All organisms are composed of cells.

The cell is the structural unit of life

Cells contain the following structures:

 Plasma membrane - separates the cell from the external environment
 Cytoplasm - It is the material within a living cell. It comprises cytosol (gel like
material) and the organelles
 Nuclear material - genetic information stored as DNA

Types of cell:

Prokaryotes

 Pro = before; karyon = nucleus

 relatively small - 5 to 10 um
 lack membrane-bound organelles
 Include bacteria

Eukaryotes

 Eu = true; karyon = nucleus

 Larger in size: relatively small - 10 to 100 um
 contain membrane-bound organelles
 Include Animals, Plants Protists, and Fungi.

1. Plasma Membrane
The cell membrane (or plasma membrane) surrounds the cytoplasm of living cells,
physically separating the intracellular components from the extracellular environment. It
consists of the phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins. These are phospholipid
molecules made up of a phosphate group head and two fatty acid tails. When in water or an
aqueous solution, the hydrophilic heads of phospholipids will orient themselves to be on the
outside, while the hydrophobic tails will be on the inside. The cell membrane also contains
many different proteins. Proteins make up about half of the cell membrane. Many of these
proteins are transmembrane proteins, which are embedded in the membrane but stick out on
both sides. Lipid bilayers are generally impermeable to polar molecules (ex. nucleic acids,
carbohydrates, proteins, and ions) from diffusing across the membrane, but generally allows
for the passive diffusion of hydrophobic molecules.
Function: It serves to separate and protect a cell from its surrounding environment
(Details are provide at the end).

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 2. Nucleus
Nucleus is the most prominent organelle of the cell. The shape of the nucleus is
mostly round or oval.
 Nuclear Envelope: The nuclear envelope is also known as the nuclear membrane. It
is made up of two membranes the outer membrane and the inner membrane. The outer
membrane of the nucleus is continuous with the membrane of the rough endoplasmic
reticulum. The space between these layers is known as the perinuclear space.
Nuclear Pore: The nuclear envelope is perforated with numerous pores called nuclear
pores. The nuclear pores regulate the passage of the molecules (DNA and RNA)
between the nucleus and cytoplasm.
 Chromosomes: The nucleus of the cell contains the cells genetic material in the form
of DNA molecules. These DNA molecules are organized into structures called
chromosomes. The chromosomes have two regions as follows
Euchromatin: loosely coiled region and is genetically active.
Heterochromatin: compactly coiled region and is genetically inert.
 Nucleolus: The nucleolus is not surrounded by a membrane. It makes ribosomal
subunits from proteins and ribosomal RNA.
Function: The function of the nucleus is to control the activities of the cell by
regulating gene expression. Hence, nucleus is the control center of the cell.

3. Ribosome
Ribosomes play an important role in protein synthesis
 Ribosomes are composed of two different subunits, called the large subunit and
the small subunit. Prokaryotes have 70S ribosomes and Eukaryotes have 80S
ribosomes. Both the Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes ribosomal subunits are made up of
ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and proteins.

 These subunits usually exist separately in the cytoplasm until the small subunit
recognizes and binds to a specific sequence of an mRNA message. It then recruits the
large subunit to form a complete ribosome.

 S is the unit of measurement is the Svedberg unit, a measure of the rate

of sedimentation in centrifugation rather than size.

Function: This organelle is involved in protein synthesis.

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 4. Mitochondria
Mitochondria are rod shaped double membrane bound organelle. It has its own DNA
molecules.
 Outer membrane: It has a large number of special proteins known as the porins that
allow the movement of molecules like nutrients, ATP etc.
 Inner membrane: The inner membrane of mitochondria is more complex in
structure. It is folded into a number of folds many times and is known as the
cristae. This folding help to increase the surface areas inside the organelle, enhancing
its ability to produce ATP.
Intermembrane space: It is the space between the outer and inner membrane of the
mitochondria.
 Matrix: The matrix of the mitochondria is a complex mixture of proteins and
enzymes which are important for the synthesis of ATP molecules.

Function: The organelle is involved in aerobic respiration (sugars + O2 - - > ATP +

CO2 + H2O).

5. Lysosomes
Lysosomes are membrane-enclosed organelles that contain an array
of enzymes capable of breaking down all types of biomolecules like proteins, nucleic
acids, carbohydrates, and lipids. Lysosomes function as the digestive system of the
cell. It degrades the foreign materials taken up from outside the cell and digests the
damaged components of the cell itself.

6. Endoplasmic Reticulum

It is an extensive membranous network continuous with the outer membrane of

nucleus.
Rough ER - has ribosomes and is involved in secreted protein synthesis
Smooth ER - lacks ribosomes and is involved in membrane lipid synthesis

7. Golgi Apparatus

 Flattened vesicles in stacks which receive protein from ER

 Form secretory vesicles to transport proteins to different parts of the
cell or for secretion.

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 8. Difference between prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells

Characteristic Prokaryotes Eukaryotes

Size of cell Typically 5 to 10 µm in diameter Typically 10-100 µm in diameter

Typical organisms Bacteria Animals, Plants Protists, and Fungi

Nucleus No nuclear membrane (nucleoid) True nucleus, consisting of

nuclear membrane & nucleoli
Membrane-enclosed Absent Present; examples include lysosomes,
organelles Golgi complex, endoplasmic reticulum,
mitochondria
Ribosomes Smaller size (70S) Larger size (80S)

Chromosome (DNA) Single circular chromosome; lacks Multiple linear chromosomes with
arrangement histones histones

The detailed functions of cell membrane

One of the functions of membranes is to control what passes into and out of the cell. The arrangement
of hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails of the lipid bilayer prevent hydrophilic/polar solutes (ex.
carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids) from diffusing across the membrane, but generally allows for
the passive diffusion of hydrophobic/non-polar molecules (ex. Lipids). There are two types of
membrane transport mainly Active and Passive, depending on the characteristics of the substance
(polar or non-polar) being transported and the direction of transport (down or against the
concentration gradient).
1. Passive transport

1a. Simple diffusion: The small non-charged molecules or lipid soluble molecules pass between the
phospholipids to enter or leave the cell, moving from areas of high concentration to areas of low
concentration (i.e. down the concentration gradient). Oxygen, which cells need in order to carry out
metabolic functions such as cellular respiration, and carbon dioxide, a byproduct of these functions,
can easily enter and exit through the membrane.

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1b. Facilitated diffusion: However, charged and large molecules (carbohydrates or amino acids)
cannot directly pass through the membrane, since large molecules that cannot fit between the
phospholipids. Instead, these molecules must pass through proteins that are embedded in the
membrane. In facilitated diffusion also, substances move into or out of cells down their concentration
gradient through protein channels in the cell membrane. The binding of the solute to the protein on
one side of the membrane is thought to trigger a conformational change in the protein, exposing the
solute to the other surface of the membrane, from where it can diffuse down its concentration
gradient.

2a. Active Transport: Like facilitated diffusion, active transport depends on integral membrane
proteins that selectively bind a particular solute and move it across the membrane. Here, the
substances move across membranes against their concentration gradient (from areas of low
concentration to areas of high concentration). Since this is an energetically unfavorable reaction,
energy is needed for this movement. The source of energy is the breakdown of ATP.
Endocytosis (Pinocytosis and Phagocytosis) is a form of active transport in which a cell transports
molecules into the cell by engulfing them in an energy-using process.

2b. Pinocytosis:
Pinocytosis (cell drinking) is a form of active transport. It is induced by the presence of appropriate
concentrations of solutes like proteins or certain foods in the medium surrounding the cell. It is used
primarily for the absorption of extracellular fluids containing the above already-dissolved or broken-
down food. The cell takes in surrounding fluids, forming an invagination, and then suspended within
small vesicles. The pinocytosis is nonspecific in the substances that it transports.

2c. Phagocytosis:
In the multicellular animals, phagocytosis has been adapted to eliminate pathogens. It is the 1st line of
defense in the immune system of an organism. They are essential for fighting infections and for
subsequent immunity. Phagocytes of humans and other animals include many types of white blood
cells (such as macrophages, neutrophils and dendritic cells). The phagocytosis occurs after the foreign
body has bound to molecules called "receptors" that are on the surface of the phagocyte. The
phagocyte then stretches itself around the bacterium and engulfs it. Inside this phagocyte, the
bacterium is trapped in a compartment called a phagosome which then fuses with a lysosome to form

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a phagolysosome. In the next step, the enzymes and toxic peroxides digest the pathogen within the
phagolysosome.
Phagocytosis is also involved in the acquisition of nutrients (homologous to eating) for single-celled
organisms like amoeba. Phagocytosis engulfs whole particles (like bacteria), which are later broken
down by enzymes and absorbed into the cells.