suitable for primary-age pupils; it can be used to school day and a weekend day (for examples of
calculate a health score linked to generic feed- activity diaries suitable for this age group, see the
back such as the following: ‘Well done, you lead a web resource for chapter 5).
healthy lifestyle much of the time and will benefit You can encourage pupils to reflect on their
from doing so. You might consider whether you activity levels by asking questions such as the
could lead an even healthier lifestyle by adjust- following: How active are you? Do you do enough
ing some of your habits’. Engaging children in physical activity for your age? What can you do
the process of self-reflection enhances learning to be more active? (For more examples appropri-
and helps children to set measurable targets for ate for upper-primary-age children, see the web
improvement. Here is a sample question to ask resource for chapter 5.)
of 7- to 11-year-olds: ‘What parts of your health You may also want to incorporate questions
have you done well on? State one action that about sedentary behaviour into discussions about
you can do to improve your health’. Additional healthy lifestyles. This approach links with the
examples of self-reflection questions are provided UK-wide physical activity guideline that children
in chapter 4. and young people should minimise the amount
Responses to these questions can be used to of time spent being sedentary (for more informa-
trigger discussions among pupils about ways to tion about these guidelines, see chapter 1). Young
lead a healthy lifestyle. When conducting such people’s responses to questions such as ‘Are there
discussions, be sensitive to the fact that primary- times when you sit down for a long time?’, ‘Are
age children have no control over major factors there places where you sit down for a long time?’
that influence their health—for example, genet- and ‘Could you be more active during these times
ics, environment (e.g., pollution, poverty) and or in these places?’ can be used to promote dis-
family modelling. In addition, they have only cussion about inactivity and its consequences.
limited control over other key factors, includ- Whilst obtaining a precise measure of physical
ing what they eat and drink and how active they activity is important for research purposes, it is
are. So, whilst children can learn about what less crucial for teachers, whose main concerns
constitutes a healthy lifestyle (as advocated in relate to the educational value of the monitoring
national curricula), they cannot be held respon- experience and its ease of use, feasibility and cost.
sible for—and should not be made to feel guilty From a pedagogical perspective, it is considered
about—the lifestyle they lead or their state of more important to ensure that pupils enjoy, learn
health. Furthermore, leading a healthy lifestyle and benefit from the monitoring experience than
can cost more in terms of purchasing healthy to focus unduly on the precision of the method
foods and drinks and accessing physical activity (Cale & Harris, 2009b). This learning can include
opportunities (e.g., after-school or holiday clubs) identifying when, where and how they can be
that require payment. As a consequence, children active (including outside of school) and decid-
from low-income families may be disadvantaged ing which physical activities they enjoy (with
the understanding that individuals have different hard in order to be beneficial (see chapter 1 for
preferences and feelings about types and amounts a discussion of young people’s inaccurate and
of activity). inadequate understandings of health, fitness and
Pupils should be encouraged to think of ways physical activity).
in which they could be more physically active,
both in school and outside of school, and their Monitoring Fitness
responses can be used to prompt discussion about
healthy, active lifestyles. Another approach is to As discussed in chapter 6, fitness testing is contro-
ask pupils to tick the activities they do from a versial in a school setting, and before using it with
predetermined list (e.g., walking, cycling, skip- children we must consider a number of issues and
ping, tag or chase, ball games, swimming, dance, limitations. Fitness monitoring can be considered
football) and state where they do them. Their a valuable component of the curriculum if it is
responses can be shared with the class to increase developmentally appropriate; offers a positive,
awareness of activity opportunities in and beyond educational experience for all learners; and helps
the school setting. Pupils can also be encouraged promote healthy, active lifestyles (Association for
to draw, or create a poster about, what the word Physical Education [afPE], 2015; Cale, 2016; Cale
activity means to them and describe their creation & Harris, 2009a, 2009b; Cale, Harris, & Chen,
to other pupils. You can use these visual images 2014; Lloyd, Colley, & Tremblay, 2010; Rowland,
and descriptions to address any misunderstand- 2007; Silverman, Keating, & Phillips, 2008). It is
ings and misconceptions that children have about questionable, however, whether fitness tests are
physical activity—for example, believing that it developmentally appropriate for children under
is only about sport and that activity must feel the age of nine, given that many fitness tests
Teachers can help older primary school children to learn about the physical, mental and social health benefits of
being active.
require maximal effort to exhaustion and were especially by the very children whom we want to
designed for use with older children or adults. be more active; and that fitness test scores can be
Indeed, the Association for Physical Educa- misleading and do not accurately reflect physical
tion (afPE; 2015) has published a position state- activity levels (afPE, 2015).
ment declaring that it does not support formal It is not essential for children aged 9 to 11
fitness testing in primary schools; moreover, it to be involved in formal fitness testing in order
views such testing as a retrograde step in terms for them to learn that certain activities develop
of promoting healthy, active lifestyles. The main fitness (e.g., jogging and running improve car-
reasons for this stance are that fitness testing diorespiratory fitness, and stretching improves
does not necessarily constitute a good use of the flexibility). These associations can be taught in
limited curriculum time in primary schools; that PE lessons, where children can learn, for exam-
it is not proven effective for promoting active ple, that dance and gymnastics help develop
lifestyles; that it can be dull, dreary and dreaded, their muscular strength and endurance and
A CROSS-CURRICULAR APPROACH TO ADOPTING

AN ACTIVE WAY OF LIFE
Teachers in a primary school worked collectively to ensure strong cross-curricular links within a topic-
based curriculum. One of the topics, Be Healthy and Active, was designed to address personal, social and
health outcomes, particularly the adoption of an active way of life. The topic was developed by teachers
responsible for physical education and science, as well as a member of the senior management team who
had overall responsibility for the school’s personal, social, health and economic education programme.
At the start of the topic, pupils completed an online questionnaire requiring them to list the health ben-
efits of being active and identify activities they could do at school or in the local area (e.g., active travel to
and from school; recreational and organised activities). Teachers used the questionnaire data to trigger
discussions with pupils about the benefits of an active lifestyle over a sedentary one and about what helps
children be active and what prevents them from doing so (e.g., not knowing where to be active, not having
friends involved, not being able to afford it).
Discussion points: What uses could be made of the questionnaire data? How is it useful to find out why
some pupils are not active?
Pupils were then asked to keep an activity diary for one school day and one weekend day. Afterward,
they discussed their diary entries and were guided to consider whether they were meeting the ‘one hour a
day’ activity recommendation and, if not, how they could be more active. Pupils were also asked to take a
leaflet home to their parents outlining the health benefits of activity, providing information about the ‘one
hour a day’ recommendation for children, and encouraging parents to promote activity as part of a healthy
lifestyle. The leaflet also guided parents to the school website, which listed activities on offer at school and
in the local leisure centre and sport clubs. It also informed parents about fun family events organised by
the school involving activity (e.g., treasure hunt, Winter Waddle and Summer Stroll in the school grounds
or a local park).
Discussion points: In what ways can schools provide pupils and parents with information about activity
opportunities in the local community? What are your views on the communication to parents described in
this case study?
In an annual review of the curriculum, the school concluded that the Be Healthy and Active topic was
well received by pupils and resulted in an overall increase in health and activity knowledge and activity
levels. It also provided a good opportunity to communicate important health messages to parents and sup-
port them in promoting healthy, active lifestyles with their children.
Discussion points: What are some ways in which this topic might be enhanced? What further support
might schools provide to parents to help them promote healthy, active lifestyles?
also their flexibility (or, overall, their ‘muscle other pupils. You can use these visual images
health’) and that games and running activities and descriptions to address any misunderstand-
can improve their cardiorespiratory fitness (or ings and misconceptions that children may have
‘heart health’). about fitness—for example, believing that it is
If you choose to involve 9- to 11-year-olds in about looking good and being thin (see chapter
formal fitness testing, select the tests carefully 1 for a discussion of young people’s inaccurate
and teach them in a positive, supportive setting. and inadequate understandings of health, fitness
Emphasise helping pupils enjoy and learn from and physical activity).
the experience and strive to improve on their
own personal-best scores. Submaximal tests are
advised for this age group—for example, the step Health-Related Learning
test and the mini bleep test for cardiorespiratory
fitness and differentiated versions of exercises for Plans for 7- to 11-Year-Olds
muscular strength and endurance (e.g., curl-up,
push-up). The chapter 6 web resource provides Long-term health-related plans generally take the
descriptions of these tests, as well as recom- form of a scheme of work over a number of years.
mendations to consider before, during and after In the case of 7- to 11-year-olds, the duration of
implementing them. Once fitness testing is com- the scheme of work is four academic years. Ide-
pleted, ask pupils to reflect on the experience and ally, the health-related learning should sit within
on their scores. The web resource for chapter 5 a whole-school approach to the promotion of
provides examples of appropriate questions for health, including physical activity (see chapter 2),
upper-primary-age children, such as the follow- and can be taught within a number of contexts—
ing: How did you feel about the tests? What do for example, integrating it into or permeating it
your scores tell you? What could you do to be through curriculum PE (e.g., during athletics,
more fit? dance, games, gymnastics, outdoor education and
All children aged 7 to 11 years should be swimming) and teaching it in thematic or topic-
helped to understand that fitness is developed based blocks or units of work. Learning outcomes
by being physically active and is associated with that are integrated into or permeated through cur-
good health. This message is consistent with the riculum PE should not be lost or allowed to take
goal of influencing the process (being active) second place to other learning (e.g., skill devel-
rather than the product (fitness) (Cale & Harris, opment, tactical understanding), and outcomes
2009b). In addition, pupils can be encouraged addressed through topics or projects should relate
to draw, or create a poster about, what fitness closely to the content and delivery of curriculum
means to them and to describe their creation to PE and related subjects (e.g., science).

The health-related learning identified in this example spans four academic years and is taught through
a combination of curriculum PE and a topic-based project called Be Healthy and Active. This learning
sits within a whole-school approach to health that prioritises the promotion of physical activity, healthy
eating and emotional well-being.
HEALTH-RELATED LEARNING OUTCOMES sunburn; lifting safely; using space sensibly

[not bumping into others]).
•• Explain the need for safety rules and prac-
•• Identify the purpose of warming up and of
tices (e.g., adopting good posture at all
cooling down and recognise and describe
times; being hygienic; changing clothes and
the parts of a warm-up and of a cool-down:
having a wash after energetic activity; wear-
exercises for the joints (e.g., arm circles),
ing footwear as appropriate; following rules;
whole-body activities (e.g., jogging, skip-
protecting against cold weather; avoiding
ping without a rope) and stretches for either
the whole body (e.g., reaching long and tall) –– Discuss with a partner some rules in PE or
or parts of the body (e.g., lower-leg or calf sport. Why do we have rules?
muscles). –– Talk with a partner about how to avoid
feeling cold in the winter.
HEALTH-RELATED LEARNING CONTEXT
–– Talk with a partner about how to avoid
These learning outcomes are taught in PE lessons getting sunburnt.
and cross-referenced to PSHE education in which
–– Why do we warm up?
pupils are taught about keeping themselves and
others safe (e.g., protecting themselves from dehy- –– What is a cool-down for?
dration and sunburn) (PSHE Association, 2014). –– Talk with a partner about the types of
exercises included in a warm-up (or cool-
METHODS OF ASSESSING HEALTH- down).
RELATED LEARNING OUTCOMES •• Involve pupils in active assessment tasks
•• Ask pupils questions such as the following: such as the following:
–– Why is good posture important? –– Show me how to walk with good posture.
–– Why do we change for activity? –– Demonstrate how to lift something heavy.
–– Why do we wash after energetic activity? –– Show me some activities to warm up your
whole body.
–– Why is it sensible to wear trainers for
activities such as jumping and playing –– Show me an exercise for your shoulders
games? (or hips).
–– Demonstrate a whole-body stretch.
HEALTH-RELATED LEARNING OUTCOMES (e.g., for breathing, growing, sleeping,

eating, moving, exercising).
•• Explain and feel the short-term effects of
exercise. HEALTH-RELATED LEARNING CONTEXT
–– Breathing rate and depth increase to pro- These learning outcomes are taught in PE lessons
vide more oxygen to working muscles. and cross-referenced to learning in science.
–– Heart rate increases to pump more
oxygen to working muscles. METHODS OF ASSESSING HEALTH-
–– Temperature increases because work- RELATED LEARNING OUTCOMES
ing muscles produce energy in the form •• Ask pupils questions such as the following:
of heat; as that heat is transferred to
–– How does your breathing change when
the body’s surface (skin) to control body
you are active? Why does it do this?
temperature, the skin can become moist,
sticky and sweaty. –– Why does your heart rate change when
–– Appearance can become flushed due you are active?
to blood vessels widening and getting –– What happens to your body temperature
closer to the surface of the skin. when you are active, and why?
–– Feelings and moods can vary (e.g., having –– Why do we sometimes sweat when we
fun, feeling good among friends). are active?
•• Explain that the body needs a certain –– Talk with a partner about why our appear-
amount of energy every day in the form of ance can change when we do energetic
food and drink in order to function properly activity.
(e.g., for normal growth, development and –– How do you feel when you are active
daily living) and that body fat increases if (e.g., jogging, dancing, playing games)?
more calories are taken in than are needed
–– What does the body need energy for? •• Involve pupils in active assessment tasks
Where does this energy come from? such as the following:
–– How much food and drink does the body –– Show me how you can increase your heart
need? rate and breathing rate.
–– What can happen if the body has too –– Demonstrate some activities that make
much or too little food and drink? you warm (or hot).

•• Explain that activity strengthens bones and RELATED LEARNING OUTCOMES
muscles (including the heart) and helps keep •• Ask pupils questions such as the following:
joints flexible. –– How does being active strengthen bones
•• Explain that activity can help one feel good and muscles?
about oneself and can be fun and social –– How can being active help you in every-
(e.g., involves sharing experiences and day life?
cooperating with others).
–– How does activity help you achieve and
•• Explain that regular activity permits one to maintain a healthy weight?
perform daily activities more easily.
–– Talk with a partner about activities that
•• Explain that being active helps one maintain you like, how they make you feel and why
a healthy body weight. you like them.
HEALTH-RELATED LEARNING CONTEXT –– Name some activities in which you must
work together to do well.
These learning outcomes are addressed within the
Be Healthy and Active project that covers related •• Involve pupils in active assessment tasks
PSHE education (e.g., learning how to make such as the following:
informed choices and beginning to understand the –– Show me an activity that strengthens
concept of a balanced lifestyle) (PSHE Association, bones and muscles.
2014) and are cross-referenced to learning in PE. –– Demonstrate exercises that help keep
your joints flexible.

•• Monitor their current levels of activity (e.g., These learning outcomes are addressed within the
daily, twice weekly). Be Healthy and Active project and cross-referenced
to learning in PE. In particular, they align with a
•• Identify when, where and how they can be
whole-school approach to health, including the
active, both in school and outside of school.
promotion of physical activity. Information about
•• Make decisions about which physical activi- activity opportunities on offer in the school and
ties they enjoy and explain that individuals in the local community is communicated to pupils
have different feelings about the types and and their families via newsletters, posters, parent
amounts of activity they do. mail, parent consultations and assemblies. In addi-
•• Use opportunities to be active for 30 to 60 tion, the Where to Be Active section of the school
minutes a day (with rest periods as neces- website advertises physical activity opportunities at
sary), including lessons, playtimes and club school and within a five-mile radius of the school to
activities. connect and support pupils (and families) involved
in these activities.
METHODS OF ASSESSING HEALTH- •• Discuss how to fit an hour of activity into a

RELATED LEARNING OUTCOMES day. Ask pupils questions such as the follow-
ing:
•• Observe informal activity before and after
–– When and where can you be active, both
in school and outside of school?
•• Record involvement in formal activities and
•• Talk with a partner about which activities
clubs before, during and after school.
you enjoy and which are your favourites. Are
•• Have pupils keep an activity diary for one there any activities that you do not like so
school day and one weekend day, recording much? If so, what are they, and what do you
all activity they do both at school and out- not like about them?
side of school.
•• Involve pupils in active assessment tasks
•• Have pupils pair up and share their activ- such as the following:
ity diaries; they should describe how much
–– Show me where I can find out about activ-
activity they did each day, where they did it
ities outside of school.
and with whom. Were they active for an hour
a day on these days? –– Mime one of your favourite activities
(without equipment)
–– Form a circle and take turns miming your
favourite activities; after each mime,
everyone copies it.
Medium-term plans for health-related learning generally take the form of units or blocks of work that
last for a school term (usually 10 to 14 weekly lessons) or part of a term (usually 4 to 7 weekly lessons).
This learning is likely to be within the subject of PE or in thematic or topic-based (or project-based)
units or blocks of work with titles such as Be Healthy and Active.

The following example presents a six-lesson, topic-based unit called Be Healthy and Active and outlines
learning outcomes for selected health benefits and activity promotion for 9- and 10-year-olds. It also
covers learning activities to address the outcomes, as well as suggested methods for assessing pupils’
learning. The learning in this unit is cross-referenced to related learning in PE.
HEALTH BENEFITS Prompt pupils to think about the heart as

a muscle that is made to work during activ-
•• Explain that activity strengthens bones and ity, which helps it become more efficient.
muscles (including the heart) and helps keep
•• Ask: How does being active affect your
joints flexible.
bones and muscles?
•• Explain that activity can help one feel good
Prompt pupils to think about activity help-
about oneself and can be fun and social
ing bones and muscles become stronger
(e.g., sharing experiences and cooperating
and, over time, able to work harder and for
with others).
longer.
•• Explain that regular activity permits one to
•• Ask: How does being active affect your
perform daily activities more easily.
joints?
HEALTH-RELATED LEARNING ACTIVITIES Prompt pupils to think about activity help-
ing joints be more supple, which improves
•• Ask: How does being active affect your flexibility (i.e., range of movement around
heart? joints).
•• Ask pupils to show you some activities that –– How does being active strengthen bones
make the heart work harder. Encourage and muscles?
them to think of whole-body activities (which –– How can being active help you in every-
use more muscles), such as walking, jogging, day life?
skipping, hopping, galloping and moving to
–– Talk with a partner about activities that
music.
you like, how they make you feel, and why
Allow pupils to choose some of these you like them.
activities and do them with friends or other
–– Name some activities in which you must
peers for a set period of time.
work together to do well.
•• Afterwards, ask: How did you feel about the
activities you chose to do? What did you
enjoy about them? Why did they make you
following:
feel good or happy?
–– Show me an activity that strengthens
ASSESSMENT OF HEALTH-RELATED bones and muscles.
LEARNING –– Demonstrate exercises that help keep
your joints flexible.
ACTIVITY PROMOTION Prompt pupils to consider walking or

scooting to and from home, participating in
•• Identify when, where and how they can be informal activities (e.g., playing with friends)
active, both in and outside of school. after school, and taking part in formal activi-
•• Make decisions about which physical activities and clubs after school and at the week-
ties they enjoy and explain that individuals ends.
have different feelings about the types and Encourage pupils to share with a partner
amounts of activity they do. what activities they do outside of school,
with whom, and what they think of them.
HEALTH-RELATED LEARNING ACTIVITIES Discuss where to find out about and how to
•• Ask: Think of all the ways in which you can join in with activities outside of school.
be active in school, including travelling to •• Over two lessons, involve pupils in a range
and from school. of activities, such as skipping and perform-
Prompt pupils to consider walking or ing exercises to music. Pupils can be taught
scooting to and from school, participating in specific moves (with and without a skipping
informal activities (in the hall or playground) rope) and then encouraged to put them into
before school and during breaks and lunch- a simple routine that can be repeated and
times, and participating in formal activi- performed to music.
ties and clubs before and after school and •• Afterwards, ask: Which activities did you
during lunchtimes. enjoy most? What did you like about them?
Encourage pupils to share with a partner Why do you think there are different prefer-
what activities they do at school, with whom, ences among you?
and what they think of them. Discuss where
to find out about and how to join in with ASSESSMENT OF HEALTH-RELATED
informal activities in school. LEARNING
•• Ask: Think of all the ways you can be active •• Towards the end of the unit of work, ask
outside of school. pupils questions such as the following:
–– When and where can you be active in •• Towards the end of the unit of work, involve
school and outside of school? pupils in active assessment tasks such as the
–– Talk with a partner about which activities following:
you enjoy and which are your favourites. –– Show me where I can find out about activ-
Are there any activities that you do not ities outside of school.
like so much? If so, what are they, and –– Mime one of your favourite activities
what do you not like about them? (without equipment).
–– Tell a partner what activities you do at –– Form a circle and take turns miming your
school, with whom, and what you think of favourite activities; after each mime,
them. everyone copies it.
ACTIVITY PROMOTION •• Involve pupils in a discussion about how to

fit an hour of activity into each day. Remind
•• Monitor their current levels of activity (e.g., them about activity opportunities in school
daily, twice weekly). and in the local area and about how to find
•• Use opportunities to be active for 30 to 60 this information.
minutes a day (with rest periods as neces-
sary), including lessons, playtimes and club ASSESSMENT OF HEALTH-RELATED
activities. LEARNING
HEALTH-RELATED LEARNING ACTIVITIES •• Where possible during the unit of work, do

the following:
•• Ask pupils to describe how active they are—
–– Observe the pupils’ informal activity (e.g.,
for example, very active (all or most days),
in the hall or playground) before and after
active (some days), not very active (now and
again, or just in PE lessons).
–– Record pupils’ involvement in formal
•• Ask pupils to keep an activity diary for
activities and clubs before, during and
one school day and one weekend day (for
after school.
sample activity diaries suitable for this age
group, see the web resource for chapter 5). •• Ask pupils to keep an activity diary for one
Ask them to record all activity that they do, school day and one weekend day, recording
both at school and outside of school. Talk all activity that they do, both at school and
them through how to complete the activity outside of school.
diary and when to do it. •• In pairs, ask pupils to show a partner their
•• Afterwards, ask pupils to show a partner activity diary and discuss how much activity
their activity diary and tell them how much they did each day, where, and with whom.
activity they did each day, where they did Were they active for an hour a day on these
it, and with whom. Ask them to add up the days?
amount of activity time for each of the two •• Involve pupils in a discussion about how to
days. Were they active for an hour a day on fit an hour of activity into a day.
these days?
lesson plan for 10- and 11-year-olds that outlines selected health-related learning outcomes (focused
on cooling down) permeated through an athletics (running) unit of work, as well as learning activities
to address the outcomes and suggested methods of assessing the learning.
SAFETY ISSUES •• Ask: What types of exercises are included in

a cool-down? (Slow activities, such as walk-
•• Identify the purpose of a cool-down, and ing and easy jogging, plus stretches.) Inform
recognise and describe parts of a cool- pupils that these types of exercises help the
down—for example, gentle whole-body joints, bones, muscles (including the heart),
activities (e.g., jogging, walking) and lungs and mind recover from energetic
stretches for the whole body (e.g., reach- activity.
ing long and tall) or parts of the body (e.g.,
•• Ask: How do you feel now? (Better, cooler,
lower-leg or calf muscles).
not so out of breath, OK or good.)
HEALTH-RELATED LEARNING ACTIVITIES •• Ask pupils to perform some whole-body
stretches, such as reaching long and tall
•• Lead the pupils through a warm-up suitable and reaching wide with their arms and legs.
for running, involving mobility exercises for Teach them a calf stretch and explain that
the shoulders and ankles, knee lifts on the the calf muscles work hard when sprint-
spot, walking and jogging, and whole-body ing and that stretching them lengthens the
stretches (reaching long and tall). During muscle fibres, thus helping them recover
the warm-up, recap prior learning about from their hard work.
the purpose of a warm-up and the types of
activities included in a warm-up. ASSESSMENT OF HEALTH-RELATED
•• Afterwards, involve the pupils in a series of LEARNING
running activities such as the following:
•• Ask the following:
–– Running ‘through the gears’ by increasing
gradually from first gear (easy jogging) to –– Why do we cool down?
fifth gear (running very fast). –– Talk with a partner about the types of
–– Running as fast as they can for three sec- exercises included in a cool-down.
onds. –– Show me some activities to slow or cool
•• Next, teach the pupils about good running down your body.
technique (e.g., head still, face forward, arms –– Demonstrate a whole-body stretch.
driving backward and forward, legs moving A worksheet associated with this lesson is provided
as quickly as possible). in the web resource for this chapter.
•• Then engage the pupils in another series of
running activities, such as the following:
–– Run as fast as they can for three sec-
onds, trying to run faster and farther than
before.
–– Increase the running time to five seconds.
–– Repeat the preceding task several times,
focusing on good technique and aiming
to run faster and farther than before.
•• Afterwards, ask: What do we do after ener-
getic activity to recover? (Sample answer:
keep moving slowly and stretch the mus-
cles.)
•• Lead the pupils in performing a series
of low-intensity exercises, such as walk-
ing, knee lifts and side steps. During this
sequence, ask: What do we call this? (Recov-
ering from energetic activity, or cooling
down.)

lifestyle, then you can engage them with this and can incorporate the monitoring of children’s
10
Health-Related
Learning for
11- to 14-Year-Olds
Chapter Objectives

▶▶ implement a variety of approaches to assess the health-related learning
of 11- to 14-year-olds;
▶▶ describe methods of monitoring the health, activity and fitness of 11-
to 14-year-olds; and
123
S econdary-school children need to learn about

leading a healthy, active lifestyle in a manner
that is structured, progressive and accessible
of work in PE should be connected closely with
the rest of the PE curriculum and with the content
and delivery of related subjects (e.g., science; food
to all pupils. The learning can be organised in technology; personal, social, health and economic
multiple ways, including activity-based units of [PSHE] education) and extracurricular and com-
work in PE and separate health-related units of munity activity experiences.
work in PE. This chapter proposes health-related More specifically, the learning outcomes
learning approaches for 11- to 14-year-olds and related to safety issues can be permeated through
provides you with guidance for assessing pupils’ activity-based units of work in PE. The learn-
learning. It also suggests methods for monitoring ing outcomes related to exercise effects and to
the health, activity and fitness of 11- to 14-year- health benefits can be either permeated through
olds, such as health behaviour questionnaires, activity-based units of work in PE or taught in
activity diaries and questionnaires, heart rate additional health-related units of work. Explicit
monitors, pedometers and accelerometers, and links should be made with PSHE education for
developmentally appropriate fitness tests. Finally, this age group, which includes learning about
the chapter provides sample schemes, units of the benefits of physical activity and exercise and
work and lesson plans to help you create health- the importance of balancing work, leisure and
related learning plans that ensure a comprehen- exercise (PSHE Association, 2014). The learning
sive, coherent and meaningful approach to this outcomes related to activity promotion can be
important aspect of the curriculum. either permeated through PE units of work or
taught in additional health-related units of work.
Here again, explicit links should be made with
Health-Related Learning PSHE education for this age group, which in this
case includes helping pupils learn to recognise
Outcomes and Contexts and manage influences on their choices about
exercise (PSHE Association, 2014).
As detailed in chapter 3, approaches to health- To ensure alignment with a whole-school
related learning for the 5- to 16-year-old age group approach to health, including the promotion
were debated and agreed on in England in 2000 of physical activity, information about activity
by a working group comprising representatives of opportunities on offer in the school and in the
national PE, sport and health organisations. Table local community can be communicated to pupils
10.1 presents specific health-related learning and their families in a multitude of ways (e.g.,
outcomes for 11- to 14-year-olds; the outcomes newsletters, posters, parent mail, parent consulta-
are presented in four categories—safety issues, tions, assemblies). In addition, the school website
exercise effects, health benefits and activity pro- can have a dedicated Where to Be Active section
motion—to help clarify the scope and progression highlighting physical activity opportunities both
of the learning. at school and within a five-mile radius of the
The learning content detailed in table 10.1 can school; this section can also be used to connect
be taught in a number of contexts. One approach and support pupils (and families) involved in
is to integrate it into or permeate it through these activities.
activity-based units of work in PE (e.g., athletics,
dance, games, gymnastics, outdoor education and
swimming lessons). Another approach is to teach
it in separate thematic units of work in PE with a
Assessing Health-Related
title such as Health-Related Exercise or Action for Learning
Health. A third option is to combine the first two
approaches. Limitations in these approaches (dis- Health-related learning can be assessed via writ-
cussed in chapter 3) can be addressed by ensuring ten, verbal and active responses to questions,
that learning outcomes integrated into or perme- tasks and tests. In terms of focus, assessment
ated through activity-based units of work in PE can address affective, behavioural and cognitive
are not lost and do not take second place to other (ABC) learning outcomes; for more on ABC out-
learning (e.g., skill development, tactical under- comes, see chapter 3. Affective and behavioural
standing, choreography). In addition, learning outcomes for 11- to 14-year-olds can be assessed
outcomes taught in separate health-related units via teacher observation of effort and commitment
•• Demonstrate their understanding of safe exercise practices (e.g., tying long hair back and removing
jewellery to avoid injury; adopting good posture when sitting, standing and moving; performing
exercises with good technique; having a wash or shower following energetic activity; using equipment
and facilities with permission and, where necessary, under supervision; administering basic first aid;
wearing adequate protection such as goalkeeping gloves and leg pads as appropriate; coping with
specific weather conditions, such as using sunscreen to avoid sunburn and drinking fluids to prevent
dehydration; following proper procedures for specific activities).
•• Demonstrate their concern for and understanding of back care by lifting, carrying, placing and using
equipment responsibly and with good technique.
•• Explain why certain exercises and practices are not recommended (e.g., standing toe touches,
Safety issues straight-leg sit-ups, bounces during stretching, flinging movements) and be able to perform safe
alternatives (e.g., seated sit-and-reach stretch, curl-up with bent legs, stretches held still, movements
performed with control).
•• Explain the value of preparing for and recovering from activity and the possible consequences of not
doing so.
•• More specifically, explain the purpose of, and plan and perform, each component of a warm-up and of
a cool-down (i.e., mobility exercises, whole-body activities, static stretches) both for activity in general
(e.g., games, athletics) and for specific activities (e.g., volleyball, high jump, circuit training).
•• Use good technique in performing developmentally appropriate cardiorespiratory activities, as well as
strength and flexibility exercises, for each major muscle group.
•• Explain and monitor a range of short-term effects of exercise on
•• the cardiorespiratory system (e.g., changes in breathing, heart rate, temperature, appearance,
feelings, recovery rate and ability to pace oneself and remain within a target zone) and
•• the musculoskeletal system (e.g., increases in muscular strength, endurance and flexibility;
improved muscle tone and posture; enhanced functional capacity and sport or dance performance).
Exercise effects
•• Explain that appropriate training can improve fitness and performance and that specific types of
activity affect specific aspects of fitness (e.g., running affects cardiorespiratory fitness).
•• Explain the differences between whole-body activities (e.g., walking, jogging, cycling, dancing,
swimming) that help reduce body fat and conditioning exercises (e.g., straight and twisting curl-ups)
that improve muscle tone.
•• Explain a range of long-term benefits of activity on physical health, such as
•• improved management of some health conditions (e.g., asthma, diabetes, arthritis).
•• Explain that activity can enhance mental health and social and psychological well-being (e.g.,
Health benefits enjoyment of being with friends, increased confidence and self-esteem, decreased anxiety and stress)
and that an appropriate balance between work, leisure and exercise promotes good health.
•• Explain that increasing activity levels and eating a balanced diet can help one maintain a healthy body
weight (i.e., energy balance), that the body needs a certain minimum daily energy intake in order to
function properly and that strict dieting and excessive exercising can damage one’s health.
•• Explain that each activity area (athletics, dance, games, gymnastics, swimming and outdoor and
(e.g., can improve stamina, assist weight management, strengthen bones, be enjoyable).
•• Reflect on their activity strengths and preferences and know how to get involved in activities.
Activity promotion
•• Participate in activity of at least moderate intensity for one hour every day (accumulated over the
course of a day), including activity that strengthens muscles and bones.
•• Monitor and evaluate personal activity levels over a period of time (e.g., by keeping an activity diary
for four to six weeks and reflecting on the experience).
125
in PE lessons, as well as participation records for encouraged because they increase activity levels
PE lessons and extracurricular activities (using in PE lessons (for more information about active
ratings such as excellent, good, satisfactory or assessment, see chapter 3). Table 10.2 presents
adequate, and low or inadequate). Cognitive a range of methods for assessing the recom-
outcomes can be assessed through question-and- mended health-related learning outcomes for
answer episodes and through practical and active 11- to 14-year-olds.
tasks. Active assessment tasks are particularly
TABLE 10.2 Methods of Assessing Health-Related Learning in 11- to

14-Year-Olds
Health-related Methods of assessing health-related learning
learning category Health-related learning outcomes outcomes
•• Demonstrate their understanding of safe •• Ask pupils questions such as these:
exercise practices (e.g., tying long hair back •• Why should long hair be tied back in PE lessons?
and removing jewellery to avoid injury; •• Why do we ask you to remove jewellery in PE
adopting good posture when sitting, standing lessons?
or moving; performing exercises with
•• Why should you wash or shower following
good technique; having a wash or shower
energetic activity?
following energetic activity; using equipment
and facilities with permission and, where •• Discuss with a partner what ‘good posture’
necessary, under supervision; administering means and guide your partner to walk with good
basic first aid; wearing adequate protection, posture.
such as goalkeeping gloves and leg pads, •• Talk with a partner about what you would do if
as appropriate; coping with specific weather someone fell and was in pain.
conditions, such as using sunscreen to •• Why is it important to drink water when
avoid sunburn and drinking fluids to prevent exercising in hot weather?
dehydration; following procedures for specific •• How should you protect yourself from the sun?
activities).
•• State three rules that help keep athletics throwing
•• Demonstrate their concern for and events safe.
understanding of back care by lifting, carrying,
•• Talk with a partner about how to safely lift
placing and using equipment responsibly and
something heavy.
with good technique.
•• How does warming up help your body prepare
•• Explain why certain exercises and practices are
for energetic activity?
not recommended (e.g., standing toe touches,
straight-leg sit-ups, bounces during stretches, •• What types of exercises should be included in a
Safety issues warm-up, and why?
flinging movements) and be able to perform
safe alternatives (e.g., seated sit-and-reach •• Why is it important to cool down after very
stretch, curl-up with bent legs, stretches held vigorous activity?
still, movements performed with control). •• What types of exercises should be included in a
•• Explain the value of preparing for and cool-down, and why?
recovering from activity and the possible •• Talk with a partner about how you should feel
consequences of not doing so. after a cool-down.
•• More specifically, explain the purpose of, •• Involve pupils in active assessment tasks such as
and plan and perform, each component of a these:
warm-up and of a cool-down (i.e., mobility •• Show me how to sit, stand and move with good
exercises, whole-body activities, static posture.
stretches) for activity in general (e.g., games, •• Demonstrate with a partner how to safely lift a
athletics) and for specific activities (e.g., bench or box.
volleyball, high jump, circuit training).
•• Perform an effective stretch for the hamstrings.
•• Use good technique in performing
•• In a small group, design a general warm-up
developmentally appropriate cardiorespiratory
to show to others; include mobility exercises,
activities and strength and flexibility exercises
whole-body activities and static stretches (in that
for each major muscle group.
order).
•• In a small group, design a warm-up to lead
others through for the long jump; include
mobility exercise, whole-body activities and static
stretches relevant to the long jump.
•• Explain and monitor a range of short-term •• Ask pupils questions such as these:
effects of exercise on •• Why does your heart rate increase when you
•• the cardiorespiratory system (e.g., changes exercise?
in breathing, heart rate, temperature, •• What happens to your breathing rate during
appearance, feelings, recovery rate and energetic activity, and why?
ability to pace oneself and remain within a •• How does the body regulate its temperature
target zone) and during exercise?
•• the musculoskeletal system (e.g., increases •• In what ways can your appearance change when
in muscular strength, endurance and you exercise, and why do these changes occur?
flexibility; improved muscle tone and
•• Talk with a partner about exercises you can do to
posture; enhanced functional capacity and
improve your posture.
sport or dance performance).
Exercise effects •• Match activities to components of fitness (e.g.,
•• Explain that appropriate training can improve
running develops cardiorespiratory fitness).
fitness and performance and that specific
types of activity affect specific aspects of •• Think of and perform six whole-body activities.
fitness (e.g., running affects cardiorespiratory How do such activities help reduce body fat?
fitness). •• Involve pupils in active assessment tasks such as
•• Explain the differences between whole-body these:
activities (e.g., walking, jogging, cycling, •• Show me two exercises to develop tone in your
dancing, swimming) that help reduce body fat abdominal muscles.
and conditioning exercises (e.g., straight and •• Demonstrate how to develop strength and
twisting curl-ups) that improve muscle tone. endurance in your chest muscles.
•• With a partner, perform four whole-body
activities to music; put them into a sequence to
teach to others.
•• Explain a range of long-term benefits of activity •• Ask pupils questions such as these:
on physical health, such as •• How does being active help reduce your risk of
•• reduced risk of chronic disease (e.g., heart heart disease?
disease), •• How can activity help prevent you from getting
•• reduced risk of bone disease (e.g., bone conditions such as osteoporosis?
osteoporosis), •• How does activity help individuals with asthma?
•• reduced risk of some other health conditions •• In what ways can activity help you feel good?
(e.g., obesity, back pain) and •• Name some activities that can calm or relax the
•• improved management of some health body and mind.
conditions (e.g., asthma, diabetes, arthritis). •• Why is it important to maintain balance between
•• Explain that activity can enhance mental health work, leisure and exercise?
and social and psychological well-being (e.g., •• Explain to a partner what energy balance is.
enjoyment of being with friends, increased
•• Why is it essential to have a minimum daily
confidence and self-esteem, decreased anxiety
energy intake?
and stress) and that an appropriate balance
Health benefits between work, leisure and exercise promotes •• How can strict dieting and excessive exercise
good health. affect your body and mind?
•• Explain that increasing activity levels and •• In a small group, match activity areas to health
eating a balanced diet can help one maintain benefits (e.g. dance can improve stamina and
a healthy body weight (i.e., energy balance), flexibility, strengthen bones, assist with healthy
that the body needs a certain minimum daily weight management and be enjoyable).
energy intake in order to function properly and •• Involve pupils in active assessment tasks such as
that strict dieting and excessive exercising can these:
damage one’s health. •• Mime movements from an activity area and talk
•• Explain how each activity area (athletics, about health benefits of this type of activity.
dance, games, gymnastics, swimming and •• Jog with a partner and chat about how activity
outdoor and adventurous activities) can can assist with healthy weight management.
contribute to physical health and to social and
psychological well-being (e.g., can improve
stamina, assist in weight management,
strengthen bones, be enjoyable).
(continued)
127

•• Access information about a range of activity •• Ask questions such as these:
opportunities at school, at home and in •• Tell me five ways to incorporate routine physical
the local community and identify ways to activity into your lifestyle.
incorporate activity into their lifestyles (e.g., •• Discuss with a partner your favourite activities
walking or cycling to school or to meet friends; and why you like them.
helping around the home or garden).
•• How much activity should young people do?
•• Reflect on their activity strengths and
•• What does ‘at least moderate intensity’ mean?
preferences and know how to get involved in
activities. •• Give me examples of activities of ‘at least
moderate intensity’.
•• Participate in activity of at least moderate
intensity for a minimum of half an hour and •• Explain to a partner what ‘accumulated over the
preferably for one hour every day (i.e., 30 to course of a day’ means.
60 minutes accumulated over the course of a •• Keep an activity diary for four to six weeks;
Activity day). record all the activity that you do and its intensity
promotion •• Participate in activity of at least moderate and duration.
intensity for one hour every day (accumulated •• Talk your partner through your activity diary
over the course of a day), including activity and discuss what it shows about your activity
that strengthens muscles and bones. patterns or habits.
•• Monitor and evaluate personal activity levels •• Involve pupils in active assessment tasks such as
over a period of time (e.g., by keeping an these:
activity diary for four to six weeks and •• Show me where you can find information about
reflecting on the experience). activity opportunities in the local community.
•• Demonstrate ‘moderate intensity’ and then
‘vigorous intensity’.
•• Walk and jog with a partner while talking about
activity opportunities at school, at home and in
the local community that you are (or have been)
involved in.
Monitoring Health, Activity naires that offer a selection of responses (e.g.,

always, mostly, sometimes, never) to questions
and Fitness such as the following:
The rationale for monitoring children’s health, •• Do you eat a balanced diet that is low(ish)
activity and fitness has been strengthened in in sugar and fat?
recent years both by increased concern about •• Do you eat a combined total of five portions
children’s physical, mental and social health of vegetables and fruits each day?
and by the trend towards sedentary living that •• Do you have a sensible balance between rest,
marks a more technologically advanced world. work and play?
These issues are addressed in part I of this book,
•• Are you active for about an hour every day?
whereas part II covers developmentally and
pedagogically appropriate approaches to moni- Chapter 4 provides an example of a health
toring within the curriculum in order to promote behaviour questionnaire suitable for secondary-
healthy, active lifestyles among children. The age pupils; it can be used to calculate a health
following examples are appropriate for use with score linked to generic feedback such as the fol-
11- to 14-year-olds. lowing: ‘You lead a healthy lifestyle some of the
time and will benefit from doing so. However, you
Monitoring Health should consider leading a healthier lifestyle by
improving on a number of your habits’. Engaging
We can help children become more aware of their children in the process of self-reflection enhances
lifestyles by using health behaviour question- learning and helps children to set measurable
targets for improvement. Here are a few sample tional methods suitable for 11- to 14-year-olds
questions to ask of 11- to 14-year-olds: ‘What have include the use of pedometers, accelerometers
you done well on? What can you improve on? and heart rate monitors (i.e., chest-strap transmit-
What are you able to change about your health? ters paired with a wrist receiver or mobile phone);
State three actions that you can carry out over for a discussion of the advantages and disadvan-
the next three months to improve your health.’ tages of these methods, see chapter 5. In recent
Additional examples of self-reflection questions years, accelerometers have also been developed
are provided in chapter 4. into popular wearable electronic devices (e.g.,
Responses to these questions can be used to Fitbit) that monitor physical activity and provide
trigger discussions among pupils about ways to additional information and feedback on specific
lead a healthy lifestyle, as well as relevant bar- aspects of activity.
riers and facilitators. When conducting such You can encourage pupils to reflect on their
discussions, be sensitive to the fact that children activity levels by asking questions such as the
of all ages (including secondary-age children) following: Do you usually take part in 60 minutes
have no control over major factors that influence or more of moderate to vigorous activity each
their health—for example, genetics, environment day? Do you think you should be more active? If
(e.g., pollution, poverty) and family modelling. In yes, what is your physical activity goal? Who or
addition, they have only partial control over other what could help you achieve this goal? (For more
key factors, including what they eat and drink examples appropriate for secondary-age children,
and how active they are. So, whilst children can see the web resource for chapter 5).
learn about leading a healthy lifestyle (and the You may also want to incorporate questions
consequences of not doing so), they should also about sedentary behaviour into discussions about
be aware of which factors influencing their health healthy lifestyles. This approach links with the
lie beyond their control and which ones they have UK-wide physical activity guideline that children
some control over. Furthermore, leading a healthy and young people should minimise the amount
lifestyle can cost more in terms of purchasing of time spent being sedentary (for more informa-
healthy foods and drinks and accessing physical tion about this and other guidelines, see chapter
activity opportunities (e.g., after-school or holiday 1). Young people’s responses to questions such
clubs) that require payment. As a consequence, as ‘Are you ever sedentary for extended periods
children from low-income families may be dis- of time?’ and ‘What could you do to reduce the
advantaged in comparison with their peers and, amount of time for which you are sedentary?’ can
where possible, should be offered free or low-cost be used to promote discussion about inactivity,
opportunities to consume healthy meals and its consequences, and ways in which the school
drinks and to be active. environment could encourage less sedentary
behaviour.
Monitoring Activity Whilst obtaining a precise measure of physical
activity is important for research purposes, it is
As described in chapter 5, children’s physical less crucial for teachers, whose main concerns
activity can be monitored through a number relate to the educational value of the monitoring
of methods. One appropriate method for 11- to experience and its ease of use, feasibility and cost.
14-year-olds involves self-reporting—for example, From a pedagogical perspective, it is considered
keeping a physical activity diary for four to six more important to ensure that pupils enjoy, learn
weeks (for examples of activity diaries suitable for and benefit from the monitoring experience
this age group, see the web resource for chapter than to worry unduly about the precision of the
5). More formal self-report instruments suitable method (Cale & Harris, 2009b). This learning can
for use with secondary-age children include the include knowing how to routinely incorporate
Previous Day Physical Activity Recall (PDPAR), physical activity into their lifestyles, knowing how
the Three-Day Physical Activity Recall (3DPAR), to get involved in organised activities and reflect-
the Physical Activity Questionnaire for Children ing on their activity strengths and preferences.
(PAQ-C) or for Adolescents (PAQ-A), the Youth Pupils should be encouraged to think of ways
Risk Behaviour Surveillance System (YRBSS) in which they could be more physically active at
and the Teen Health Survey. For more informa- school, at home and in the local community. Their
tion about these instruments, see Trost (2007) and responses can be used to prompt discussion about
Biddle, Gorely, Pearson, and Bull (2011). Addi- healthy, active lifestyles, including consideration
Teachers can help secondary school children to learn about the benefits of being active and how to go about
leading healthy, active lifestyles.
of what helps and what hinders their participation Cale, 2016; Cale & Harris, 2009a, 2009b; Cale,
in physical activity. Pupils can also be encouraged Harris, & Chen, 2014; Lloyd, Colley, & Tremblay,
to discuss and critique visual images in the media 2010; Rowland, 2007; Silverman, Keating, &
in order to challenge common misunderstandings Phillips, 2008).
and misconceptions about physical activity—for It is not essential for children aged 11 to 14
example, believing that light-intensity activity to be involved in formal fitness testing in order
offers no health benefits and that activity must for them to learn that certain activities develop
hurt in order to do any good (see chapter 1 for fitness (e.g., dancing improves cardiorespiratory
a discussion of young people’s inaccurate and fitness; curl-ups and push-ups improve strength
inadequate understandings of health, fitness and and endurance in specific muscle groups). These
physical activity). associations can be taught in PE lessons, where
children learn, for example, that swimming and
aerobics help improve their cardiorespiratory
Monitoring Fitness fitness, flexibility and muscular strength and
As discussed in chapter 6, fitness testing is con- endurance.
troversial in a school setting, and before using If you choose to involve 11- to 14-year-olds in
it with children we must consider a number of formal fitness testing, select the tests carefully
issues and limitations. Fitness monitoring can be and teach them in a positive, supportive setting.
considered a valuable component of the curricu- Emphasise helping pupils enjoy and learn from
lum if it is developmentally appropriate; offers a the experience and strive to improve on their
positive, educational experience for all learners; own personal-best scores. Submaximal tests are
and helps promote healthy, active lifestyles (Asso- recommended for this age group—for example,
ciation for Physical Education, 2015a, 2015b; the step test and the mini bleep test for cardio-
COMMUNITY OF PRACTICE
A number of secondary-school PE teachers in the Midlands who met once a term as a regional group
decided to focus on key objectives linked to national curriculum requirements, one of which was ‘leading
healthy, active lifestyles’. In their meetings during one particular year, they discussed issues associated
with promoting active lifestyles and shared various ideas and resources. Some of the teachers had been
involved in a PAL (promoting active lifestyles) project during their teacher training course and therefore
were able to critique traditional approaches in this area (e.g., those dominated by fitness testing and sport
training) and present alternative approaches.
Specifically, these teachers distributed professional and academic journal articles on the chosen topic
and shared resources, such as an infographic addressing the recommendation to engage in one hour per
day of physical activity for health, a model of the active school, and selected Change4Life and This Girl Can
materials for use with pupils and parents. They also showed colleagues resources that they had learned
about as part of the PAL project, such as calorie cards (each picturing a food, indicating its calorie count,
and suggesting activities to use that number of calories) and circuit cards (focused on learning about pos-
ture, aerobic activity, impact and intensity).
Discussion points: Would you find it useful to discuss issues and share resources with teachers from
schools in your region? What could you share with them related to promoting active lifestyles?
This supportive community of practice helped the teachers adopt a more critical, explicit and effec-
tive approach to promoting active lifestyles in PE in their schools. They reported that sharing ideas and
resources in the regional meetings proved to be an invaluable form of professional development that led
to positive changes in both curricular and extracurricular programmes, thus benefiting their teaching col-
leagues and pupils.
Discussion points: What advantages do you see in this approach to professional development? Are there
any possible disadvantages to this approach? If so, how might they be minimised?
respiratory fitness and differentiated versions of 2009b). In addition, pupils can be encouraged
exercises for muscular strength and endurance to discuss and critique images from the media
(e.g., curl-up, push-up). The web resource for relating to fitness in order to challenge any misun-
chapter 6 provides descriptions of these tests, derstandings and misconceptions that they may
as well as recommendations to consider before, have about fitness—for example, believing that
during and after implementing them. Once fitness fitness is predominantly about one’s weight and
testing is completed, ask pupils to reflect on the physical appearance (see chapter 1 for a discus-
experience and on their scores. The web resource sion of young people’s inaccurate and inadequate
for chapter 6 provides examples of appropriate understandings of health, fitness and physical
questions for secondary-age children, such as activity).
the following: What component of fitness did
each test measure, and why is each component
important? Talk about your results: Can you Health-Related Learning
explain them? What might have affected them?
How would you feel about doing the tests again Plans for 11- to 14-Year Olds
in two or three months?
All children aged 11 to 14 years should be Long-term health-related plans generally take the
helped to understand that fitness is developed form of a scheme of work over a number of years.
by being physically active and is associated with In the case of 11- to 14-year-olds, the duration of
good health. This message is consistent with the the scheme of work is three academic years. Ide-
goal of influencing the process (being active) ally, the health-related learning should sit within
rather than the product (fitness) (Cale & Harris, a whole-school approach to the promotion of
health (see chapter 2) and can be taught within place to other learning (e.g., skill development,
a number of contexts—for example, integrating tactical understanding, choreography), and out-
it into activity-based units of work and separate comes addressed though separate health-related
thematic health-related units of work in PE. units of work in PE should relate closely to the
Learning outcomes that are integrated into or rest of the PE curriculum and to the content and
permeated through activity-based units of work delivery of related subjects (e.g., science, food
in PE should not be lost or allowed to take second technology, PSHE education).

The health-related learning identified in this example spans three academic years and is taught through
activity-based units of work in PE in combination with separate, thematic health-related units of work
in PE called Action for Health. This learning sits within a whole-school approach to health that aims
to achieve healthy lifestyles for the entire school population by developing a supportive environment
that is conducive to promoting health through the curriculum, the environment and the community.
HEALTH-RELATED LEARNING OUTCOMES •• More specifically, explain the purpose of,

and plan and perform, each component of
•• Demonstrate their understanding of safe a warm-up and of a cool-down (i.e., mobil-
exercise practices (e.g., tying long hair back ity exercises, whole-body activities, static
and removing jewellery to avoid injury; stretches) for activity in general (e.g., games,
adopting good posture when sitting, stand- athletics) and for specific activities (e.g., vol-
ing or moving; performing exercises with leyball, high jump, circuit training).
good technique; having a wash or shower
•• Use good technique in performing devel-
following energetic activity; using equip-
opmentally appropriate cardiorespiratory
ment and facilities with permission and,
activities, as well as strength and flexibility
where necessary, under supervision; admin-
exercises, for each major muscle group.
istering basic first aid; wearing adequate
protection, such as goalkeeping gloves and
HEALTH-RELATED LEARNING CONTEXT
leg pads, as appropriate; coping with spe-
cific weather conditions, such as using sun- These learning outcomes are taught in activity-
screen to avoid sunburn and drinking fluids based units of work in curriculum PE with explicit
to prevent dehydration; following proper links to safety issues that arise in extracurricular
procedures for specific activities). and community settings (e.g., demonstrating safe
exercise practices, preparing for and recovering
•• Demonstrate their concern for and under-
from activity, performing activities and exercises
standing of back care by lifting, carrying,
with good technique).
placing and using equipment responsibly
and with good technique METHODS OF ASSESSING HEALTH-
•• Explain why certain exercises and practices RELATED LEARNING OUTCOMES
are not recommended (e.g., standing toe
Ask pupils questions such as the following:
touches, straight-leg sit-ups, bounces during
stretches, flinging movements) and be able •• Why should long hair be tied back in PE les-
to perform safe alternatives (e.g., seated sons?
sit-and-reach stretch, curl-up with bent legs, •• Why do we ask you to remove jewellery in
stretches held still, movements performed PE lessons?
with control). •• Why should you wash or shower following
•• Explain the value of purposefully preparing energetic activity?
for and recovering from activity and the pos-
sible consequences of not doing so.
•• Discuss with a partner what ‘good posture’ •• What types of exercises should be included
means and guide your partner to walk with in a cool-down, and why?
good posture. •• Talk with a partner about how you should
•• Talk with a partner about what you would do feel after a cool-down.
if someone fell and was in pain. Involve pupils in active assessment tasks such as
•• Why is it important to drink water when the following:
exercising in hot weather? •• Show me how to sit, stand and move with
•• How should you protect yourself from the good posture.
sun? •• Demonstrate with a partner how to safely lift
•• State three rules that help keep athletics a bench or box.
throwing events safe. •• Perform an effective stretch for the ham-
•• Talk with a partner about how to safely lift strings.
something heavy. •• In a small group, design a general warm-
•• How does warming up help your body pre- up to show to others; include mobility
pare for energetic activity? exercises, whole-body activities and static
stretches (in that order).
•• What types of exercises should be included
in a warm-up, and why? •• In a small group, design a warm-up for the
long jump to lead others through; include
•• Why is it important to cool down after very
mobility exercise, whole-body activities and
vigorous activity?
static stretches relevant to the long jump.

•• Explain and monitor a range of short-term These learning outcomes are taught in activity-
effects of exercise on based and health-related units of work in curriculum
PE with explicit links to related learning in PSHE,
–– the cardiovascular system (e.g., changes
science and food technology.
in breathing and heart rate, temperature,
appearance, feelings, recovery rate and METHODS OF ASSESSING HEALTH-
ability to pace oneself and remain within
a target zone) and
RELATED LEARNING OUTCOMES
–– the musculoskeletal system (e.g.,
increases in muscular strength and endur- •• Why does your heart rate increase when you
ance and flexibility; improved muscle exercise?
tone and posture; enhanced functional •• What happens to your breathing rate during
capacity and sport or dance perfor- energetic activity, and why?
mance). •• How does the body regulate its temperature
•• Explain that appropriate training can during exercise?
improve fitness and performance and that •• In what ways can your appearance change
specific types of activity affect specific when you exercise, and why?
aspects of fitness (e.g., running affects car-
•• Talk with a partner about exercises you can
diorespiratory fitness).
do to improve your posture.
•• Explain the differences between whole-body
•• Match activities to components of fitness
activities (e.g., walking, jogging, cycling,
(e.g., running develops cardiorespiratory fit-
dancing, swimming) that help reduce body
ness).
fat and conditioning exercises (e.g., straight
and twisting curl-ups) that improve muscle •• Perform six whole-body activities; how do
tone. these types of activities help reduce body
fat?
Involve pupils in active assessment tasks such as •• Demonstrate how to develop the strength
the following: and endurance of your chest muscles.
•• Show me two exercises to develop tone in •• With a partner, perform four whole-body
your abdominal muscles. activities to music; put them into a sequence
to teach to others.

•• Explain a range of long-term benefits of These learning outcomes are taught in health-
activity for physical health, such as related units of work in PE called Action for Health
with explicit links to learning in activity-based units
–– reduced risk of chronic disease (e.g.,
of work in PE and in PSHE.
heart disease),
–– reduced risk of bone disease (e.g., osteo- METHODS OF ASSESSING HEALTH-
porosis), RELATED LEARNING OUTCOMES
–– reduced risk of some other health condi- Ask pupils questions such as the following:
tions (e.g., obesity, back pain) and
•• How does being active help reduce your risk
–– improved management of some health of heart disease?
conditions (e.g., asthma, diabetes, arthri-
•• How can activity help prevent you from get-
tis).
ting bone conditions such as osteoporosis?
•• Explain that activity can enhance mental
•• How does activity help individuals with
health and social and psychological well-
asthma?
being (e.g., enjoyment of being with friends;
increased confidence and self-esteem; •• How can activity help individuals feel good?
decreased anxiety and stress) and that an •• Name some activities that can calm or relax
appropriate balance between work, leisure the body and mind.
and exercise promotes good health. •• Why is it important to balance work, leisure
•• Explain that increasing activity levels and and exercise?
eating a balanced diet can help one main- •• Explain to a partner what energy balance is.
tain a healthy body weight (i.e., energy
•• Why is it essential to have a minimum daily
balance), that the body needs a certain mini-
energy intake?
mum daily energy intake in order to function
properly and that strict dieting and exces- •• How can strict dieting and excessive exer-
sive exercising can damage one's health. cise affect your body and mind?
•• Explain how each activity area (athletics, •• In a small group, match activity areas to
dance, games, gymnastics, swimming and health benefits (e.g., dance can improve
outdoor and adventurous activities) can con- stamina and flexibility, strengthen bones,
tribute to physical health and to social and assist with healthy weight management and
psychological well-being (e.g., can improve be enjoyable).
stamina, assist in weight management, Involve pupils in active assessment tasks such as
strengthen bones, be enjoyable). the following:
•• Mime movements from an activity area and
talk about health benefits of this area.
•• Jog with a partner and chat about how activ-
ity can assist with healthy weight manage-
ment.
HEALTH-RELATED LEARNING OUTCOMES •• Discuss with a partner your favourite activi-

ties and why you like them.
•• Access information about a range of activity
•• How much activity should young people do?
opportunities at school, at home and in the
local community and identify ways to incor- •• What does ‘at least moderate intensity’
porate activity into their lifestyles (e.g., walk- mean?
ing or cycling to school or to meet friends; •• Give me examples of activities that are of ‘at
helping around the home or garden). least moderate intensity’.
•• Reflect on their activity strengths and pref- •• Explain to a partner what ‘accumulated over
erences and know how to get involved in the course of a day’ means.
activities. •• Keep an activity diary for four to six weeks;
•• Participate in activity of at least moderate record all of the activity you do, as well as its
intensity for one hour every day (accumu- intensity and duration.
lated over the course of a day), including •• Talk your partner through your activity diary
activity that strengthens muscles and bones. and discuss what it shows about your activity
•• Monitor and evaluate personal activity patterns or habits.
levels over a period of time (e.g., by keep- Involve pupils in active assessment tasks such as
ing an activity diary for four to six weeks and the following:
reflecting on the experience).
•• Show me where you can find information
HEALTH-RELATED LEARNING CONTEXT about activity opportunities in the local com-
munity.
These learning outcomes are addressed in health-
related units of work in PE called Action for Health •• Demonstrate ‘moderate intensity’ and then
with explicit links to learning in activity-based units ‘vigorous intensity’.
of work in PE and in PSHE. •• Walk and jog with a partner while talking
about activity opportunities at school, at
METHODS OF ASSESSING HEALTH- home and in the local community that you
RELATED LEARNING OUTCOMES are (or have been) involved in.
Ask questions such as the following:
•• Tell me five ways to incorporate routine
physical activity into your lifestyle.
Medium-term plans for health-related learning generally take the form of units of work over the
course of a school term (usually 10 to 14 weekly lessons) or parts of a term (usually 4 to 7 weekly les-
sons). These units of work are likely to be within the subject of PE (activity based and health related)
with explicit links to learning in related subjects such as PSHE education, science and food technology.

The following example presents a six-lesson, topic-based unit called Action for Heart Health and outlines
learning outcomes for selected exercise effects and health benefits for 11- and 12-year-olds. It also covers
learning activities to address the outcomes, as well as suggested methods for assessing pupils’ learning.
The learning in this unit is cross-referenced to related learning in activity-based units of work in PE.
EXERCISE EFFECTS Facilitate sharing of pupils’ reasons with the

class.
•• Explain and monitor a range of short-term
•• Involve pupils in a posture circuit—that
effects of exercise on
is, a planned sequence of exercises to
–– the cardiovascular system (e.g., changes improve posture. For example, station
in breathing, heart rate, temperature, 1 might involve curl-ups (to address the
appearance, feelings, recovery rate and rectus abdominis), station 2 might involve
ability to pace oneself and remain within back raises (erector spinae), station 3
a target zone) and might involve leg raises (gluteus maximus),
–– musculoskeletal system (e.g., increases in station 4 might involve twisting curl-ups
muscular strength, endurance and flexibil- (obliques) and station 5 might involve
ity; improved muscle tone and posture; shoulder squeezes (trapezius). Each station
enhanced functional capacity and sport is equipped with resource cards that show
or dance performance). visual images of up to three differentiated
•• Explain that appropriate training can versions of the relevant exercise. The
improve fitness and performance and that exercises can be performed for one minute
specific types of activity affect specific at each station, and the circuit can be
aspects of fitness (e.g., running affects car- performed to background music.
diorespiratory fitness). •• During the posture circuit, prompt pupils
to think about which muscles are working
HEALTH-RELATED LEARNING ACTIVITIES in each exercise, what these muscles are
•• Involve pupils in a card game in which they called, and how they affect posture. After
pick up a playing card from the centre of the circuit, ask pupils to talk with a partner
the area and go to different corners or about the effects of the exercises on the
quarters to perform specific exercises for musculoskeletal system (e.g., increases in
each suit—for example, knee lifts (with or muscular strength and endurance in specific
without jumps) for clubs, step-backs or scis- muscle groups) and about how the muscle
sor jumps for diamonds, fast walking or groups worked in the circuit help improve
jogging for hearts, and sidesteps or astride posture.
jumps for spades. The number of exercises •• Lead pupils through stretches for each of
performed is determined by the number on the muscle groups worked in the posture
the card. After each go, pupils return to the circuit—for example, prone or supine tummy
centre, pick up another card and repeat the stretch (station 1, rectus abdominis); seated,
process; this pattern continues for up to five kneeling or standing cat stretch (station 2,
minutes. The activity can be performed to erector spinae); backside stretch while lying
lively background music. on back with knees pulled towards chest
•• After the card game, ask pupils to talk in (station 3, gluteus maximus); sides-of-tummy
pairs or small groups about the changes stretch while standing, seated or lying (sta-
they noticed while exercising. Prompt them tion 4, obliques); and shoulder squeezes
to think about changes to heart rate, breath- (station 5, trapezius). The stretching can be
ing rate, temperature, appearance and feel- performed to calming background music.
ings. Facilitate sharing of their responses •• In the next lesson, following a warm-up (e.g.,
with the class. repeating the card game), add three more
•• Next, ask pupils to discuss in pairs or small exercises to the posture circuit. For example,
groups the reasons for the changes they station 6 might involve push-ups (to address
experienced (e.g., heart and breathing rate the pectorals and triceps), station 7 might
increase to get oxygenated blood to the involve squats (quadriceps and gluteus
working muscles; appearance changes as maximus), and station 8 might involve arm
blood vessels dilate and come closer to the curls (biceps). As before, provide resource
skin’s surface, thus giving a flushed look). cards at the stations, showing visual images
of up to three differentiated versions of each
exercise. As before, the exercises can be –– Why does your heart rate increase when
performed for one minute at each station, you exercise?
and the circuit can be performed to back- –– What happens to your breathing rate
ground music. during energetic activity, and why?
•• During the circuit, prompt pupils to think –– How does the body regulate its tempera-
about which muscles are working in each ture during exercise?
exercise, what these muscles are called, and
–– In what ways can your appearance change
which everyday life activities and sporting
when you exercise, and why?
activities benefit from improved strength
and endurance in these muscle groups. –– Talk with a partner about exercises that
After the circuit is completed, facilitate the you can do to improve your posture.
sharing of responses with the class. •• Towards the end of the unit of work, involve
•• Lead pupils through stretches for each of pupils in active assessment tasks such as the
the muscle groups worked in the circuit. following:
The stretches can be performed to calming –– Show me two exercises to develop tone
background music. in your abdominal muscles.
–– Demonstrate how to develop the strength
ASSESSMENT OF HEALTH-RELATED and endurance of your chest muscles.
LEARNING
ACTIVITY PROMOTION to fitness and performance. Facilitate shar-

ing of their responses with the class.
•• Explain that appropriate training can
•• Involve pupils in an aerobic circuit—that is,
improve fitness and performance and that
a planned sequence of aerobic activities
specific types of activity affect specific
that develop cardiorespiratory fitness (e.g.,
aspects of fitness (e.g., running affects car-
skipping at station 1, knee lifts at station 2,
diorespiratory fitness).
squats at station 3, jogging at station 4 and
•• Explain the differences between whole-body sidesteps at station 5). Use resource cards
activities (e.g., walking, jogging, cycling, for the stations. Exercises can be performed
dancing, swimming) that help reduce body for one minute at each station, and the cir-
fat and conditioning exercises (e.g., straight cuit can be performed to lively background
and twisting curl-ups) that improve muscle music.
tone.
•• After the aerobic circuit, ask pupils to talk
HEALTH-RELATED LEARNING ACTIVITIES with a partner about the effects of the exer-
cises on the cardiorespiratory system (e.g.,
•• Involve pupils in a warm-up that gradually increases in stamina, cardiorespiratory fit-
increases in intensity (e.g., working through ness, ability to keep going for longer).
the gears from first to fifth in the form of •• Lead pupils through stretches for the major
strolling, brisk walking, slow jogging, jog- muscle groups worked in the aerobic circuit
ging and running) and includes a few static (e.g., quadriceps, calves, hamstrings, adduc-
stretches of major muscle groups. Ask pupils tors, abductors). The stretching can be per-
to name the muscle groups being stretched. formed to calming background music.
•• After the warm-up, ask pupils to talk in pairs •• In the next lesson, expand the aerobic circuit
or small groups about the effects of training. by interspersing three exercises for muscular
Prompt them to think about improvements strength and endurance in the core muscles
(e.g., curl-ups, back raises, twisting curl-ups). The stretches can be performed to calming
Involve pupils in the extended, eight-station background music.
circuit. Use resource cards showing visual
images of differentiated versions of each ASSESSMENT OF HEALTH-RELATED
exercise. The exercises can be performed LEARNING
for one minute at each station, and the cir-
cuit can be performed to background music.
•• During the circuit, prompt pupils to think following:
about which muscles are working in each
–– Match activities to components of fitness
exercise, what these muscles are called, and
(e.g., running develops cardiorespiratory
which everyday life activities and sporting
fitness).
activities benefit from improved strength
and endurance in these muscle groups. –– Perform six whole-body activities; how do
After the circuit is completed, facilitate the these activities help reduce body fat?
sharing of responses with the class. –– With a partner, perform four whole-
•• Ask pupils to perform stretches for each of body activities to music; put them into a
the muscle groups worked in the circuit. sequence to teach to others.
HEALTH BENEFITS outdoor and adventurous activities) can con-

tribute to physical health and to social and
•• Explain a range of long-term benefits of psychological well-being (e.g., can improve
activity for physical health, such as stamina, assist in weight management,
–– reduced risk of chronic disease (e.g., strengthen bones, be enjoyable).
heart disease),
–– reduced risk of bone disease (e.g., osteo- HEALTH-RELATED LEARNING ACTIVITIES
porosis), •• Ask pupils to talk in pairs or small groups
–– reduced risk of some other health condi- about the long-term benefits of activity for
tions (e.g., obesity, back pain) and physical health. Prompt them to consider
–– improved management of some health reduced risk of some diseases and health
conditions (e.g., asthma, diabetes, arthri- conditions (e.g., heart disease, osteoporosis,
tis). obesity, back pain) and improved manage-
ment of others (e.g., asthma, diabetes).
•• Explain that activity can enhance mental
Facilitate sharing of responses with the class.
health and social and psychological well-
being (e.g., enjoyment of being with friends; •• In small groups, ask pupils to choose six
increased confidence and self-esteem; whole-body activities (e.g., walking, jog-
decreased anxiety and stress) and that an ging, sidestepping, hopping, galloping) or
appropriate balance between work, leisure movements (e.g., grapevines, high knee
and exercise promotes good health. lifts, hopscotch). Then ask them to put these
activities or movements into a sequence, set
•• Explain that increasing activity levels and
to music, that gradually increases in intensity
eating a balanced diet can help one main-
(from low to moderate to vigorous). Pupils
tain a healthy body weight (i.e., energy
can then teach their sequence to others.
balance), that the body needs a certain mini-
mum daily energy intake in order to function •• Afterwards, ask pupils to walk with a partner
properly and that strict dieting and exces- or in their small group and talk about the
sive exercising can damage one's health. mental and social health benefits of activity.
Prompt them to consider benefits such as
•• Explain how each activity area (athletics,
enjoyment of being with friends; increased
dance, games, gymnastics, swimming and
self-confidence and self-esteem; and
decreased anxiety and stress. Afterwards, healthy weight management and be enjoy-
facilitate sharing of responses with the class. able.
•• Lead pupils through a series of stretches
set to calm, soothing music. Ask pupils how ASSESSMENT OF HEALTH-RELATED
they feel afterwards (likely answers: relaxed, LEARNING
comfortable, good). •• Towards the end of the unit of work, ask
•• In the next lesson, ask pupils what they know pupils questions such as the following:
about energy balance—that is, the relation- –– How does being active help reduce your
ship between ‘energy in’ (i.e., taken in, in the risk of heart disease?
form of calories from food and drink) and
–– How can activity help prevent you from
‘energy out’ (i.e., used for everyday living,
getting bone conditions such as osteopo-
sleeping, activities and exercise) and the
rosis?
effect of this relationship on body weight.
If energy in exceeds energy out, then body –– How does activity help individuals with
weight increases; if energy in and energy out asthma?
are the same, then body weight remains the –– In what ways can activity help individuals
same; and if energy in is less than energy feel good?
out, then body weight diminishes. –– Name some activities that can calm or
•• To warm up, ask pupils to jog with a partner relax the body and mind.
and chat about how activity can assist with –– Why is it important to balance work, lei-
healthy weight management. Afterwards, sure and exercise?
facilitate sharing of responses with the class.
–– Explain to a partner what energy balance is.
•• Ask pupils to participate in an energy bal-
–– Why is it essential to have a minimum
ance game in which they select a food or
daily energy intake?
drink card and perform sufficient activity to
use up the calories listed for that food or –– How can strict dieting and excessive exer-
drink—for example, for a chocolate biscuit cise affect your body and mind?
(150 calories), 15 minutes of aerobic activity –– In a small group, match activity areas to
such as jogging or skipping. Use resource health benefits (e.g., dance can improve
cards, each of which shows a visual image stamina and flexibility, strengthen bones,
of a selected food or drink item, its calorie assist with healthy weight management
count, and activity choices for using up that and be enjoyable).
number of calories. The game can be per- •• Towards the end of the unit of work, involve
formed to background music. pupils in active assessment tasks such as the
•• To finish the lesson, ask pupils to work in following:
pairs or small groups to mime movements –– Mime movements from an activity area
from a chosen activity area in a follow-my- and talk about health benefits of this area.
leader fashion. Whilst doing so, they can talk
–– Jog with a partner and chat about how
about the health benefits of the activity area;
activity can assist with healthy weight
for example, dance can improve stamina
management.
and flexibility, strengthen bones, assist with
lesson plan for 12- and 13-year-olds that outlines learning outcomes for activity promotion within a
health-related unit of work (focused on the physical activity recommendation and on keeping an activ-
ity diary), as well as learning activities to address the outcomes and suggested methods of assessing
the learning.
ACTIVITY PROMOTION –– Guideline 1: All children and young

people should engage in physical activity
•• Reflect on their activity strengths and pref- of moderate to vigorous intensity for at
erences and know how to get involved in least 60 minutes and up to several hours
activities. every day.
•• Participate in activity of at least moderate –– Guideline 2: Vigorous-intensity activities,
intensity for one hour every day (accumu- including those that strengthen muscle
lated over the course of a day), including and bone, should be incorporated on at
activity that strengthens muscles and bones. least three days per week.
•• Monitor and evaluate personal activity –– Guideline 3: All children and young
levels over a period of time (e.g., by keep- people should minimise the amount of
ing an activity diary for four to six weeks and time spent being sedentary for extended
reflecting on the experience). periods.
HEALTH-RELATED LEARNING ACTIVITIES •• Ask pupils to perform moderate-intensity
activities; offer examples, such as knee
•• Ask pupils to discuss in pairs or small groups raises, grapevines, squats and brisk walking.
the types of activities and sports they These activities can be performed to lively
like most and what they like about them. background music. Afterwards, ask pupils
Then ask each pair or small group to share how they feel. Answers may include some-
responses with another. thing like ‘a little out of breath but comfort-
•• Lead pupils through a series of whole-body able’ or ‘able to keep going for a reasonable
aerobic activities such as the following amount of time’.
examples. Start at low intensity and gradu- •• Now, ask pupils to perform moderate- to
ally shift to moderate intensity and then high-intensity activities; again, offer exam-
moderate-to-high intensity. ples, such as knee raises with a jump, grape-
–– Strolling (low intensity) vines with a jump, deep squats and jogging.
–– Brisk walking (low to moderate) As before, the activities can be performed
to lively background music. Afterwards, ask
–– Sidestepping (low to moderate) pupils how they feel. Answers may include
–– Knee lifts (without jumps, low to moder- something like ‘out of breath’ or ‘unable to
ate; with jumps, moderate to high) keep going for very long’.
–– Jogging (moderate to high) •• Assign pairs or small groups of pupils
–– Hopping (moderate to high) selected moderate-intensity activities (one
–– Galloping (moderate to high) each). Ask each pair or group to adapt its
activity to vigorous intensity (e.g., by making
–– Skipping (moderate to high) the movements larger, deeper, quicker or
•• This series can be performed to lively back- higher). This activity can be performed to
ground music. Afterwards, ask pupils to rate lively background music. Afterwards, pupils
each of the activities from 1 to 10 in terms of can share their ideas with the class, and class
how much they enjoyed performing them. members can copy both the moderate ver-
•• Next, ask pupils how active children of their sion and the vigorous version presented by
age should be. Then ask them to form pairs each group.
or small groups and look around in the •• Ask pupils to stretch large muscles used in
area for cards (or sticky notes) stating how whole-body aerobic activities, such as the
active young people should be. Each pair or quadriceps, hamstrings, calves, abductors
group should collect three cards (in different and adductors. The stretching can be per-
colours, each colour representing part of the formed to calming background music.
guideline) and place them together to form •• Introduce pupils to an activity diary and
the complete guideline regarding physical request that they use it for four weeks.
activity for health for young people.
Ensure that pupils understand key terms –– Keep an activity diary for four to six
such as frequency, intensity and duration. weeks; record all of the activity you do
Ask pupils to write in today’s activity so that and its intensity and duration.
they become familiar with the format and The web resource for this chapter provides a Gear-
content of the diary. Remind them to bring ing Up for Activity worksheet associated with the
their diary to each lesson in this unit of work. unit of work in which this lesson is located.
Inform them that in future lessons, they will
be asked to reveal what their diary shows
about their activity patterns and habits. For
example, are they more active on weekdays
or at weekends? Are they as active as they
should be for their age?
ASSESSMENT OF HEALTH-RELATED
LEARNING
–– Discuss your favourite activities and why
you like them.
–– How much activity should young people
do?
–– What does ‘at least moderate intensity’
mean?
–– Give me examples of activities that are of
‘at least moderate intensity’.
–– Demonstrate moderate intensity and then
vigorous intensity.
–– Explain to a partner what ‘accumulated
over the course of a day’ means.

11
Health-Related
Learning for
14- to 16-Year-Olds
Chapter Objectives

▶▶ implement a variety of approaches to assess the health-related learning
of 14- to 16-year-olds;
▶▶ describe methods of monitoring the health, activity and fitness of 14-
to 16-year-olds; and
143
A s with younger pupils, older secondary-

school children need to learn about lead-
ing a healthy, active lifestyle in a manner that
choreography). In addition, learning outcomes
taught in separate health-related units of work
in PE should be connected closely with the rest
is structured, progressive and accessible to all of the PE curriculum and with the content and
pupils. The learning can be organised in multiple delivery of related subjects (e.g., science; food and
ways, including activity-based units of work in technology; personal, social, health and economic
PE and separate health-related units in PE. This [PSHE] education) and extracurricular and com-
chapter proposes relevant health-related learning munity activity experiences.
approaches for 14- to 16-year-olds and provides More specifically, the learning outcomes
you with guidance for assessing pupils’ learn- related to safety issues can be permeated through
ing. It also suggests methods for monitoring the activity-based units of work in PE. The learning
health, activity and fitness of 14- to 16-year-olds, outcomes related to exercise effects and health
such as health behaviour questionnaires, activity benefits can be either permeated through activity-
diaries and questionnaires, heart rate monitors, based units of work in PE or taught in additional
pedometers and accelerometers, and develop- health-related units of work. Explicit links should
mentally appropriate fitness tests. Finally, the be made with PSHE education for this age group,
chapter provides sample schemes, units of work which includes learning about where and how to
and lesson plans to help you create health-related obtain health information, advice and support
learning plans that ensure a comprehensive, and recognising and managing feelings about
coherent and meaningful approach to this impor- (and influences on) body image, including media
tant aspect of the curriculum. portrayals of idealised and artificial body shapes
(PSHE Association, 2014). The learning outcomes
related to activity promotion can be either per-
Health-Related Learning meated through PE units of work or taught in
additional health-related units of work. Here
Outcomes and Contexts again, explicit links should be made with PSHE
education for this age group, which in this case
As detailed in chapter 3, approaches to health- includes learning to take increased responsibility
related learning for the 5- to 16-year-old age group for monitoring one’s own health (PSHE Associa-
were debated and agreed on in England in 2000 tion, 2014).
by a working group comprising representatives of To ensure alignment with a whole-school
national PE, sport and health organisations. Table approach to health, including the promotion
11.1 presents specific health-related learning of physical activity, information about activity
outcomes for 14- to 16-year-olds; the outcomes opportunities on offer in the school and in the
are presented in four categories—safety issues, local community can be communicated to pupils
exercise effects, health benefits and activity pro- and their families in a multitude of ways (e.g.,
motion—to help clarify the scope and progression via newsletters, posters, parent mail, parent con-
of the learning. sultations, assemblies). In addition, the school
The learning content detailed in table 11.1 can website can have a dedicated Where to Be Active
be taught in a number of contexts. One approach section highlighting physical activity opportuni-
is to integrate it into or permeate it through ties at school and within a five-mile radius of the
activity-based units of work in PE (e.g., athletics, school; this section can also be used to connect
dance, games, gymnastics, outdoor education and support pupils (and families) involved in
and swimming lessons). Another approach is these activities.
to teach it in separate thematic units of work in
PE with a title such as Health-Related Exercise
or Promoting Active Lifestyles. A third option
is to combine the first two approaches. Limita-
Assessing Health-Related
tions in these approaches (discussed in chapter Learning
3) can be addressed by ensuring that learning
outcomes integrated into or permeated through Health-related learning can be assessed via writ-
activity-based units of work in PE are not lost ten, verbal and active responses to questions,
and do not take second place to other learning tasks and tests. In terms of focus, assessment
(e.g., skill development, tactical understanding, can address affective, behavioural or cognitive
•• Recognise and manage risk and apply safe exercise principles and procedures (e.g., not exercising
when unwell or injured; avoiding prolonged high-impact exercise; administering first aid, including
resuscitation techniques; avoiding excessive amounts of exercise).
•• Evaluate warm-ups and cool-downs in terms of safety, effectiveness and relevance to the specific
Safety issues activity and take responsibility for their own safe and effective preparation for and recovery from
activity.
•• Select, perform and evaluate exercises from a range of lifetime activities (e.g., jogging, swimming,
cycling, aerobics, step aerobics, circuit training, weight training) with an eye toward safety,
effectiveness and developmental appropriateness.
•• Explain that training exercises and practices affect performance and are activity specific.
•• Explain that training programmes develop both health-related components of physical and mental
Exercise effects fitness (cardiorespiratory fitness, muscular strength and endurance, flexibility, body composition,
composure and decision making) and skill-related components (agility, balance, coordination,
power, reaction time, speed, concentration and determination).
•• Explain that frequent and appropriate exercise enhances the physical, social and psychological
well-being of all individuals, regardless of age, able-bodiedness or disability, and the presence or
absence of health conditions (e.g., asthma, depression) and chronic disease (e.g., arthritis).
•• Explain that exercise can help one manage stress and contribute to a happy, healthy and balanced
lifestyle.
Health benefits
•• Plan, perform, monitor and evaluate a safe and effective health-related exercise programme that
meets their personal needs and preferences over an extended period of time (e.g., 6 to 12 weeks).
•• Access physical activity personnel (e.g., sport development officers, active school coordinators,
coaches, instructors), facilities (e.g., leisure centres; sport, health and fitness clubs) and services
(e.g., courses, projects, leaflets, pamphlets) in the local community.
aerobics, step aerobics, circuit training, weight training, skipping, aqua exercise).
•• Explain and demonstrate practical understanding of the key principles of exercise programming
and training, including
•• progression (developing the amount of exercise by gradually increasing frequency, intensity,
duration or a combination of these factors);
•• overload (progressively enabling the body to do more exercise than accustomed to);
Activity promotion
•• specificity (doing a particular exercise or sporting activity to benefit specific muscles, joints,
bones and energy systems);
•• balance, moderation and variety (maximising exercise benefits and minimising risks);
•• maintenance (establishing a routine, sustaining a commitment and coping with relapse);
•• reversibility (gradually losing the benefits of exercise if it is discontinued); and
•• cost–benefit ratio (weighing costs such as time, money, transport and sweat against benefits
such as maintaining body weight, feeling good and improving health and fitness).
•• Assess their own qualities, skills, achievements and potential so that they can set personal goals
that help them follow the activity recommendations for young people and develop a commitment to
an active lifestyle.
•• Explain constraints on being active and explore how to overcome them in order to access and
sustain involvement in activity.
145
(ABC) learning outcomes; for more on ABC out- answer episodes and through practical and active
comes, see chapter 3. Affective and behavioural tasks. Active assessment tasks are particularly
outcomes for 14- to 16-year-olds can be assessed encouraged because they increase activity levels
via teacher observation of effort and commitment in PE lessons (for more information about active
in PE lessons, as well as participation records for assessment, see chapter 3). Table 11.2 presents
PE lessons and extracurricular activities (using a range of methods for assessing the recom-
ratings such as excellent, good, satisfactory or mended health-related learning outcomes for
adequate, and low or inadequate). Cognitive 14- to 16-year-olds.
outcomes can be assessed through question-and-
TABLE 11.2 Methods of Assessing Health-Related Learning in 14- to

16-Year-Olds
•• Recognise and manage risk and apply safe •• Ask pupils questions such as these:
exercise principles and procedures (e.g., not •• Why is it advisable to avoid exercise when you
exercising when unwell or injured; avoiding feel unwell or are injured?
prolonged high-impact exercise; administering •• What are some possible effects of prolonged
first aid, including resuscitation techniques; high-impact exercise?
avoiding excessive amounts of exercise).
•• What would you do if a teammate bumped
•• Evaluate warm-ups and cool-downs in terms of heads with an opponent and collapsed to the
safety, effectiveness and relevance to the specific ground?
activity and take responsibility for their own safe
•• Discuss with a partner what might be
and effective preparation for and recovery from
problematic about excessive exercising.
activity.
•• What is involved in taking responsibility for
•• Select, perform and evaluate exercises from
your own safe and effective preparation for and
a range of lifetime activities (e.g., jogging,
recovery from activity?
swimming, cycling, aerobics, step aerobics,
circuit training, weight training) with an eye •• Observe a group’s warm-up and provide
toward safety, effectiveness and developmental feedback about its safety (e.g., occurs in an
appropriateness. area cleared of potential hazards; intensity built
up gradually), effectiveness (e.g., includes
Safety issues mobility exercises, aerobic activities and
stretches) and relevance (relates to the activity
to follow it).
•• What does the term ‘lifetime activity’ mean?
•• Name six lifetime activities.
•• Which lifetime activities do you do? Could you
do more?
as these:
•• Design and lead others through a warm-up
for badminton that includes movements used
in badminton and makes use of lines on a
badminton court.
•• In a small group, prepare yourselves for a 100-
metre sprint.
•• In a small group, plan and perform a cool-
down to follow an 800-metre run.
•• Demonstrate two lifetime activities.
•• Explain that training exercises and practices •• Ask pupils questions such as these:
affect performance and are activity specific. •• What sorts of exercises and practices would
•• Explain that training programmes develop you expect to see in football training sessions?
both health-related components of physical How and why might they differ from cricket
and mental fitness (cardiorespiratory fitness, training sessions?
muscular strength and endurance, flexibility, •• In what ways can training affect performance?
body composition, composure and decision •• Name the health-related components of fitness.
making) and skill-related components (agility,
•• Name two components of fitness associated
balance, coordination, power, reaction time,
with mental health.
speed, concentration and determination).
•• How is flexibility associated with health?
•• Name the skill-related components of fitness.
•• Talk with a partner about the differences
between health-related and skill-related
Exercise effects components of fitness.
•• Which of the following components of fitness
are health related: cardiorespiratory fitness,
balance, body composition, power?
•• Which two of the following components of
fitness are skill related: agility, muscular
strength and endurance, flexibility, reaction
time?
as these:
•• Mime each of the skill-related components of
fitness.
•• Pair up and take turns acting out a health-
related or skill-related component of fitness
while your partner guesses the component.
•• Explain that frequent and appropriate exercise •• Ask pupils questions such as these:
enhances the physical, social and psychological •• What are the physical benefits of physical
well-being of all individuals, regardless of age, activity?
able-bodiedness or disability, and the presence •• Talk with a partner about the social benefits of
or absence of health conditions (e.g., asthma, being active.
depression) and chronic disease (e.g., arthritis).
•• How can physical activity benefit psychological
•• Explain that exercise can help one manage stress well-being?
and contribute to a happy, healthy and balanced
•• Is physical activity beneficial to people of all
lifestyle.
ages? Support your answer with examples.
•• Appreciate the risks associated with a sedentary
•• Name some activities that can help one
lifestyle and with excessive behaviour (e.g.,
manage stress and anxiety.
•• What are the risks of a sedentary lifestyle?
•• Identify how each activity area (e.g., gymnastics,
Health benefits •• How might overexercising be a problem?
swimming, athletics) can contribute to specific
components of health-related fitness; for •• In a small group, match components of health-
example, gymnastics involves weight-bearing related fitness to relevant activity areas.
actions and thus develops muscular strength and •• Which activity area contributes most to
endurance. cardiorespiratory fitness?
•• Involve pupils in active assessment tasks such as
the following:
•• Jog with a partner and chat about how
being active can assist in healthy weight
management.
•• Walk briskly in a pair or small group and
discuss how regular physical activity can help
to reduce stress.
(continued)
147

•• Plan, perform, monitor and evaluate a safe and •• Ask pupils questions such as these:
effective health-related exercise programme that •• What activities do you enjoy doing?
meets their personal needs and preferences over •• What are your activity needs?
an extended period of time (e.g., 6 to 12 weeks).
•• Discuss with a partner the various sources
•• Access physical activity personnel (e.g., sport of information available about activity
development officers, active school coordinators, opportunities in the local community.
coaches, instructors), facilities (e.g., leisure
•• What makes lifetime activities beneficial?
centres; sport, health and fitness clubs) and
services (e.g., courses, projects, leaflets, •• How can you achieve progression in an
pamphlets) in the local community. exercise programme?
•• Demonstrate a range of lifetime physical •• What does overload mean in relation to
activities (e.g., walking, jogging, swimming, exercise?
cycling, aerobics, step aerobics, circuit training, •• Discuss with a partner what specificity means
weight training, skipping, aqua exercise). and share some examples with the class.
•• Explain and demonstrate practical understanding •• Why are balance, moderation and variety
of the key principles of exercise programming important when planning an exercise
and training, including programme?
•• progression (developing the amount of •• What helps people maintain an exercise
exercise by gradually increasing frequency, programme?
intensity, duration or a combination of these •• What does reversibility mean in relation to
factors); exercise?
Activity •• overload (progressively enabling the body to •• With a partner, weigh up the costs and
promotion do more exercise than accustomed to); benefits of following a three-month exercise
•• specificity (doing a particular exercise or programme.
sporting activity to benefit specific muscles, •• Set personal activity goals, taking into
joints, bones and energy systems); consideration your current activity levels,
•• balance, moderation and variety (maximising abilities and preferences.
exercise benefits and minimising risks); •• Involve pupils in active assessment tasks such
•• maintenance (establishing a routine, sustaining as these:
a commitment and coping with relapse); •• Show me where you can find information
•• reversibility (gradually losing the benefits of about activity opportunities in the local
exercise if it is discontinued); and community.
•• cost–benefit ratio (weighing costs such as •• Walk and jog with a partner while talking about
time, money, transport and sweat against barriers and constraints related to being active
benefits such as maintaining body weight, and how to overcome them.
feeling good and improving health and fitness). •• Plan, perform, monitor and evaluate a safe and
•• Assess their own qualities, skills, achievements effective health-related exercise programme for
and potential so that they can set personal a school term that meets your personal needs
goals that help them follow the activity and preferences.
recommendations for young people and develop
a commitment to an active lifestyle.
•• Explain constraints on being active and explore
how to overcome them in order to access and
sustain involvement in activity.
Monitoring Health, Activity children’s physical, mental and social health

and by the trend towards sedentary living that
and Fitness marks a more technologically advanced world.
These issues are addressed in part I of this book,
The rationale for monitoring children’s health, whereas part II covers developmentally and
activity and fitness has been strengthened in pedagogically appropriate approaches to moni-
recent years both by increased concern about toring within the curriculum in order to promote
healthy, active lifestyles among children. The •• What might help the person do so?
following examples are appropriate for use with •• What might prevent him or her from doing
14- to 16-year-olds. so?
Pupils could also be encouraged to write a

Monitoring Health short narrative, profile or blog paragraph about
We can help children become more aware of their their own lifestyle. These responses could be
lifestyles by using health behaviour question- used anonymously to discuss what it means to
naires that offer a selection of responses (e.g., be healthy, how health is affected by factors both
always, mostly, sometimes, never) to questions within and beyond an individual’s control and
such as the following: what can be done both collectively and individu-
ally to improve public health.
•• Do you drink about six glasses of water per When conducting such discussions, be sensi-
day? tive to the fact that children of all ages (including
•• Do you get enough sleep (about 8 to 10 hours older secondary-age children) have no control
per night)? over major factors that influence their health—for
•• Do you usually remain in control of your example, genetics, environment (e.g., pollution,
emotions? poverty) and family modelling. In addition, they
•• Can you adequately cope with the day-to- have only partial control over other key factors,
day pressures and stresses of your work and including what they eat and drink and how active
personal life? they are. So, whilst children can learn about lead-
ing a healthy lifestyle (and the consequences of
•• Are you active for about an hour every day?
not doing so), they should also be aware of which
Chapter 4 provides an example of a health factors influencing their health lie beyond their
behaviour questionnaire suitable for secondary- control and which ones they have some control
age pupils; it can be used to calculate a health over. Furthermore, leading a healthy lifestyle
score linked to generic feedback such as the can cost more in terms of purchasing healthy
following: ‘Oh dear, it seems that you lead an foods and drinks and accessing physical activity
unhealthy lifestyle and are likely to suffer the opportunities (e.g., after-school or holiday clubs)
consequences, now and in the future. You should that require payment. As a consequence, children
consider choosing a much healthier lifestyle by from low-income families may be disadvantaged
improving on many of your habits’. Engaging in comparison with their peers and, where pos-
children in the process of self-reflection enhances sible, should be offered free or low-cost opportu-
learning and helps children to set measurable nities to consume healthy meals and drinks and
targets for improvement. Here are a few sample to be active.
questions to ask 14- to 16-year-olds: ‘What does
your overall health score tell you? Are there Monitoring Activity
parts of your health that you cannot change? If
yes, which parts are they, and what is stopping As described in chapter 5, children’s physical
you from changing them? On a scale of 0 to 10, activity can be monitored through a number
how confident are you that you will be able to of methods. One appropriate method for 14- to
improve your health over the next three months?’ 16-year-olds involves self-reporting—for example,
Additional examples of self-reflection questions keeping a physical activity diary for as long as
are provided in chapter 4. a school term (for examples of activity diaries
Responses to these questions can be used to suitable for this age group, see the web resource
trigger discussions among pupils about ways to for chapter 5). More-formal self-report instru-
lead a healthy lifestyle, as well as relevant barriers ments suitable for use with secondary-age chil-
and facilitators. Pupils aged 14 to 16 could also dren include the Previous Day Physical Activity
be involved in reviewing case study examples of Recall (PDPAR), the Three-Day Physical Activity
young people’s lifestyles (available for printing Recall (3DPAR), the Physical Activity Question-
from the web resource for chapter 4) and consid- naire for Children (PAQ-C) or for Adolescents
ering answers to the following questions: (PAQ-A), the Youth Risk Behaviour Surveillance
System (YRBSS) and the Teen Health Survey.
•• How healthy is this person? For more information about these instruments,
•• What, if anything, could this person do to see Trost (2007) and Biddle, Gorely, Pearson,
improve his or her health? & Bull (2011). Additional methods suitable for
14- to 16-year-olds include the use of pedom- healthy lifestyles. This approach links with the
eters, accelerometers and heart rate monitors UK-wide physical activity guideline that children
(i.e., chest-strap transmitters paired with a wrist and young people should minimise the amount of
receiver or mobile phone); for a discussion of the time spent being sedentary (for more information
advantages and disadvantages of these methods, about this and other guidelines, see chapter 1).
see chapter 5. In recent years, accelerometers Young people’s responses to questions such as
have also been developed into popular wearable ‘When and where are you sedentary for extended
electronic devices (e.g., Fitbit) that monitor physi- periods of time?’ and ‘In what ways could this sed-
cal activity and provide additional information entary time be reduced or broken up?’ can be used
and feedback on specific aspects of activity. to promote discussion about the consequences of
You can encourage pupils to reflect on their prolonged sedentary behaviour, as well as ways in
activity levels by asking questions such as the which the school and local environments could
following: Do you usually take part in some encourage less sedentary behaviour.
moderate to vigorous activity each day? Are you Whilst obtaining a precise measure of physical
active enough for your age? On a scale of 0 to 5, activity is important for research purposes, it is
how motivated do you feel to be more active over less crucial for teachers, whose main concerns
the next month? (For more examples appropriate relate to the educational value of the monitoring
for secondary-age children, see the web resource experience and its ease of use, feasibility and cost.
for chapter 5). From a pedagogical perspective, it is considered
You may also want to incorporate questions more important to ensure that pupils enjoy, learn
about sedentary behaviour into discussions about and benefit from the monitoring experience
Teachers can help older secondary school children to appreciate the benefits of and to adopt healthy, active
lifestyles.
than to worry unduly about the precision of the Emphasise helping pupils enjoy and learn from
method (Cale & Harris, 2009b). This learning the experience and strive to improve on their
can include knowing how to incorporate physical own personal-best scores. Submaximal tests are
activity into their lifestyles, knowing how to get recommended for this age group—for example,
involved in organised activities and reflecting on the step test and the mini bleep test for cardio-
their activity strengths and preferences. respiratory fitness and differentiated versions of
Pupils should be encouraged to think of ways exercises for muscular strength and endurance
in which they could be more physically active at (e.g., curl-up, push-up). The web resource for
school, at home and in the local community. Their chapter 6 provides descriptions of these tests,
responses can be used to prompt discussion about as well as recommendations to consider before,
healthy, active lifestyles, including consideration during and after implementing them. Once fitness
of what helps and what hinders their participation testing is complete, ask pupils to reflect on the
in physical activity. Pupils can also be encouraged experience and on their scores. The web resource
to discuss and critique visual images in the media for chapter 6 provides examples of appropriate
in order to challenge common misunderstandings questions for secondary-age children, such as the
and misconceptions about physical activity—for following: How do you feel about your scores?
example, believing that routine, habitual activities Were they as you expected, or were there any
(e.g., walking to school or the shops) provide no surprises? Are there areas of fitness where you
health benefits and that competitive sport offers feel you need to improve? If so, which ones?
the greatest health benefits (see chapter 1 for What are your views about fitness monitoring?
a discussion of young people’s inaccurate and Are there pros and cons?
inadequate understandings of health, fitness and All children aged 14 to 16 years should be
physical activity). helped to understand that fitness is developed
by being physically active and is associated with
good health. This message is consistent with the
Monitoring Fitness goal of influencing the process (being active)
As discussed in chapter 6, fitness testing is con- rather than the product (fitness) (Cale & Harris,
troversial in a school setting, and before using 2009b). In addition, pupils can be encouraged
it with children we must consider a number of to discuss and critique images from the media
issues and limitations. Fitness monitoring can be relating to fitness in order to challenge any mis-
considered a valuable component of the curricu- understandings and misconceptions that they
lum if it is developmentally appropriate; offers a may have about fitness—for example, believing
positive, educational experience for all learners; that one must be good at sport in order to be fit
and helps promote healthy, active lifestyles (Asso- or that fitness is about being thin (see chapter 1
ciation for Physical Education, 2015a, 2015b; for a discussion of young people’s inaccurate and
Cale, 2016; Cale & Harris, 2009a, 2009b; Cale, inadequate understandings of health, fitness and
Harris, & Chen, 2014; Lloyd, Colley, & Tremblay, physical activity).
2010; Rowland, 2007; Silverman, Keating, &
Phillips, 2008).
It is not essential for children aged 14 to 16 Health-Related Learning
to be involved in formal fitness testing in order
for them to learn that certain activities develop Plans for 14- to 16-Year-Olds
fitness (e.g., aerobics improves cardiorespiratory
fitness; back raises and twisting curl-ups improve Long-term health-related plans generally take the
strength and endurance in specific muscle form of a scheme of work over a number of years.
groups). These associations can be taught in PE In the case of 14- to 16-year-olds, the duration of
lessons, where children learn, for example, that the scheme of work is two academic years. Ide-
aqua aerobics and table tennis help improve their ally, the health-related learning should sit within
cardiorespiratory fitness, flexibility and muscular a whole-school approach to the promotion of
strength and endurance. health (see chapter 2) and can be taught within
If you choose to involve 14- to 16-year-olds in a number of contexts—for example, integrating
formal fitness testing, select the tests carefully it into activity-based units of work in PE and into
and teach them in a positive, supportive setting. separate, thematic health-related units of work in
LINKING CURRICULUM AND COMMUNITY

A secondary school in the Midlands undertook a review of its PE provision for older pupils. Teachers were
keen to ensure that the PE curriculum for 14- to 16-year-olds helped pupils make links with activity oppor-
tunities in the community in order to increase the proportion choosing to be active, both in their own time
whilst at school and outside of school. As part of this process, teachers undertook focus group discussions
with pupils in order to take into consideration their views. Following the review, in the first few lessons of
the autumn term, 14-year-old pupils were given activity journals to maintain throughout the next two years.
They were guided to record short-, medium- and long-term personal activity goals and select activities for
each term of the two-year period to help them meet their goals.
Discussion points: What are the advantages of ensuring close links between curriculum and community
opportunities for older pupils? What types of short-, medium- and long-term physical activity goals are
appropriate for this age range?
The range of activities on offer involved making good use of nearby leisure and sport facilities, including
a dance school, a swimming pool, a golf course, a horse-riding school and a bowling green. The activities
were co-delivered by teachers and trained coaches and activity instructors. In order to increase the range of
activities offered, a number of non-PE teachers with coaching qualifications were also involved. Personnel
at the external activity venues provided pupils with information (i.e., brochures, leaflets) about how to join
existing activities, and some gave presentations to pupils during the two-year period.
Discussion points: Why do you think the activities were co-delivered by teachers and trained coaches
and activity instructors? What are the potential benefits of this type of programme for schools and for the
external agencies involved? What drawbacks or limitations might there be?
Towards the end of the programme’s second year, focus group discussions were conducted with pupils
to ascertain their views on the PE provision they had received. The pupils were generally positive about
the changes and the increased range of opportunities. Many had used community facilities during the pro-
gramme of which they had previously been unaware, and some had used these facilities outside of school
time.
At the same time, a number of issues were identified, including relatively low uptake and monitoring
of the activity journals over the two years, as well as too few places being available in some activities that
were particularly popular. In addition, the costs of activities varied, and staff concluded that increased fund-
ing was needed to support the continuation of more expensive activities (e.g., golf, horse riding). They also
decided that involving more non-PE staff would increase the appeal of the programme by extending the
opportunities on offer. Finally, they decided to make a case to the school governors for funding to support
the development of the programme, including the costs of coaching courses for non-PE staff who were
keen to further develop a sporting hobby or interest and obtain a coaching qualification.
Discussion points: What might be the reasons for the relatively low uptake and monitoring of the activity
journals? Is this aspect of the programme worth developing further? Why, or why not? If so, how might
it be developed? What are your views on increasing the involvement of non-PE teachers in curriculum PE
provision?
PE. Learning outcomes that are integrated into or comes addressed through separate health-related
permeated through activity-based units of work units of work in PE should relate closely to the
in PE should not be lost or allowed to take second rest of the PE curriculum and to the content and
place to other learning (e.g., skill development, delivery of related subjects (e.g., science, food
tactical understanding, choreography), and out- technology, PSHE education).

The health-related learning identified in this example spans two academic years and is taught through
activity-based units of work in PE in combination with separate, thematic health-related units of work
in PE called Promoting Active Lifestyles (PAL). This learning sits within a whole-school approach to
health that aims to achieve healthy lifestyles for the entire school population by developing a support-
ive environment that is conducive to promoting health through the curriculum, the environment and
the community.
HEALTH-RELATED LEARNING OUTCOMES •• What are some possible effects of pro-

longed high-impact exercise?
•• Recognise and manage risk and apply safe
•• What would you do if a teammate bumped
exercise principles and procedures (e.g., not
heads with an opponent and collapsed to
exercising when unwell or injured; avoiding
the ground?
prolonged high-impact exercise; admin-
istering first aid, including resuscitation •• Discuss with a partner what might be prob-
techniques; avoiding excessive amounts of lematic about excessive exercising.
exercise). •• What is involved in taking responsibility for
•• Evaluate warm-ups and cool-downs in terms your own safe and effective preparation for
of safety, effectiveness and relevance to the and recovery from activity?
specific activity and take responsibility for •• Observe a group’s warm-up and provide
their own safe and effective preparation for feedback about its safety (e.g., occurs in
and recovery from activity an area cleared of potential hazards; builds
•• Select, perform and evaluate exercises from intensity gradually), effectiveness (includes
a range of lifetime activities (e.g., jogging, mobility exercises, aerobic activities and
swimming, cycling, aerobics, step aerobics, stretches) and relevance (relates to the activ-
circuit training, weight training) with an eye ity to follow it).
toward safety, effectiveness and develop- •• What does the term ‘lifetime activity’ mean?
mental appropriateness. •• Name six lifetime activities.
HEALTH-RELATED LEARNING CONTEXT •• Which lifetime activities do you do? Could
you do more?
These learning outcomes are taught in activity-
based units of work in curriculum PE with explicit Involve pupils in active assessment tasks such as
links to safety issues that arise within extracurricular the following:
and community settings (e.g., applying safe exercise •• Design and lead others through a warm-up
principles and procedures, taking responsibility for for badminton that includes movements
safe and effective preparation for and recovery from used in badminton and makes use of lines
activity, performing lifetime activities). on a badminton court.
•• In a small group, prepare for a 100-metre
METHODS OF ASSESSING HEALTH- sprint.
RELATED LEARNING OUTCOMES •• In a small group, plan and perform a cool-
Ask pupils questions such as the following: down to follow an 800-metre run.
•• Why is it best to avoid exercise when you •• Demonstrate two lifetime activities.
feel unwell or are injured?
HEALTH-RELATED LEARNING OUTCOMES •• In what ways can training affect perfor-

mance?
•• Explain that training exercises and practices
•• Name the health-related components of fit-
affect performance and are activity specific.
ness.
•• Explain that training programmes develop
•• Name two components of fitness associated
both health-related components of physical
with mental health.
and mental fitness (cardiorespiratory fitness,
muscular strength and endurance, flexibility, •• How is flexibility associated with health?
body composition, composure and decision •• Name the skill-related components of fit-
making) and skill-related components (agil- ness.
ity, balance, coordination, power, reaction •• Talk with a partner about the differences
time, speed, concentration and determina- between health-related and skill-related
tion). components of fitness.
HEALTH-RELATED LEARNING CONTEXT •• Which of the following components of fit-
ness are health related: cardiorespiratory
These learning outcomes are taught in activity- fitness, balance, body composition, power?
based and health-related units of work in curriculum
PE with explicit links to related learning in PSHE, •• Which two of the following components
science and food technology. of fitness are skill related: agility, muscular
strength and endurance, flexibility, reaction
METHODS OF ASSESSING HEALTH- time?
RELATED LEARNING OUTCOMES Involve pupils in active assessment tasks such as
the following:
•• Mime each of the skill-related components
•• What sorts of exercises and practices would
of fitness.
you expect to see in football training ses-
sions? How and why might they differ from •• Pair up and take turns acting out a health-
cricket training sessions? related or skill-related component of fitness
while your partner guesses the component.
HEALTH-RELATED LEARNING OUTCOMES •• Appreciate the risks associated with a sed-

entary lifestyle and with excessive behaviour
•• Explain that frequent and appropriate (e.g., overexercising, disordered eating).
exercise enhances the physical, social and
•• Identify how each activity area (e.g., gym-
psychological well-being of all individu-
nastics, swimming, athletics) can contribute
als, regardless of age, able-bodiedness or
to specific components of health-related
disability, and the presence or absence of
fitness; for example, gymnastics involves
health conditions (e.g., asthma, depression)
weight-bearing actions and thus develops
and chronic disease (e.g., arthritis).
muscular strength and endurance.
•• Explain that exercise can help one manage
stress and contribute to a happy, healthy
and balanced lifestyle.
HEALTH-RELATED LEARNING CONTEXT •• Name some activities that can help one
These learning outcomes are taught in health- manage stress and anxiety.
related units of work in PE called Promoting Active •• What are the risks of a sedentary lifestyle?
Lifestyles (PAL) with explicit links to learning in •• How might overexercising be a problem?
activity-based units of work in PE and in PSHE.
•• In a small group, match components of
health-related fitness to each activity area.
METHODS OF ASSESSING HEALTH-
RELATED LEARNING OUTCOMES •• Which activity area contributes most to car-
diorespiratory fitness?
Involve pupils in active assessment tasks such as
•• What are the physical benefits of physical the following:
activity?
•• Jog with a partner while chatting about how
•• Talk with a partner about the social benefits being active can assist with healthy weight
of being active. management.
•• How can physical activity benefit psychologi- •• Walk briskly in a pair or small group and
cal well-being? discuss how activity can help people to feel
•• Is physical activity beneficial to people of all better about themselves.
ages? Support your answer with examples.
HEALTH-RELATED LEARNING OUTCOMES quency, intensity, duration or a combina-

tion of these factors);
•• Plan, perform, monitor and evaluate a safe
–– overload (progressively enabling the
and effective health-related exercise pro-
body to do more exercise than accus-
gramme that meets their personal needs
tomed to);
and preferences over an extended period of
time (e.g., 6 to 12 weeks). –– specificity (doing a particular exercise or
sporting activity to benefit specific mus-
•• Access physical activity personnel (e.g.,
cles, joints, bones and energy systems);
sport development officers, active school
coordinators, coaches, instructors), facili- –– balance, moderation and variety (maxi-
ties (e.g., leisure centres; sport, health and mising exercise benefits and minimising
fitness clubs) and services (e.g., courses, risks);
projects, leaflets, pamphlets) in the local –– maintenance (establishing a routine, sus-
community. taining a commitment and coping with
•• Demonstrate a range of lifetime physical relapse);
activities (e.g., walking, jogging, swimming, –– reversibility (gradually losing the benefits
cycling, aerobics, step aerobics, circuit train- of exercise if it is discontinued); and
ing, weight training, skipping, aqua exer- –– cost–benefit ratio (weighing costs such as
cise). time, money, transport and sweat against
•• Explain and demonstrate practical under- benefits such as maintaining body weight,
standing of the key principles of exercise feeling good and improving health and
programming and training, including fitness).
–– progression (developing the amount •• Assess their own qualities, skills, achieve-
of exercise by gradually increasing fre- ments and potential so that they can set
personal goals that help them follow the
activity recommendations for young people •• Discuss with a partner what specificity means
and develop a commitment to an active life- in relation to exercise and think of some
style. examples to share with the class.
•• Explain constraints on being active and •• Why are balance, moderation and variety
explore how to overcome them in order to important when planning an exercise pro-
access and sustain involvement in activity. gramme?
•• What helps people maintain an exercise
HEALTH-RELATED LEARNING CONTEXT programme?
These learning outcomes are taught in health- •• What does reversibility mean in relation to
related units of work in PE called Promoting Active exercise?
Lifestyles (PAL) with explicit links to learning in
•• With a partner, weigh up the costs and ben-
activity-based units of work in PE and in PSHE.
efits of following a three-month exercise
METHODS OF ASSESSING HEALTH- programme.
RELATED LEARNING OUTCOMES •• Set personal activity goals, taking into con-
sideration your current activity levels, abili-
Ask questions such as the following:
ties and preferences.
•• What activities do you enjoy doing?
Involve pupils in active assessment tasks such as
•• What are your activity needs? the following:
•• Discuss with a partner the sources of infor- •• Show me where you can find information
mation available about activity opportunities about activity opportunities in the local com-
in the local community. munity.
•• What makes lifetime activities beneficial? •• Walk and jog with a partner while talking
•• How can you achieve progression in an exer- about barriers and constraints related to
cise programme? being active and how to overcome them.
•• What does overload mean in relation to •• Plan, perform, monitor and evaluate a safe
exercise? and effective health-related exercise pro-
gramme for a school term that meets your
personal needs and preferences.
Medium-term plans for health-related learning generally take the form of units of work over the
course a school term (usually 10 to 14 weekly lessons) or parts of a term (usually 4 to 7 weekly lessons).
These units of work are likely to be within the subject of PE (activity based and health related) with
explicit links to learning in related subjects such as PSHE education, science and food technology.

The following example presents a six-lesson, topic-based unit called Promoting Active Lifestyles (PAL)
and outlines selected learning outcomes for activity promotion for 14- and 15-year-olds. It also covers
learning activities to address the outcomes, as well as suggested methods for assessing pupils’ learning.
The learning in this unit is cross-referenced to related learning in activity-based units of work in PE.
ACTIVITY PROMOTION and in the community. Check that pupils

know where to find information about activ-
•• Plan, perform, monitor and evaluate a safe ity opportunities in the community, including
and effective health-related exercise pro- whom to ask. Encourage them to make sure
gramme that meets personal needs and that their programme includes habitual, rou-
preferences over an extended period of tine and lifetime activities.
time (e.g., 6 to 12 weeks).
•• In the next lesson, ask pupils to work in pairs
•• Access physical activity personnel (e.g., or small groups to complete the Everyday
sport development officers, active school Activities Task found in the web resource.
coordinators, coaches, instructors), facili- This task guides them in designing and
ties (e.g., leisure centres; sport, health and
fitness clubs) and services (e.g., courses,
projects, leaflets, pamphlets) in the local
community.
•• Demonstrate a range of lifetime physical
activities (e.g., walking, jogging, swimming,
cycling, aerobics, step aerobics, circuit train-
ing, weight training, skipping, aqua exer-
cise).
HEALTH-RELATED LEARNING ACTIVITIES

•• Lead pupils through a task in which they
perform exercises of increasing intensity
(e.g., alternate knee raises without a jump,
grapevines without a jump, squats and tuck
jumps). After each exercise, ask pupils to
describe its intensity as either easy (low or
light intensity), comfortable (low or light
intensity to moderate intensity), a little hard
(moderate intensity), very hard (moderate
to high or vigorous intensity), or exhausting
(high or vigorous intensity).
•• During the activity, ask the following: What
does intensity mean? Are the descriptions
the same for each exercise? Why is this?
•• Ask pupils to complete the following pro-
gressive tasks on the Cardio Activity Task
sheet found in the web resource:
–– Impact circuit
–– Impact and intensity circuit
•• Afterwards, ask pupils to perform stretches
for the major muscle groups in the impact
and intensity circuit.
•• Towards the end of the first lesson, provide
pupils with an activity journal that guides
them in designing an activity programme
that meets their personal needs and prefer-
ences. Ask them to plan and maintain their
activity programme for a school term and to
record the frequency, duration and intensity
of the activity they do at school, at home
performing a circuit of exercises to tone –– What activities do you enjoy doing?

and strengthen the major muscle groups –– What are your activity needs?
involved in everyday activities (e.g., stand-
–– Discuss with a partner the sources of
ing; climbing stairs; sitting down; getting up;
information available about activity
and lifting, lowering, pulling and pushing
opportunities in the local community.
objects).
–– What makes lifetime activities beneficial?
•• During the circuit, ask pupils to think about
how toning and strengthening these muscle •• Towards the end of the unit of work, involve
groups assists with everyday activities. pupils in active assessment tasks such as the
following:
•• Ask pupils to perform stretches for the major
muscle groups used in the everyday activi- –– Show me where you can find information
ties circuit. about activity opportunities in the local
community.
ASSESSMENT OF HEALTH-RELATED –– Plan, perform, monitor and evaluate a
LEARNING safe and effective health-related exercise
programme for a school term that meets
•• Towards the end of the unit of work, ask your personal needs and preferences.
ACTIVITY PROMOTION HEALTH-RELATED LEARNING ACTIVITIES

•• Explain and demonstrate practical under- •• Ask pupils to work in pairs or small groups
standing of the key principles of exercise to match key principles of exercise program-
programming and training, including ming and training written on a set of cards
–– progression (developing the amount (e.g., progression, overload, specificity,
of exercise by gradually increasing fre- reversibility, maintenance) with their descrip-
quency, intensity, duration or a combina- tions written on a different set of cards.
tion of these factors); Afterwards, ask questions to check pupils’
understanding of these terms and how the
–– overload (progressively enabling the
principles can be applied when designing
body to do more exercise than accus-
exercise and training programmes.
tomed to);
•• Ask pupils to work in pairs or small groups to
–– specificity (doing a particular exercise or
complete a sport performance task. The task
sporting activity to benefit specific mus-
should guide them to design and perform a
cles, joints, bones and energy systems);
circuit of exercises to strengthen the major
–– balance, moderation and variety (maxi- muscle groups used in basketball actions
mising exercise benefits and minimising (e.g., jumping high, lunging and dodging
risks); from side to side, sprinting, jogging, throw-
–– maintenance (establishing a routine, sus- ing, shooting, travelling).
taining a commitment and coping with •• During the sport performance circuit, ask
relapse); pupils to think about how strengthening
–– reversibility (gradually losing the benefits these muscle groups can help improve their
of exercise if it is discontinued); and performance in basketball.
–– cost–benefit ratio (weighing costs such as •• Ask pupils to perform stretches for the major
time, money, transport and sweat against muscle groups used in basketball.
benefits such as maintaining body weight,
feeling good and improving health and
fitness).
•• In the next lesson, ask pupils to work in pairs ASSESSMENT OF HEALTH-RELATED

or small groups to design and perform a LEARNING
circuit of exercises to strengthen the major
muscle groups involved in an activity or •• Towards the end of the unit of work, ask
sport of their choice. pupils questions such as the following:
•• During the circuit, ask pupils to think about –– How can you achieve progression in an
how strengthening these muscle groups exercise programme?
can help improve their performance in their –– What does overload mean in relation to
selected activity or sport. exercise?
•• Ask pupils to perform stretches for the major –– Discuss with a partner what specificity
muscle groups used in their selected activity means in relation to exercise and think of
or sport. some examples to share with the class.
•• Ask pupils to consider the importance of –– Why are balance, moderation and variety
balance, moderation and variety in exercise important when planning an exercise pro-
and training programmes and the cost–ben- gramme?
efit ratio of activity or exercise programmes. –– What helps people maintain an exercise
This discussion should address ways to programme?
ensure that programmes are interesting,
–– What does reversibility mean in relation
manageable and worthwhile.
to exercise?
–– With a partner, weigh up the costs and
benefits of following a three-month exer-
cise programme.
ACTIVITY PROMOTION cises (either with or without free dumbbells

or elastics). Whilst pupils are involved in
•• Assess their own qualities, skills, achieve- these activities, look over their activity jour-
ments and potential so that they can set nals and discuss their personal activity goals
personal goals that help them follow the with them.
activity recommendations for young people
•• During the final lesson, ask pupils to walk
and develop a commitment to an active life-
and jog with a partner while talking about
style.
barriers and constraints to being active and
•• Explain constraints on being active and how to overcome them. This discussion
explore how to overcome them in order to should address what individuals and groups
access and sustain involvement in activity. can do to address the barriers and con-
straints. Facilitate the sharing of responses
HEALTH-RELATED LEARNING ACTIVITIES with the class.
•• In pairs, ask pupils to look over each other’s
activity journals in order to ascertain current ASSESSMENT OF HEALTH-RELATED
activity levels and discuss personal activity LEARNING
goals. Is the partner meeting the age-spe-
cific recommendation for physical activity for
health? If not, how can the partner increase
his or her activity to work towards meeting –– Set personal activity goals, taking into
the recommendation over time? consideration your current activity levels,
abilities and preferences.
•• During these lessons, give pupils a choice
of activities, such as brisk walking, jogging, –– What can you do in the next month to
skipping, and toning or strengthening exer- increase the amount of activity you do?
•• Towards the end of the unit of work, involve –– Walk and talk with a partner about how
pupils in active assessment tasks such as the you might be able to help each other to
following: be more active.
–– Walk and jog with a partner while talking
about barriers and constraints to being
active and how to overcome them.
health-related learning outcomes that sit within units or blocks of work. The following example is a lesson
plan for 15- and 16-year-olds that outlines learning outcomes for safety issues within an activity-based
unit of work (focused on evaluating warm-ups), as well as learning activities to address the outcomes
and suggested methods of assessing the learning.
SAFETY ISSUES ton, using a racket, a shuttlecock or lines on

the court).
•• Evaluate warm-ups in terms of safety, effec-
•• Afterwards, ask the pupils in each group
tiveness and relevance to the specific activity
to lead another small group through their
and take responsibility for their own safe
warm-up. The group being led then evalu-
and effective preparation for activity.
ates the warm-up by responding to the fol-
HEALTH-RELATED LEARNING ACTIVITIES lowing questions:
1. Was the area clear of potential hazards
•• Ask pupils to discuss in pairs or small groups during the warm-up?
what is involved in taking responsibility for
one’s own safe and effective preparation for 2. Did the intensity of the warm-up build
activity. gradually?
•• Ask pupils to work in small groups to design 3. Did the warm-up include developmentally
a warm-up for an aerobic activity announced appropriate mobility exercises, aerobic
by the teacher. Prompt them to consider activities and stretches?
issues associated with safety (occurs in an 4. In what ways was the warm-up related to
area free of hazards; increases intensity the activity to follow it?
gradually), effectiveness (incorporates devel- 5. How might the warm-up be improved?
opmentally appropriate mobility exercises, •• Following the warm-up, involve pupils in the
aerobic activities and stretches) and rel- lesson activity.
evance (relates to the activity to follow it in
terms of the joints mobilised, the aerobic •• Towards the end of the lesson, ask pupils to
activities selected and the muscle groups perform a cool-down that involves low-inten-
stretched). Relevance can also be enhanced sity aerobic activities and static stretches of
by making use of the equipment and area the major muscle groups used in the activity.
associated with the activity (e.g., for badmin-
ASSESSMENT OF HEALTH-RELATED
LEARNING
•• What is involved in taking responsibility for
your own safe and effective preparation for
activity?
•• What makes a warm-up safe?
•• What makes a warm-up effective?
•• What makes a warm-up relevant?
•• Design and lead others through a warm-up
for a specific activity.
•• Observe a group’s warm-up and then pro-
vide feedback on its safety, effectiveness
and relevance.
This lesson can be facilitated by using the form
titled Evaluating a Warm-Up in the web resource
for this chapter.
Summary One good way to start is to develop health-related

important aspect of the curriculum in way that health, activity and fitness through methods that
of schooling and be accessible to every pupil.
Glossary
accessibility—Full entitlement to the curriculum diabetes—Condition in which the amount of
by all pupils; a responsibility of teachers. glucose (sugar) in the blood is too high either
active pedagogies—Teaching and learning because the pancreas does not produce any or
approaches that increase pupils’ level of activity enough insulin or because the insulin produced
during lessons. does not work properly.
affective outcome—Outcome related to feelings energy balance—Relationship between energy
and attitudes (e.g., positive attitude toward physi- intake and energy expenditure.
cal education). energy expenditure—Amount of energy (i.e.,
asthma—Long-term inflammatory disease of the number of calories) used in functions such as
airways characterised by episodes of wheezing, breathing, digestion and movement.
coughing, chest tightness and shortness of breath. entitlement—Fundamental right, in this context
behavioural outcome—Outcome associated the right of all children to access education.
with actions (e.g., participating in a school sport FITT principle—Principle in which the acro-
club). nym FITT refers to the frequency, intensity, time
body composition—This refers to the propor- and type of physical activity and which is used
tions of muscle, fat, bone and water in the body. to guide the development of activity and fitness
training programmes to meet individual needs.
body mass index (BMI)—Measure defined as
body mass (in kilograms) divided by the square flexibility—Range of movement around a joint.
of height (in metres). health—State characterized by a person’s mental
cardiovascular disease—Class of disease that and/or physical condition; not merely by the
affects the heart or blood vessels (e.g., angina, absence of disease or infirmity but by complete
heart attack, stroke). physical, mental and social well-being; a resource
for everyday life; a positive concept emphasising
cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk profile—
social and personal resources, as well as physical
Prevalence of factors in an individual that are
capacities.
associated with disease affecting the heart or
blood vessels (e.g., family history, sedentary life- health and fitness—Used to describe learning
style, overweight, obesity, high cholesterol, high associated with health and fitness within cur-
blood pressure, stress). riculum physical education.
cardiorespiratory fitness—Ability of the car- health-based physical education (HBPE)—
diorespiratory system (i.e., heart, blood vessels, Approach that involves learning to value and
lungs) to function efficiently and cope with the practice appropriate physical activities that
demands made on it. enhance health and well-being.
chronic condition—Condition or disease that is health education—Planned opportunities to
persistent and long lasting (e.g., arthritis, asthma, develop knowledge and life skills conducive to
cancer, diabetes, heart disease). individual and community health.
cognitive outcome—Outcome related to knowl- health-related components of fitness—These
edge and understanding (e.g., knowing the social are associated with health outcomes and include
health benefits of being active). cardiorespiratory fitness, muscular strength and
endurance, flexibility and body composition.
criterion-referenced standards—Fixed set of
predetermined criteria or written descriptions.
163
164 Glossary
health-related exercise—Used to describe learn- norm-referenced standard—Standard involving

ing associated with health within curriculum comparison of an individual’s score with that of
physical education. a reference group (i.e., determining whether the
health-related fitness—Used to describe learn- individual did better or worse than others).
ing associated with health and fitness within obesity—Medical condition in which excess body
curriculum physical education. fat has accumulated to the extent that it may have
health-related learning—Learning associated a negative effect on health.
with adopting a lifestyle conducive to good health. obesogenic environment—Environment that
hypokinetic—Associated with insufficient activ- encourages people to eat unhealthily and not
ity or with diminished motor function or power do enough exercise, thus contributing to obesity
of movement. (e.g., places that encourage cars over walking,
buildings with lifts and escalators prominently
inclusion—Approach that recognises a con-
sited and stairs hidden away, public places domi-
tinuum of learning needs and involves planning
nated by shops selling calorie-dense foods).
and delivering lessons to meet those needs.
overweight—Having more body fat than is opti-
inclusion spectrum—Activity-centred approach
mally healthy.
to the inclusion of pupils with different abilities
in physical activity. performance-related (skill-related) compo-
nents of fitness—These are associated with per-
integrity—Principle concerned with ensur-
formance outcomes and include agility, balance,
ing that all teaching, learning and assessment
coordination, power, reaction time and speed;
approaches and tasks are of equal worth and in
this type of fitness is sometimes referred to as
no way tokenistic or patronising.
motor fitness.
lean body mass—Body mass or weight exclud-
physical activity—Any bodily movement pro-
ing body fat.
duced by skeletal muscle that results in energy
morbidity—Incidence or prevalence of a disease. expenditure above that of resting.
motor fitness—This is associated with perfor- physical fitness—Set of attributes related to the
mance outcomes and is sometimes referred to as ability to perform physical activity.
performance- or skill-related fitness; it includes
STEP model—Framework for facilitating all
agility, balance, coordination, power, reaction
pupils’ involvement in physical activity based on
time and speed.
modifications made by teachers to one or more
muscular strength and endurance—Ability of of four areas (space, task, equipment, people).
the musculoskeletal system (i.e., bones, muscles,
joints, tendons, ligaments) to work against resis-
tance over time.
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Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activ- cation (pp. 399–411). London: Routledge.
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cal education—A misdirected effort in promoting (2nd ed.). London: Continuum.
healthy lifestyles and physical activity? Physical Cale, L., Harris, J., & Chen, M.H. (2014). Monitoring
Education and Sport Pedagogy, 14(1), 89–108. health, activity and fitness in physical education: Its
Cale, L., & Harris, J. (2009b). Getting the buggers fit current and future state of health. Sport Education
(2nd ed.). London: Continuum. and Society, 19(4), 376–397.
Cale, L., Harris, J., & Chen, M.H. (2014). Monitoring Lloyd, M., Colley, R., & Tremblay, M.S. (2010). Advanc-
health, activity and fitness in physical education: Its ing the debate on fitness testing for children:
current and future state of health. Sport Education Perhaps we’re riding the wrong animal. Pediatric
and Society, 19(4), 376–397. Exercise Science, 22, 176–182.
Lloyd, M., Colley, R., & Tremblay, M.S. (2010). Advanc- PSHE Association. (2014). PSHE education programme
ing the debate on fitness testing for children: of study (Key stages 1–4). https://sip.derby.gov.uk/
Perhaps we’re riding the wrong animal. Pediatric media/schoolsinformationportal/contentassets/
Exercise Science, 22, 176–182. documents/healthyschoolsprogramme/1pshe/
174 References
PSHE%20Programmes%20of%20study%20 on youth fitness testing. Measurement in Physical

2014%20-%20KS%201-4.pdf Education, 12, 146–166.
Rowland, T.W. (2007) Fitness testing in schools: Once Trost, S.G. (2007). Measurement of physical activity
more around the track. Pediatric Exercise Science, in children and adolescents. American Journal of
19, 113–114. Lifestyle Medicine, 1, 299–314.
Silverman, S., Keating, X.D., & Phillips, S.R. (2008).
A lasting impression: A pedagogical perspective
Index
Note: The italicized f and t following page numbers refer to figures and tables, respectively.
A sample unit of work, 7 to 11 cardiovascular disease (CVD) 4,

AAHPERD (American Alliance for years old 119-120 5, 48
Health, Physical Education sample unit of work, 11 to 14 Change4Life campaign 7-8
and Recreation and Dance) years old 137-138, 140-141 Child Measurement Programme,
11, 69 sample unit of work, 14 to 16 Wales 49-50
ABC (affective-behavioural- years old 157-160 Children’s Health, Activity and
cognitive) outcomes 31-32, affective outcomes 31 Fitness Recommendations
108-109, 124, 144, 146 American Alliance for Health, 12-13
accelerometers 56, 58-59 Physical Education and Children’s Lifetime Physical Activ-
accessibility 78 Recreation and Dance ity Model 12
ACSM (American College of Sports (AAHPERD) 11, 69 chronic conditions 4
Medicine) 11, 69 American College of Sports Medi- CLASS PAL 40
Activ8 campaign 8, 40 cine (ACSM) 11, 69 cognitive outcomes 31
activated health education model Association for Physical Education Cooper Institute for Aerobics
18-19 (afPE) 39, 69, 90, 114 Research 12, 71
Active Girls 41 Association for Young People’s criterion-referenced standards 67,
Active Kids 41 Health 39 68
active schools models 20-22 asthma cross-curricular links 21
Active Schools programme 40 benefits of exercise for 85 CVD (cardiovascular disease) 4,
activity promotion general recommendations for 5, 48
assessing learning, 5 to 7 years physical activity 87-88
D
old 96t practical recommendations for
Debunking Myths and Miscon-
assessing learning, 7 to 11 years children with 88-89
ceptions About Children’s
old 96t prevalence and symptoms 84
Health, Activity and Fitness
assessing learning, 11 to 14 triggers of 84-85
13
years old 128t Asthma UK 85
diabetes
assessing learning, 14 to 16
B benefits of exercise for 86
years old 148t
behavioural outcomes 31 general recommendations for
learning outcomes, 5 to 7 years
Be Healthy and Active 114, 115, physical activity 87-88
old 33t, 36t, 94t
118 practical recommendations for
learning outcomes, 7 to 11 years
Being Healthy 115 children with 89
old 33t, 36t, 111t
Being Well - Doing Well 17 prevalence and symptoms
learning outcomes, 11 to 14
bleep test 65, 72 85-86
years old 34t, 36t, 125t
body composition 64, 65-66, 68, 70 Diabetes UK 85
learning outcomes, 14 to 16
body mass index (BMI) 48, 50, 65, diet
years old 35t, 37t, 145t
86 diabetes and 85
sample scheme of work, 5 to 7
boys monitoring health and 128
years old 101
activity levels 5 obesity and 4
sample scheme of work, 7 to 11
obesity levels in 4, 86 recommendations for 7-9, 46
years old 117-118
British Heart Foundation National
sample scheme of work, 11 to E
Centre for Physical Activity
14 years old 135 11- to 14-year olds
and Health 40, 85
sample scheme of work, 14 to ABC outcomes for 32
16 years old 155-156 C activity promotion 34t, 36t,
sample unit of work, 5 to 7 cardiorespiratory fitness 64-65, 72, 125t, 128t, 135, 137-138, 140-
years old 103 85, 90 141
175
176 Index
11- to 14-year olds (continued) purposes of 64 health behaviours

learning outcomes, exercise recommendations for children defining health 46-47
effects 34t, 125t, 127t, 133- 11-13, 69 effectiveness of campaigns pro-
134, 136-137 FITT principle 11 moting 9
learning outcomes, health ben- 5- to 7-year olds examples of whole-school initia-
efits 34t, 36t, 125t, 127t, 134, activity promotion 33t, 36t, 94t, tives to promote 7, 24
138-139 96t, 101, 103 misconceptions about 13
learning outcomes, safety issues learning outcomes, exercise monitoring. See monitoring
34t, 125t, 126t, 132-133 effects 33t, 94t, 96t, 100-101, health
monitoring health 128-129 104 quiz on healthy practices 12-13
monitoring physical activity learning outcomes, health ben- recommendations for 8-9
129-130 efits 33t, 36t, 94t, 96t, 101, schools’ effectiveness in promot-
monitoring physical fitness 102-103 ing 6
130-131 learning outcomes, safety issues WHO global health strategy 8-9
teaching about health. See 33t, 94t, 95t, 100 health belief model 18
health-related learning, 11- to monitoring health 97 health benefits
14-year olds monitoring physical activity assessing learning, 5 to 7 years
emotional health 16 97-98 old 96t
energy balance 87 monitoring physical fitness assessing learning, 7 to 11 years
energy expenditure 87 98-99 old 111t
entitlement 78 teaching about health. See assessing learning, 11 to 14
exercise 10 health-related learning, 5- to years old 127t
exercise effects 7-year olds assessing learning, 14 to 16
assessing learning, 5 to 7 years flexibility 11, 64, 65, 70, 115 years old 147t
old 96t 14- to 16-year olds learning outcomes, 5 to 7 years
assessing learning, 7 to 11 years activity promotion 35t, 37t, old 33t, 36t, 94t
old 110t 145t, 148t, 155-156, 157-160 learning outcomes, 7 to 11 years
assessing learning, 11 to 14 learning outcomes, exercise old 33t, 36t, 109t
years old 127t effects 35t, 145t, 147t, 154 learning outcomes, 11 to 14
assessing learning, 14 to 16 learning outcomes, health ben- years old 34t, 36t, 125t
years old 147t efits 35t, 37t, 145t, 147t, 154- learning outcomes, 14 to 16
learning outcomes, 5 to 7 years 155 years old 35t, 37t, 145t
old 33t, 94t learning outcomes, safety issues sample scheme of work, 5 to 7
learning outcomes, 7 to 11 years 35t, 145t, 146t, 153, 160-161 years old 101
old 33t, 109t monitoring health 149 sample scheme of work, 7 to 11
learning outcomes, 11 to 14 monitoring physical activity years old 112
years old 34t, 125t 149-151 sample scheme of work, 11 to
learning outcomes, 14 to 16 monitoring physical fitness 151 14 years old 134
years old 35t, 145t teaching about health. See sample scheme of work, 14 to
sample scheme of work, 5 to 7 health-related learning, 14- to 16 years old 154-155
years old 100-101 16-year olds sample unit of work, 5 to 7
sample scheme of work, 7 to 11 years old 102-103
G
years old 116-117 sample unit of work, 7 to 11
girls
sample scheme of work, 11 to years old 118-119
activity levels 5
14 years old 133-134 sample unit of work, 11 to 14
body dissatisfaction and 68
sample scheme of work, 14 to years old 138-139
obesity levels in 4, 86
16 years old 154 health conditions 83-91
participation in sports 29, 40-41
sample unit of work, 5 to 7 Health Education Authority 12
years old 104 H health education models 18-19
sample unit of work, 11 to 14 HBPE (health-based physical edu- Healthier Together 24
years old 136-137 cation) 29-30 health-related learning. See also
exercise-induced asthma 85 HBSC (Health Behaviour in specific age groups
School-aged Children) 5 assessment of 38-39
F
Health Action Schools 18 contexts 32, 37, 38t
Fitnessgram 12, 71
health-based physical education outcomes categories 31-32,
fitness testing. See also monitoring
(HBPE) 29-30 33-37t
physical fitness
Health Behaviour in School-aged support for 39-41
critique of 66-67
Children (HBSC) 5
new approach to 72
Index 177
health-related learning, 5- to 7-year I applying the learning from

olds inactivity 51-52
assessing 95, 95-96t monitoring activity 112, 129 critique of national programs
example intervention 99 risks of 5-6 50
monitoring activity 97-98 strategies to combat 9, 87 defining health 46-47
monitoring fitness 98-99 inclusion 79 findings of child measurement
monitoring health 97 inclusion spectrum 80-82, 81f programs 48-50
outcomes and contexts 36t, integrity 79 learning about health through
94-95, 94t International Diabetes Federation 51
sample scheme of work 100-102 85 methods for 48
sample unit of work 102-105 International Study of Asthma packaging healthy behaviours as
through physical education 33t and Allergies in Childhood homework 47
health-related learning, 7- to (ISAAC) 84 rationale for 48
11-year olds involving all children monitoring physical activity
assessing 108-109, 110-111t asthma and 84-85, 88-89 5- to 7-year olds 97-98
cross-curricular approach to content and context strategies 7- to 11-year olds 112-113
114 79 11- to 14-year olds 129-130
monitoring activity 112-113 critical factors for inclusion 78 14- to 16-year olds 149-151
monitoring fitness 113-115 diabetes and 85-86, 89 applying the learning from
monitoring health 112 example school program 82 60-61
outcomes and contexts 36t, 108, general recommendations for defining physical activity 54
109t 87-88 heart rate and 55-56, 58
sample scheme of work 115-118 inclusion spectrum approach learning through 57-60
sample unit of work 118-121 80-82, 81f observation and 56-57, 59
through physical education 33t legal responsibility of schools pedometers and accelerometers
health-related learning, 11- to 83 use 56, 58-59
14-year olds obesity and 86-87, 89-91 program for the summer term
assessing 124, 126, 126-128t pedagogical strategies 79-80 60
communities of practice for principles for maximising chil- rationale for 54
teachers 131 dren’s potential 78-79 sedentary behaviour and 59-60
monitoring activity 129-130 rationale for 78-79 self-reports and 55, 57-58
monitoring fitness 130-131 STEP model 82, 83t monitoring physical fitness
monitoring health 128-129 ISAAC (International Study of 5- to 7-year olds 98-99
outcomes and contexts 36t, 124, Asthma and Allergies in 7- to 11-year olds 113-115
125t Childhood) 84 11- to 14-year olds 130-131
sample lesson plan 140-141 It All Adds Up 41 14- to 16-year olds 151
sample scheme of work 132-135 alternative approaches to 70-71,
L
sample unit of work 135-139 72
lean body mass 87
through physical education 34t applying the learning from 73
learning outcomes. See health-
health-related learning, 14- to body composition 65-66, 70
related learning
16-year olds cardiorespiratory fitness 64-65
assessing 144, 146, 146-148t M critique of fitness testing 66-67
linking curriculum and commu- medical conditions 83-91 data interpretation concerns
nity 152 mental health 68-69
monitoring activity 149-151 benefits of exercise for 34, 125, defining physical fitness 64
monitoring fitness 151 127, 134, 138 false assumptions about 67-68
monitoring health 149 concerns about children’s 48, flexibility and 65
outcomes and contexts 39t, 144, 50 learning through 66-67
145t disorders involving 4-5, 48, 129 methods for 64, 65t, 70
sample lesson plan 160-161 effects of exercise on 147, 154 mode of implementation con-
sample scheme of work 153-156 issues regarding public fitness cerns 67
sample unit of work 156-160 testing 68 muscular strength and endur-
through physical education 35t monitoring health ance 65
Health Survey for England 2015 5- to 7-year olds 97 promoting learning with 71
5-6 7- to 11-year olds 112 questionable practices 68
Healthy Homework Initiative 47 11- to 14-year olds 128-129 rationale for 64
Healthy Me 100-105 14- to 16-year olds 149 recommendations for children
heart rate monitoring 55-56, 58 alternative approaches to 50 11-13, 69-70
hypokinetic conditions 4, 5
178 Index
morbidity 4 goals of 11 Previous Day Physical Activity

muscular strength and endurance guidance for meeting recom- Recall (PDPAR) 55, 57, 129,
65 mendations 11 149
My Personal Best programme 41 health behaviours recommenda- Promoting Active Lifestyles (PAL)
tions 8-9 20-21, 30-31, 153, 156
N
limitations of recommendations PSHE Association 41
National Centre for Sport and
10-11 PSHE education 7
Exercise Medicine 40
misconceptions about 13 Public Health Agency, Northern
National Child Measurement Pro-
monitoring. See monitoring Ireland 41
gramme, England 48-49, 50
physical activity Public Health England 41
National Healthy Schools Pro-
quiz on healthy practices 12-13 Public Health Wales 41
gramme 16
recommendations for 7, 9-10
National Quality Award 16 R
risks of inactivity 5-6
norm-referenced standards 67, 68 rational model of health education
schools’ effectiveness in promot-
18
O ing 6, 7
Route 2 Good Health 7
obesity Physical Activity Passport 60
benefits of exercise for 87 Physical Activity Questionnaire for S
diabetes and 85 Adolescents (PAQ-A) 55, 57, Safe Practice in Physical Education,
factors in 86 129, 149 School Sport and Physical
general recommendations for Physical Activity Questionnaire Activity 90
physical activity 87-88 for Children (PAQ-C) 55, 57, safety issues
overweight versus 86 129, 149 addressing in PE programs 32,
physical activity and 4 physical education 95
practical recommendations for addressing safety issues in 32, assessing learning, 5 to 7 years
children 89-91 95 old 95t
prevalence of 48, 49-50, 86 aim of the national curriculum assessing learning, 7 to 11 years
obesogenic environments 86 28 old 110t
Observational System for Record- assessment of health-related assessing learning, 11 to 14
ing Physical Activity in Chil- learning 38-39 years old 126t
dren (OSRAC) 56 benefits of 29 assessing learning, 14 to 16
overweight 4, 86. See also obesity contribution to public health years old 146t
28-29 contribution to a healthy school
P goals of 29 16-17, 24
PAL (Promoting Active Lifestyles) health-related learning contexts grouping procedures consider-
20-21, 30-31, 153, 156 32, 37, 38t ation 91
PAQ-A (Physical Activity Question- health-related learning out- learning outcomes, 5 to 7 years
naire for Adolescents) 55, 57, comes 31-32, 33-37t old 33t, 94t
129, 149 health-related learning support learning outcomes, 7 to 11 years
PAQ-C (Physical Activity Question- 39-41 old 33t, 109t
naire for Children) 55, 57, mismatch between philosophy learning outcomes, 11 to 14
129, 149 and practice 37, 38t years old 34t, 125t
parents PAL principles and 30-31 learning outcomes, 14 to 16
monitoring children’s health pedagogical model for 29-30 years old 35t, 145t
and 48, 50, 55, 87, 97, 112 promoting active lifestyles and sample scheme of work, 5 to 7
role in promoting active life- 28 years old 100
styles 7, 11, 16, 17, 19-21, Physical Education Matters 39 sample scheme of work, 7 to 11
24-25, 47, 71, 82, 114 physical fitness years old 115-116
PDPAR (Previous Day Physical body composition and 65-66, sample scheme of work, 11 to
Activity Recall) 55, 57, 129, 70 14 years old 132-133
149 cardiorespiratory fitness and sample scheme of work, 14 to
pedometers 56, 58-59 64-65 16 years old 153
performativity culture 50 definition of 64 sample unit of work, 7 to 11
physical activity flexibility and 65 years old 121
benefits of regular 4-5 learning through 66-67 sample unit of work, 14 to 16
defining 54 monitoring. See monitoring years old 160-161
exercise versus 10 physical fitness teaching to children 18
fitness testing recommendations muscular strength and endur- School of Sport, Exercise and
11-13, 69 ance and 65 Health Sciences, Loughbor-
flexibility attribute in 10 rationale for 64 ough University 40
Index 179
schools Social, Personal and Health Educa- characteristics of health-

approaches to healthy lifestyles. tion (SPHE) Support Service, promoting schools 17-18
See whole-school approaches Scotland 41 creating a healthy school 16-18
physical education curricula. SOPLAY (System for Observing cross-curricular links 21
See physical education Play and Leisure Activity in goals of 16
positioning to teach health Youth) 56 health education models for
behaviours. See health- Sport England 40-41 18-19
related learning Sportivate project 40 indicators for key health topics
promotion of healthy lifestyles Sport Northern Ireland 8, 40-41 16-17
6, 7 Sport Scotland 40-41 PAL principles 20-21, 30-31
Schools (Health Promotion and Sport Wales 40-41 physical education and. See
Nutrition) Act 17 SSEHS Active 40 physical education
Scottish Health Survey 2015 6 Start to Move 41 school program examples 7, 24
Scottish Public Health Network 41 STEP model 82, 83t working with parents 24-25
sedentary behaviour 59-60 System for Observing Play and World Health Organisation (WHO)
self-reports of physical activity 55, Leisure Activity in Youth definition of health 46
57-58 (SOPLAY) 56 global health strategy 8-9
7- to 11-year olds physical activity recommenda-
T
ABC outcomes for 32 tions for children 9-10
Teen Health Survey 55, 57, 129,
activity promotion 33t, 36t, 96t, prevalence of mental health dis-
149
111t, 117-118, 119-120 orders among children 5
theory of planned behaviour 18
learning outcomes, exercise recommendations for physical
This Girl Can 40
effects 33t, 109t, 110t, 116- activity 5
Three-Day Physical Activity Recall
117 report on obesity in children 4,
(3DPAR) 55, 57, 129, 149
learning outcomes, health ben- 86
transtheoretical model of change
efits 33t, 36t, 109t, 111t, 112,
18 Y
118-119
type 2 diabetes 48 Young People and Sport in North-
learning outcomes, safety issues
ern Ireland survey 6
33t, 109t, 110t, 115-116, 121 W
Youth Fitness Test 11
monitoring health 112 Welsh Health Survey 2016 6
Youth Risk Behaviour Surveillance
monitoring physical activity Welsh Network of Healthy School
System (YRBSS) 55, 129,
112-113 Schemes 16
149
monitoring physical fitness WHO. See World Health Organisa-
Youth Sport Trust (YST) 41
113-115 tion (WHO)
teaching about health. See whole-school approaches
health-related learning, 7- to active pedagogies adoption
11-year olds 21-23
SHAPE America (Society of Health active schools models 20-22
and Physical Educators) 69 activity breaks and 23-24
About the Authors
Jo Harris, PhD, is director of teacher education and a reader in physi-
cal education and sport pedagogy in the School of Sport, Exercise
and Health Sciences at Loughborough University in Loughborough,
England. She has 12 years of teaching experience and 29 years of
teacher training experience, and she was honoured in 2015 as a
principal fellow of the Higher Education Academy for her significant
and sustained contribution to excellence and leadership in the field.
Harris has received many other awards for her teaching and contribu-
tions to the profession. She previously served as both vice president
and president of the Physical Education Association of the United
Kingdom, and she has authored resources and books for teachers and
teacher educators. In her leisure time, she enjoys travelling, reading
and recreational exercise.
Lorraine Cale, PhD, is associate dean and a professor in physical

education and sport pedagogy in the School of Sport, Exercise and
Health Sciences at Loughborough University. She has worked in the
areas of physical education and teacher education and been actively
engaged in research on the promotion of physical activity and healthy
lifestyles in schools, both within and beyond the curriculum, for
many years. Cale has been published in academic and professional
journals and has presented at numerous national and international
conferences. She has also edited or authored three other books and
numerous book chapters, and she has produced resources and train-
ing courses for teachers. Cale has twice been an elected member of
© Lorraine Cale
the executive committee for the Association for Physical Education.
She enjoys jogging, skiing, theatre and learning French.
181

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What is the book about?

What is the book about?

What are some of the models and approaches discussed for promoting active lifestyles in schools?

What are some of the models and approaches discussed for promoting active lifestyles in schools?

Promoting Active

Names: Harris, Jo, 1955- author. | Cale, Lorraine, author.

Part I Promoting Healthy, Active Lifestyles

Chapter 2 Whole-School Approaches to Promoting Healthy

Chapter 3 Physical Education’s Contribution to Promoting

Part II Monitoring Health, Activity and Fitness

Chapter 5 Monitoring Physical Activity in Schools 53

Chapter 6 Monitoring Physical Fitness in Schools 63

Part III Health-Related Learning in Physical

Chapter 8 Health-Related Learning for 5- to 7-Year-Olds 93

Chapter 9 Health-Related Learning for 7- to 11-Year-Olds 107

Chapter 10 Health-Related Learning for 11- to 14-Year-Olds 123

Chapter 11 Health-Related Learning for 14- to 16-Year-Olds 143

Glossary 163 ◾ References 165 ◾ Index 175 ◾ About the Authors 181

and young people;

promoting healthy, active lifestyles;

health for children and young people;

ness test batteries to holistic physical-activity guidelines and education

understanding of health, fitness and physical activity that may hinder

S chools provide obvious venues for health pro-

Even so, schools’ effectiveness in addressing

ROUTE 2 GOOD HEALTH: PROMOTING HEALTHY

Schools are also asked to consider a range of

The 2011 UK-wide physical activity guidelines

•• Inclusion of vigorous physical activity in

to enhancing health behaviours;

chological and social aspects, which involve individuals, groups, com-

selected health behaviour theories and models;

ties for all adults and children in school to be active;

who exercise significant influence on pupils.

H ealthy schools aim to achieve healthy life-

across the curriculum, most notably in PE,

•• Develop alliances and partnerships with

These models help ensure that activity promo-

Active Cross-Curricular Links How often should you be active?

This challenge should include energetic activi- •• PE is good fun.

in the school setting (Lowden, Powney, Davidson,

although this result is certainly not guaranteed

•• Informing them about the school’s policy to

physical education curricula;

with active lifestyles that can be taught in curriculum PE;

▶▶ describe effective approaches to promoting active lifestyles in PE that

result in affective, behavioural and cognitive (ABC) learning outcomes;

programmes, resources and professional development.

T his chapter explains the increasing promo-

THE PROMOTING ACTIVE LIFESTYLES (PAL) PROJECT

•• Routinely inform pupils where they can

Pupils who are 7 to 11 years old can do the following:

Pupils who are 11 to 14 years old can do the following:

•• Explain that regular activity improves health by

Pupils who are 7 to 11 years old can do the following:

Pupils who are 11 to 14 years old can do the following:

•• Explain a range of long-term benefits of activity for physical health, including

Pupils who are 14 to 16 years old can do the following:

TABLE 3.3 Characteristics of Fitness-for-Life and Fitness-for-