Chapter – II

Field and Geohydrological Characters of Basalt Flows and

Associated Features
The geology and geohydrology of the region plays important role in
recharging the groundwater. The geology, geohydrological characters and
the lithological structure of the region are to be studied and based on the
analysis of their geohydrological characters, the sites for the runoff
harvesting structures should be selected. The shortlisted percolation tanks
in the present research work which are impacted due to the hydrological
set up in the region are constructed on Deccan basalts, hence it will be
worth to mention the brief features and history of Deccan basalts.

2.1. About Deccan Basalt

The term ‘Deccan Trap’ was first presented by W.H. Sykes in 1833 after
Swedish word Trapp / Trappa meaning stair to describe step like or
terrace like formation. This is the second most extensive geological
formation after Igneous and Metamorphic complex of an Archaean era in
Peninsular India. It occupies a large tract between Mumbai in the west,
Cutch in North West, Sarguja and Jashpur in the East, Belgum in the
south, and Rajmahendri in South East, covering parts of States of,
Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Karnataka. Except Bhandara,
Chandrapur and Gadchiroli districts and southern part of Sindhudurg
district, all other districts of Maharashtra are occupied by Deccan Basalts.
Thus Maharashtra can be regarded as a house of Deccan basalts.

The Deccan basalts are made of layers of several lava flows (Fig. 2.1)
with thickness of individual flow ranging from 7 m to as much as 40 m,
and can be traced for a distance of 20 kilometers (km.) (Karmarkar-1977,
Gupte et.al.1980). In a Jawahar – Igatpuri section in Western Ghats,

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Deccan basalt flows of about 700 m total thickness are reported to be
consisting of 15 flows (Subbarao et.al 1994). Along the western slope of
Sahyadri between Kasara and Kalsubai, 21 flows are exposed in a vertical
span of 138 m. From Poladpur to Mahabaleshwar within a vertical length
of 1200 m, there are 47 flows.

Fig. 2.1 Panoramic view of Deccan basalt flows

These lava flows are of two different types which have been recognized
as a compound (Amygdaloidal) and simple (Compact) flows. When made
of several smaller units. Karmarkar et.al. (1977), called such flow units as
Thin and Thicker irregular Amygdaloidal Basalt Flows, as each unit
possesses criteria of demarcation of flows with irregular top surface.
Simple flows, i.e. Massive and Compact basalt flows are uniform over a
large area and made of single units. The former predominate in western
Maharashtra between Dhule, Buldhana, Aurangabad, Pune and Nasik
whereas in the rest of the region of Maharashtra compact basalt flows are
predominant.

There is a definite variation in the lithology of the basalt flows from their
top surfaces to the bottom of the flows. The top surface of every flow is
nearly horizontal with minor local undulations.

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The basalt flows contain variable quantities of groundwater in vesicles,
joints and weather capping. On the basis of their field characters and
geohydrological properties the Deccan Basalts can be grouped into four
classes-namely, sheet jointed amygdaloidal basalts, jointed compact
basalts, volcanic breccia and hydrothermally altered amygdaloidal basalt/
fresh amygdaloidal basalt. The storativity and the transmissivity of these
groups are the characteristics which determine their capabilities to
perform as aquifers. (Deolankar). It has been reported that the specific
yield of the Deccan basalts under unconfined condition varies between 1
to 3.5% (GEC 97). The higher transmissivity values exhibited by the
sheet jointed weathered basalts indicate their high transmission capacity,
whereas low transmissivity values of broadly jointed or fresh basalt
indicate low transmission capacity.

It has been established that the porosity of sheet jointed (weathered) or

closely jointed basalt and volcanic breccia ranges from 10 to 34%,
broadly spaced jointed 5 to 15%, and unjointed compact basalt, fresh
amygdaloidal basalt and hydrothermally altered amygdaloidal basalt is 0
to 3% respectively. The Deccan basalts are geohydrologically anisotropic
and heterogeneous in nature. The aquifer is of limited extent, suggesting
the localized accumulation of groundwater.

2.2 Literature Survey

Deccan basalt is the major geological formation occurring in peninsular
India, covering an area of about 516000 Sq. km. in western and central
part of India, about 82% of Maharashtra state. After independence,
observations, which have been made during geological investigations by
experts for engineering sites in various parts of the Deccan trap area and
for groundwater exploration in drought prone areas have revealed that,

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there is a considerable variation in its field characters which have not
been mentioned by earlier workers. These observations have initiated the
Government organizations like GSI, ONGC and a few Geology
Departments at University and College levels in Maharashtra state to
undertake further studies which were mainly confined to Geochemical
studies of Basalts.

The literature survey shows that the earliest work on the Deccan trap was
of Capt. Danger Field (1824), who prepared a geological map showing
exposures of the basalts of the Malwa plateau of Madhya Pradesh.
Subsequently a valuable contribution was made to the knowledge of
Deccan Trap formation by Blandford who studied the Deccan trap
formation of western India (1867), the geology of Taptee and the lower
Narbada valley and Fox and Fermor (1934) have also made significant
contribution in the studies of Deccan Trap. It was for the first time
Washington (1922) has studied Petrochemistry of the traps. Subsequently
Mathur and Naidu (1932), Mathur (1934), Vemban (1947), Auden (1949)
and A.C. Chatterjee (1970) have published papers on Deccan trap and
associated formations. Agashe, L.V. (1956) studied dykes between Pune
and Khandala. Agashe L.V., Gupte R.B. (1971) studied volcanic vents of
Alandi and Charholi and published in the College of Engineering Poona
Magazine. Beane, J.E. and Hooper P.R. (1988) published a note on picrite
Basalts of Western Ghats, Deccan traps, India, in Deccan Flood Basalts,
Mem. Geol. Soc. of India, No.10 pp. 117-134. Beane J.E., Turner C.A.,
Hooper P.R., Subbarao K.V. and Walsh J.N. (1986) published a paper on
Stratigraphy, Composition and form of Deccan Basalts, western ghats,
India, in the Bulletin, Volcano logique, volume, 48 pp. 61-83. Bodas
M.S, Khadri S.F.R. and Subbarao K.V. (1988) studied stratigraphy of

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Jawahar and Igatpuri formations and published in ‘Deccan Flood Basalts’
Geological Society of India, Mem.10, pp. 235-252.

Kulkarni P.S. (1985) demarcated various flows in different ghat sections

of northeastern and central part of Maharashtra, e.g. Buldhana Ghat
section-10 flows, Mhaismal Ghat section-17 Flows, and Nagapur Ghat
section-18 Flows, etc. Tejankar (2002) studied the basalt flows along
Toranmal section of the western Satpura region and concluded that
Toranmal section exposes maximum thickness of Deccan Basalt in the
Western part of Satpura range comprising 50 Basalt flows within a
vertical pile of 787 m, lying between 348 m and 1135 m above mean sea
level (MSL). These flows represent Quartz and Olivine normative
Tholeiite

Doke (2013) studied 16 basalt flows along Chikadara Ghat Section Dist.
Amravati located in the NE part of Maharashtra, Melghat Area. He
carried out petrographical and petrochemical work of 16 basalt flows in
this area. He concluded that in these flows silica percentage is trending
towards 51.3%, hence are Tholeiite

2.3 Field Characters of the Basalt Flows

2.3.1 The field characters of Compact Basalt flow : Compact Basalt
flows appear almost like a tabular form or as thick extensive tablets (Fig.
2.2). They have considerable thickness and large lateral extent. Their
thickness varies from 7 m to 40 m and they can be traced laterally up to a
distance of 20 km. [Karmarkar-1974, Gupte,et al.-1974, Kulkarni S. R.-
1975, Gupte, et al.-1977, Marathe ,et al.1980]

The top portion of every compact basalt flow becomes vesicular

amygdaloidal and hydrothermally altered. Due to the hydrothermal

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alteration top portion of the flow becomes reddish, purple (Fig. 2.3). The
vesicular amygdaloidal top portion of every compact basalt flow is
unjointed hard and massive. Over a period of time at some places due to
weathering sheet jointing is developed in it. The middle and lower
portions of all the Compact Basalt flows are free from vesicles,
amygdales, hydrothermal alteration and they occur in true sense as Black
Compact Basalts. The middle lower portions of all the Compact Basalt
flows are dissected by joints which are the weak planes, developed during
cooling and consolidation of the lava. These weak planes open up at the
surface on exposure to atmospheric conditions.

2.3.2 Upper part of the Compact Basalt flows : In the top portion of the
flow, most of the vesicles are partially or completely filled up with white
and green secondary minerals like Zeolites, Silica and Calcite obliterating
the original vesicular nature into amygdales (Fig. 2.4). Empty gas cavities
are small in size. They are few and far between and are sparsely
distributed. As vesicles are not interconnected, they do not provide
avenues for the transmission and circulation of water through them.

The vesicular amygdaloidal top portions of some of the flows are

traversed by ramification of irregular veins and injections of (generally
red coloured) Tachylytic Basalt In some places at the higher level, these
injections merge into each other forming thin, discontinuous bands of
Tachylytic Basalt.

2.3.2.1 Geo-hydrological characters of the upper portion of the Compact

Basalt flow: Fresh and the amygdaloidal top portion of the
compact basalt flow is unjointed and occurs as homogenous
watertight mass (Fig. 2.3).

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 Fig. 2.2 Thick and extensive compact basalt flow

Fig. 2.3 Top portion of compact basalt flow has become

reddish, vesicular and amygdaloidal due to
hydrothermal alteration

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The empty gas cavities occurring in it are also smaller in size. As empty
gas cavities (vesicles) are not interconnected, they do not provide avenues
for circulation and transmission of rainwater (Fig. 2.4). But, if an
amygdaloidal top portion of the compact basalt flow is exposed to
atmospheric conditions and in contact with rainwater, sheet joining i.e.
horizontal thin partings and secondary porosity are developed in it and it
becomes highly permeable (Sewlikar 2010) depending on the intensity
and extent of weathering (Fig. 2.5).

The aggregate porosity of compact jointed basalt ranges up to 15%, while

specific yield is 1% or so (Singhal D. C. 2008).

2.3.3 Middle and lower portions of Compact Basalt flows : The middle
and lower portions of compact basalt flow is black in colour, non-
vesicular, aphinitic or porphyritic in nature and in dissected condition due
to the development of the joints which are the contraction cracks formed
during cooling and solidification of hot lava. Different types of jointing
pattern are developed in the middle and lower portions of compact basalt
flow.

2.3.3.1 Geohydrological characters of Compact Basalt: The weathered

surfaces of Compact Aphinitic Basalts have a smooth appearance,
whereas the weathered surfaces of Compact Porphyritic Basalts
have a rough appearance due to falling away of Plagioclase
phenocrysts on weathering. As stated above the top portion of
every Compact Basalt flow is vesicular, amygdaloidal and
unjointed in nature, whereas the middle and lower portions of
every flow are compact and jointed. However, there is wide
variation of proportion between the thickness of the top
amygdaloidal basalt portion and lower compact basalt portion.

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Fig. 2.4 Partially or completely filled up vesicles with
white or green secondary minerals in the
amygdaloidal top portion of compact basalt flow

Fig. 2.5 Jointing in the middle part of compact basalt and

sheet jointed top portion

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Different patterns of jointing and joint spacing are occurring in different
flows. It is observed that in Aphinitic flows there is some consistency in
the pattern of jointing, but the same is not noticed in Compact Porphyritic
Basalts. Joints may be closely spaced (Fig. 2.6), having distance 0.15 m
between consecutive joints whereas in broadly spaced jointing, distance
between two consecutive joints is more than 1 m (Fig. 2.7). Some flows
are dissected by three mutually perpendicular sets of joints due to which
joint block acquires rectangular shape and are positioned one above the
other. In some of the cases vertical joints deviate from the vertical nature
giving rise to wedge shaped joint blocks. It is also observed that in most
of the broadly jointed flows spheroidal weathering is developed due to
percolation of water along three mutually perpendicular sets of joints,
(Fig. 2.8) whereas in closely spaced jointed flows deep weathering has
been developed (Fig. 2.9).

If the jointed middle or lower part of the Compact Basalt flow is exposed
on the surface, joints get opened out and provide avenues for percolation
of water. As we go to the deeper level, it is also observed that these joints
become tight and closed. Therefore, the rock at the deeper level occurs as
watertight mass. Even though compact basalt is jointed and joints open
out at the surface, the amount of infiltration of water depends upon the
number of joints, joint spacing and type of jointing.

If joints are closely spaced and are interconnected, the considerable

quantity of rainwater percolates and circulates in the jointed part of the
compact basalt flow (Fig. 2.10).

If joints are broadly spaced and only a few joints are interconnected, then
a small quantity of water percolates in the jointed part of the compact
basalt flow (Fig. 2.11).

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Fig. 2.6 Closely spaced jointing pattern in compact basalt

Fig. 2.7 Broadly spaced jointing pattern in compact basalt

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 Fig. 2.8 Spheroidal weathering in compact basalt

Fig. 2.9 The deep weathering effect due to closely

spaced joining in compact basalt

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 Fig. 2.10 Substantial water percolation through closely
spaced jointed portion of compact basalt

Fig. 2.11 Poor water percolation through broadly spaced

jointed portion of compact basalt

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If horizontal joints are predominantly developed and are cut by some
vertical or oblique joints, then it creates favourable conditions for lateral
percolation

Due to continuous percolation of water through closely spaced or broadly

spaced jointed compact basalt, thick weathered shells of murrum like
material are developed around every joint block, forming small spheroids.
As thick shells of murrum like material are highly permeable, spheroid
shaped weathered part of compact basalt holds large quantities of water
Muley R.B. (2000).

Columnar jointing is also developed in some compact basalt flows. In the

columnar jointed Compact basalt, vertical or slightly inclined polygonal
columns are developed (Fig. 2.12). Rather broadly spaced horizontal
joints dissect every column. Vertical joint between two columns get
opened out only up to shallow depth but at the deeper level they become
tight. In such condition limited quantity of water percolate up to a
shallow depth and at the deeper level, there is a very less percolation
thereby making rock watertight.

If joints are broadly spaced, inconsistent and are not interconnected

rainwater hardly percolate through such rock, even though the rock is
jointed. The variations in the configuration of joints in compact basalt
flows described above show that there are limitations to percolation of
water in compact basalt and all compact basalt flows do not provide
favourable conditions for large quantity of percolation of water especially
when jointing is absent.

2.4 Field Characters of Amygdaloidal Basalt Flow

Amygdaloidal basalts generally occur as thin irregular flows having
bulbous forms, small thickness and limited lateral extent (Fig. 2.13).
Generally their thickness varies from a few centimetres to 6 m and they

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can be traced laterally up to a distance of 400 m. Such small irregular
flows are amygdaloidal throughout their thickness. Very rarely thick
tabular flows of amygdaloidal basalt also occur. [Karmarkar-1974 Gupte,
et al.-1974]

Most of the original gas cavities of the vesicular amygdaloidal basalt are
partially or completely filled up with secondary minerals like white
coloured Zeolities, Silica, Calcite and green coloured Chlorophaeite (Fig.
2.14). In a limited location very rarely empty gas cavities may occur in
Amygdaloidal Basalt flows, but, they are sparsely distributed and hence
are not interconnected. Therefore, rainwater cannot get transmitted from
one vesicle to another as is the case with the top portion of Compact
Basalt flows.

Thin irregular flows of amygdaloidal basalt in fresh conditions occur as

unjointed homogenous mass. In thicker, tabular amygdaloidal basalt
flows, amygdales are concentrated only in the upper part of the flow and
the lower part of the flow remains free from amygdales which behaves as
broadly spaced compact basalt. In non-vesicular, non-amygdaloidal lower
part of the flow, joints are developed.

2.4.1 Geohydrological characters of Amygdaloidal Basalt : As

mentioned above, as fresh, unjointed Amygdaloidal Basalt is watertight,
even if it is exposed at the surface rainwater cannot percolate through it.

On weathering, sheet jointing i.e. thin horizontal partings in the form of

secondary porosity is developed in amygdaloidal basalt due to which it
becomes highly permeable (Fig. 2.15). The water-yielding capacity
entirely depends upon thickness and lateral extent of the weathered zone.
If the lower jointed part of the thicker tabular flow is exposed at the
surface, then rainwater percolates in it only upto a shallow depth, i.e. up
to the underlying top surface of the subsequent amygdaloidal basalt flow.

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Fig. 2.12 Columnar jointing in compact basalt yielding
polygonal columns

Fig. 2.13 Pile of thin irregular flows of amygdaloidal basalt

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Fig. 2.14 Vesicular amygdaloidal basalt showing partially or
completely filled gas cavities with secondary
minerals

Fig. 2.15 Sheet joining developed due to weathering in

amygdaloidal basalt

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2.5 Field characters of Tachylytic Basalt
It is observed that there are ramifications of thin injections of Black / Red
/ Green tachylytic basalts. These injections merge into each other at a
higher level, forming thin discontinuous bands and pockets of Black /
Red / Green tachylytic basalts on the top of the flows (Fig. 2.16 and 2.17)

Bands of Tachylytic Basalts occur in shades of colours like red, green,

black or brown and accordingly they are termed as Red Tachylytic Basalt,
Green Tachylytic Basalt, Black Tachylytic Basalt or Brown Tachylytic
Basalt. Their colours are due to hydrothermally altered nature of the lava
from which they are formed by rapid chilling. [Kulkarni S. R. -1975]

Tachylytic Basalts generally occur as thin discontinuous bands between

two basalt flows. Their thickness varies from 2 cm to rarely 3 m. Even
thick tachylytic basalt bands have limited lateral extent and they
gradually taper and pinch out after some distance. It is observed that in
unexposed condition, below the cover of rock, it occurs as sound,
watertight rock. Only on exposure to atmospheric conditions, it
disintegrates into granular, friable material due to opening of minute
joints occurring in it. These bands occur as a barrier for the percolation of
water to the deeper level and springs develop at the contact between the
top surface of the Tachylytic Basaltic band and the bottom of the
overlying basalt flow.

2.6 Field characters of associated features

2.6.1 Basalt Dykes : Dykes cutting across basalt flows are very common
in Nashik, Aurangabad, Jalna districts (Fig. 2.18). A few dykes also occur
in Ahmednagar district. Thickness of dykes varies from 3 m to 50 m and
average being 8 m. As dykes are of Compact Basalt, they are well jointed.
Generally dyke rock is dissected by mutually perpendicular three sets of
joints. Out of which two sets of joints are vertical and the third set

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Fig. 2.16 Pocket of red tachylytic basalt

Fig. 2.17 Band of green tachylytic basalt

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Fig. 2.18 Dyke exposed in the Majnoo hill area, Aurangabad

Fig. 2.19 Appreciable water yield through closely spaced

jointing in dyke

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is horizontal. [Auden J. B.-1949, Agashe L. V. -956, Gupte 1967, Agashe
and Gupte -1970, Karmarkar B. M. -1974, Marathe S. S. -1976, Chande-
1985]

One vertical set of joints is parallel to the length of the dyke whereas
second set is perpendicular to the length of the dyke and the third set is
horizontal. Due to these three sets of joints, dyke rock is broken down
into rectangular blocks. There is a definite variation in the spacing of
joints from their margins to the central parts. Along the margins of the
dyke, rock shows very closely spaced jointing. Joint spacing increases
towards the central part of the dyke and joint blocks become large in
size.

Some dykes send offshoots from the margin into the adjacent country
rock.

If an open or bore well is taken in closely spaced marginal part of the

dyke, it yields a good quantity of water (Fig. 2.19). Likewise, if the dyke
crosses the alignment of the water conservation structures, water
percolates through the dyke and the wells taken in the dyke provide a
continuous supply of water.

In the present study, one dyke was observed, which is exposed in the
percolation tank of Chincholi village.

The superimposition and the geohydrological characters of the basaltic

flows play an important role in permeability of water from any harvesting
structure. The percolation tanks constructed on these basaltic formations
show different results based on the field and geohydrological characters
of these flows. The present status in general and their efficiency is
discussed in detail in the next chapter.

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