Learning Unit 2: Biochemistry, Cell Structure and Function

Topic: Cell Structure, Function and Properties

Instructors: Mohd Aminudin Bin Mustapha
Learning Objectives
1. Describe some basic properties of cells
2. Explain the differences between features of prokaryotes and eukaryotes
3. Explain cellular components and their function in animal and plant cells
4. Explain the animal tissues and organ system
Cell Theory

Some organisms are made of one cell (unicellular) and organisms that are made of many cells
are multicellular organisms.
The development of cell theory started by Robert Hooke that observed many compartment in a
plant specimen in 1665.
Energy flow (metabolism and biochemistry) occurs within cells.
Cells contain hereditary information (DNA) which is passed from cell to cell during cell division.
The size of the cell is very small to provide large surface area to volume ratio that will increase
the diffusion rate across it.
Cell has various types and shapes based on their functions and positions.

Prokaryotic Cells

Smaller and simpler compare to eukaryotic cells.

Unicellular organism that consists of bacteria and archeabacteria.
Outside the plasma membrane are non-living cell walls that are made of peptidoglycan which
function to maintain the shape of the cell and cell protection.
Simple cell, they do not have the membrane bound organelles in their cytoplasm.
Do not have nucleus that are enclosed by membrane and no chromosome.
They have higher metabolic and growth rate but a shorter generation time (short life time)
compared to eukaryotes.
Some cells have capsules to provide extra protection to the cells.
Some have flagella and pili for their movement in liquid environment.
Do not undergo meiosis and mitosis, their growth and reproduction are by binary fusion.

Eukaryotic Cells

Consist of plants, animals, fungi, slime moulds, protozoa and algae.

Cells are bounded by plasma membranes and some cells have cell walls outside their plasma
membranes.
Have distinct nucleus that are enclosed by nuclear envelope.
Contains membrane-bound organelles
Eukaryotes cells undergo meiosis and mitosis for growth and reproduction.
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Plant Cells
Larger than animal cells.
Regular in shape because they have cell walls.
Nucleus surround by a nuclear envelope which is a double membrane structure perforated with
nuclear pores.
Have chlorophyll, contained in the chloroplasts, the organelles that are essential for
photosynthesis.
Mature cells have large central vacuoles which are important in maintaining the turgidity of the
cells.
Cytoplasm is separated from the external environment by plasma membrane.
Adjacent plant cells are attached together by middle lamella between cell walls.
Plant cells contain plasmodesmata that allow the connection between the cytoplasm of the
neighboring cells.
Cytosol (the liquid component of the cytoplasm) passes through the plasmodesmata and
connects to the internal environment of the adjacent cells.
Animal Cells

Have plasma membranes that enclose the cytoplasm but have no cell walls.
Smaller compared to plant cells.
The shape is irregular.
Movement assisted by flagella.
Have a pair of centrioles next to nucleus.
Food stored in the form of glycogen in the cytoplasm.
Cytoplasm also contains membranous organelles but no chloroplasts.
Most of cells metabolic activities occur in cytoplasm.

Cell wall
Tough, rigid, thick non-living structure and give plant cells very define shapes.
In young cells, it is thin and not very rigid called primary cell wall allow the young cells to grow.
In fully grown cells, it thickening by new layer called secondary cell wall which often hardened by
lignin.
Functions of Cell Wall

Maintain the shape of the cell and determine the rate and direction of growth of the cell.
Providing strength and give mechanical support for plant up against the force of gravity.
Maintains the turgidity of the cell and prevent cell from bursting.
Allow exchange of substance during homeostasis in the cell.
Prevent pathogen from entering and protect mechanical stress to the cell.
An important reserve of carbohydrates

Plasma Membrane
Encloses the cytoplasm/protoplasm of the cell.
Provides shape and protection for cell.
Semi-permeable or selective permeable that allow only certain materials to pass through it.
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 Protien are embedded in phospholipid bilayer.

Danielli-Davson Model
Proposed by Danielli and Davson in 1935 (Danielli-Davson Model).
Made of phospholipid bilayer where hydrophilic (polar) and hydrophobic (non-polar) sandwiched
between the two bilayer.
The surface is perforated by pore situated at regular interval.
Structure is stable, static and rigid.
Fluid Mosaic Model
Known as Singer Model, proposed by S. Jonathan Singer and Garth Nicholson in 1972.
Current model for membrane structure, membrane is a fluid system with protien embedded in a
phospholipid bilayer to form a mosaic structure.
Used to describe the interaction of lipid and protien in membrane.
Integral protien act as enzymes, pumps, carriers, channels and receptors.
Peripheral protien are attached to the inner or outer surface of the membrane.
Glycoprotien and glycolipids extend from the cell surface like antennas act as chemical receptors
and in cell recognition.
Cholesterol that attached to phospholipid bilayer reduces the membrane flexibility and
permeability to the substances.
Cytoskeleton
Made of filamentous protien networks and skeleton of the cell.
Provide mechanical support and maintain the cell shape.
Fixed organelles location and help the movement of substances from one part to another within
the cell.
Made of three type of fiber:
1. Microfilament-muscle contraction and provide mechanical support for cell, are abundantly
found in muscle cells
2. Microtubules- maintaining the cell shape and provide support to the cell. Separated the
chromosomes during cell division.
3. Intermediate filaments-To prevent excessive stretch of cells, maintain shape of the cells
and fix organelles position in the cell.
Nucleus
Largest and most prominent organelle in the eukaryotic cells.
Oval or spherical in shape.
Nuclear envelope is a double membrane perforated by nuclear pore and impermeable to most
molecules; allow movement small molecules and ions across it.
Outer nuclear envelope is continuous with rough endoplasmic reticulum with ribosome
embedded on its surface.
Store genetic material in the form of DNA and direct all the activities by regulating the synthesis
of protien such as hormone and enzymes.
Nucleolus is a dark and most visible area found in nucleus that functions to synthesize ribosomal
RNA subunits for the synthesis of protien.
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Functions of the nucleus

Stores the genetic material

Ensures equal distribution and exact copy of DNA during cell replication.
Controls the synthesis of structural protiens for cell growth.
Site for synthesizing of messenger RNA (mRNA)
Regulate the metabolism of the cell by directing the synthesis and functioning of enzymes.
Responsible in synthesis of ribosomes.

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

Network of membranous tubules and flattened sacs called cisternae.
Cisternal space continuous with outer membrane of nuclear envelope.
Rough ER (RER) when ribosome found embedded on the outer layer surface of the membrane
while smooth ER (SER) without ribosome embedded.
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)
RER found next to nucleus, involve in synthesizing protien, modifying, packaging and transport of
secretory protiens.
Ribosomes released from nucleus are stud on cisternae and will enter the cisternal space (lumen)
of Rough ER.
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER)
SER functions in diverse metabolic activities which anchored by enzyme that are embedded
within the membrane of SER.
For example, SER in testes and ovary produce sex hormones while SER in gut epithelium
synthesis lipid from fatty acids and glycerol.
Golgi Body
Consist of a stack of flattened membranous sacs known as cisternae.
Receives, stores, concentrate, modifies, finishes and sorts protiens before distributing to various
destination.
Product of RER is modified during the transit from cis to trans pole by various enzymes.
The protien are then marked and sorted into batches to be distributed to different destination.
Ribosomes
Small, solid spherical granules found in all cells including prokaryotic cells.
An assembly of two ribosomal RNA (rRNA) that are synthesized in nucleus.
Synthesized protien molecules based on the genetic information carried by mRNA using free
amino acid in cytoplasm.
Lysosomes
Dark spherical bodies, recycling center of the cell.
Contains hydrolytic enzymes (lipase, carbohydrases and proteases) to digest macromolecules in
the cells.
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 Recycling center which old organelles are digested and will reused to form new organelles.
(Autophagy process).
Also digest the remains of dead cell (autolysis process)
Mitochondria
Bounded by two layer of membrane, the outer membrane smooth and the inner membrane is
heavily folded to cristae.
The cristae partially divide by mitochondrial fluid called mitochondrial matrix.
Space between the inner and outer membrane is called inter membrane space.
Mitochondrial matrix contains enzymes, DNA and ribosomes.
Mitochondria are the powerhouse of the cell; their main function is energy production for the cell.
Glucose molecules and fatty acids are metabolized to produce ATP during respiration.
Chloroplast
Biconvex disc shape, found in plants cells and other green organisms (algae).
Have their own DNA, RNA and ribosomes, replicate and produce their own protien that are
different from protien of the cell.
Enclosed by two membranes separated by intermembrane space.
Internal membrane, lamellae consists of thylakoids that stack up to form grana.
Each chroplast has about 50 grana an each granum has about 50 thylakoids.
Thylakoid membrane is the light reaction site where photosynthetic pigment such as chlorophyll
embedded within it.
Epithelial Tissues
Covers the outside of the body and lines organs and cavities within the body.
Epithelium consists of one or more layers of cells.
Can divided depending on the shape of the cells
1. Squamous-like floor tiles (flattened cells)
2. Cuboidal-like dice (cube-shaped cells)
3. Columnar-like bricks standing on end (rectangular-shaped pillar (column) like cells).
Squamous Epithelium
Consists of thin, smooth, and strong sheets of cells.
In the endothelium of the blood vessels and the outer layer of the Bowmans capsule.
Function to facilitate diffusion across its very thin structures, smoothens the passage of fluid and
lubricates movements across adjacent surface
Cuboidal Epithelium
Can be found in lining of collecting ducts, tubule of nephrons, salivary glands and sweat glands.
Provide protection to the underlying tissues.
The cells assist the absorption and transport of filtered substances in the kidney tubules.
Columnar Epithelium
Secretes digestive juices and absorbs nutrients.
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 For example, the columnar epithelium of the intestine secretes digestive enzymes into the
intestine and absorbs the products of digestion from it.
Often contains mucus-secreting goblet cells.
Stratified Epithelium

Made up of several layer of cells, which form a tough impervious barrier.

The outmost layer of cells, known as generative layer that active state of mitotic cell division.
Structure provides protection from abrasion.
Stratified squamous-found in epidermis of skin and in the lining of the innermost layer of
esophagus.
Stratified cuboidal- found in the excretory duct of sweat glands.
Stratified columnar- found in the secretory ducts of the mammary glands.
Pseudostratified Epithelium
Appear to be layered but layer do not exist because each cell touches a basement membrane that
joins the epithelium to the underlying connective tissues.
Found in the innermost layer of trachea, bronchi and bronchioles.
Cartilage
A specialized tissue, which is hard and flexible to withstand mechanical stress without permanent
distortion.
Mostly can be found in joints such as sliding joints and hinge joints.
Acts as a shock absorber, cushioning bones during movement.
Produced by chondrocytes (cartilage cell) that secrete protien matrix with no calcium carbonate.
Nourish by nutrient diffused from capillaries in the adjacent perichondrial connective tissues or
synovial fluid.
Three types of cartilage (Hyaline, elastic and fibrous) based on variations in their matrix
composition.
Hyaline cartilage
Most common form
Found on the articulating surface of bones, the walls of large respiratory passages, and the
ventral portion of the sternum.
Elastic cartilage
Contains many elastic fibers giving it a yellowish color.
Found in auricle of the ear, ear canal, Eustachian tube and epiglottis.
Fibrous cartilage
Contains a dense network of collagen fibers.
Found in the intervertebral discs, in the attachments of ligaments to the cartilaginous surface of
bones and in the pubic symphasis.

Bones

Act as levers, converting muscle contraction into movement.

The substance give bone its hardness is hydroxyapatite made from calcium and phosphate.
Have two forms: spongy bones and compact bones.
Spongy bones are found in the center of flat bones and the end of long bones.
Compact bones are formed by osteocytes located in the lacunae.
Lacunae are arranged in concentric circles around the Haversian canals.
Haversian canals contain blood vessels and nerves.
Osteocytes secrete the matrix of calcium phosphate and carbonate together with protien.
Osteocytes communicate with one another and receive nutrition through the canaliculi, the thin
channels penetrating the matrix.

Nerve Tissues
Composed of:
Nerve cells called neurones.
Neuroglial cells.
Neurones are specialized cells for conductions of nerve impulse.
Neuroglial cells surround the cells
Neurones
A typical neurone has three common features:
1. A cell body which contains the nucleus
2. Dendrites, extending from the cell body, impulses are brought in towards the cell body.
3. The axon, a single long fiber, impulse away from the cell body.
The tips of axons meet other neurones at the junctions called synapse, muscles (called
neulomuscular junctions) and glands.
Efferent/motor neurones transmit impulse along the axon from the nervous system to the
muscles and glands.
Afferet/ sensory neuronse conduct impulses along a dendron from the receptor organ to the
central nervous system.
Intermediary/Relay neurones receive impulse from sensory neurones or other intermediary
neurones. They exist in various shapes (bipolar/multipolar) with one or more dendrons or axons.
Neuroglial Cells
Include Schwann cells that produce the myelin sheath that surrounds many axons in the
peripheral nervous system.
Myelin sheath is not continuous but divides into sections, separated at regular intervals by the
nodes of Ranvier, which facilitate faster movement of impulse.
Muscle tissues
Smooth muscle- involuntary muscles that is muscle that cannot be controlled voluntarily.
Striated muscles-known as skeletal muscle because of their anatomical location.
Cardiac muscle- only found in heart

Smooth Muscle
In digestive tract, walls of the trachea, uterus, arteries and bladder.
The contraction of smooth muscles is controlled by brain through the autonomic nervous system.
It contracts rhythmically, producing waves of contraction such as in the peristalsis process.
Striated muscle
Formed from large number of muscle fiber
Each fiber form a muscle cell
Attached to the bones via tendons, voluntary and form an essential part of the organ of support
and motion.
Cardiac Muscle
It is an involuntary muscle.
When agitated, it generates a much longer electrical impulse. Correspondingly, the mechanical
contraction also last longer.
The electrical activity arising from one muscle cell can spread to all the other surrounding muscle
cells.
Not require impulse from the brain to stimulate it to contract, independent to nervous system.
It is also myogenic, that has its own pacemaker or built-in system of control to generate
excitation before it contracts.
Blood
Blood consists of fluid and cells that flow in one direction in close circulatory system.
The bone marrow is the source of all the cells of the blood.
Blood include:
1. Red blood cells (erythrocytes)
2. White blood cells (leukocytes)
3. Platelets (trombocytes)
Erythrocytes
Formed in the bone marrow.
Do not have a nucleus and are filled with oxygen-carrying protien, hemoglobin.
Biconcave discs shape, very thin membrane provides a large surface for oxygen delivery, more
flexibility in the narrow capillaries.
Average red blood cell survive in circulation is 120 days.
Leukocytes
Found in circulation but may leave circulatory system and migrate to the tissues to perform
various functions.
Form the defensive mechanism of the body at cellular level.
Classified as granulocytes or agranulocytes, depending on the presence or absence of visible
granules within the cellular cytoplasm.

Granulocytes
Have granules in their cytoplasm.
Formed in bone marrow.
Include neutrophils, eosinophils and basophils.
Neutrophils
have a non-segmented horseshoe-shaped nucleus
Activated by chemoattractants at the site of injury and ingest bacteria by phagocytosis.
Eosinophils
Have many large and elongated granules that are stained red by eosin.
They do not ingest organisms, but they do exert cytotoxic effects on them.
Basophils
Along with other granulocytes, neutrophils are motile cells with phagocytic properties.
Agranulocytes
No granules in their cytoplasm.
Include lymphocytes and monocytes
Lymphocytes
Have little cytoplasm, which wraps closely around nucleus. Produce in lymph nodes, spleen, bone
marrow and intestinal mucosa
Undergoing maturation in thymus (T-lymphocytes) and bone marrow (B-lymphocytes)
respectively.
B-lymphocytes will transform into plasma cells, which produce antibody to protect our body from
various infection.
Monocytes
Has much diversified morphology, size is highly variable.
Migrate to tissues, particularly the liver, lymph nodes, and lungs, where they may stay for days or
years.
Actively phagocytic, and they ingest particulate matter.
Ingest and process antigens and are involved in antigen presentation, by B- and T-lymphocytes.

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