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Submitted as a partial fulfillment of the assignment of Grammar Subject to English

Education Study Program of Muhammadiyah University of Tangerang

Create By :

Fanie Santika 6.B1 (1688203049)

PROGRAM STUDI PENDIDIKAN BAHASA INGGRIS

FAKULTAS KEGURUAN DAN ILMU PENDIDIKAN
UNIVERSITAS MUHAMMADIYAH TANGERANG 2019
 Chapter I
A. Background
Grammar has long been a subject of study—as a companion to rhetoric in ancient Greece and
Rome, as one of the seven liberal arts in medieval education. Although the methods of
studying grammar have changed dramatically in recent times, the reasons for studying
grammar have remained essentially the same.

One of the most sensible answers to the question of why grammar matters appears in a
position statement on the teaching of grammar in American schools. Published by the
National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE), the report is refreshingly free of
educational cant. Here's how it begins:

Grammar is important because it is the language that makes it possible for us to talk about
language. Grammar names the types of words and word groups that make up sentences not
only in English but in any language. As human beings, we can put sentences together even as
children—we can all do grammar. But to be able to talk about how sentences are built, about
the types of words and word groups that make up sentences—that is knowing about grammar.
And knowing about grammar offers a window into the human mind and into our amazingly
complex mental capacity.

People associate grammar with errors and correctness. But knowing about grammar also
helps us understand what makes sentences and paragraphs clear and interesting and precise.
Grammar can be part of literature discussions, when we and our students closely read the
sentences in poetry and stories. And knowing about grammar means finding out that all
languages and all dialects follow grammatical patterns.

(Brock Haussamen, "Guideline on Some Questions and Answers About Grammar", 2002)

The author of this introduction, Brock Haussamen, is professor emeritus of English at Raritan
Valley Community College of New Jersey. Whether or not you teach English for a living, the
full report, "Guideline on Some Questions and Answers About Grammar," is well worth the
read for anyone interested in English grammar.*

Additional Perspectives on Grammar

Consider these explanations of why grammar matters from other experts in English and
education:

"On the utility and importance of the study of Grammar, and the principles of composition,
much might be advanced, for the encouragement of persons in early life to apply themselves
to this branch of learning... It may indeed be justly asserted, that many of the differences in
opinion amongst men, with the disputes, contentions, and alienations of heart, which have too
often proceeded from such differences, have been occasioned by a want of proper skill in the
connexion and meaning of words, and by a tenacious misapplication of language."

(Lindley Murray, English Grammar, Adapted to the Different Classes of Learners, 1818)

"We study grammar because a knowledge of sentence structure is an aid in the interpretation
of literature; because continual dealing with sentences influences the student to form better
sentences in his own composition; and because grammar is the best subject in our course of
study for the development of reasoning power."

(William Frank Webster, The Teaching of English Grammar. Houghton, 1905)

"The study of language is a part of general knowledge. We study the complex working of the
human body to understand ourselves; the same reason should attract us to studying the
marvelous complexity of human language...

"If you understand the nature of language, you will realize the ground for your linguistic
prejudices and perhaps moderate them; you will also more clearly assess linguistic issues of
public concern, such as worries about the state of the language or what to do about the
teaching of immigrants.

B. The purpose of writing

The purpose of writing this paper, namely :

1. To find the meaning of Grammar

2. To find out the kinds 10 Types of Grammar
3. Find out of the part of speech
4. To find out of the part of Grammar like Tenses

C. Formulation of the problem

Base on the background described above, several problems can be concluded which can be
discussion chapter, the formulation of the problem include :

1. What is Grammar ?
2. How many type of Grammar ?
3. What are the part of speech ?
 Chapter II
A. Definition of Grammar
Language as conceived of by Chomsky is “a set (finite or infinite) of sentences, each
finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements” (Chomsky 1957:13). As he
further claims, this holds true for all natural languages since they have “a finite number of
phonemes (or letters in its alphabet) and each sentence is representable as a finite sequence of
these phonemes (or letters)” (Chomsky 1957:13). Thus, a grammar of a language should be
thought of as “a device of some sort for producing the sentences of the language under
analysis” (Chomsky 1957:13). Such a linguistic analysis of a language should attempt to sort
out the grammatical sentences from the ungrammatical ones and study the structure of the
grammatical sentences. Furthermore, the grammar of a language will generate all the
grammatical sentences of a language and none of the ungrammatical ones. There comes,
however, the question of what constitutes a sentence or a string of grammatically-arranged
words. Chomsky accounts, in this respect, on a native speaker’s intuition. Hence, once a
particular string of words or a sentence causes a feeling of wrongness in a native speaker,
then it can be classified as ungrammatical. Such an approach to grammaticality enabled
syntactitians to study language and its grammatical properties on the basis of devised
sentences and not through a corpus of observed speech as it was the case in the past. As put
forward by Chomsky (1957), grammar of a language should be considered autonomous of
meaning since it is likely for a sentence to be grammatical on the one hand, and meaningless
on the other, as in Chomsky’s famous example ‘colourless green ideas sleep furiously’. The
opposite is possible as well, thus, a sentence or a string of words may be both ungrammatical
and meaningful, to cite yet another Chomsky’s example ‘read you a book on modern music’.
Therefore, a well formulated grammar of a language should produce all and only
grammatical sentences of a language, regardless of their meaning.

B. Types of Grammar

10 Types of Grammar (and Counting)

Different Ways of Analyzing the Structures and Functions of Language.

Melissa Bowerman reminds us that "[d]ifferent kinds of grammars make different

assumptions about the nature of the knowledge which underlies linguistic performance"
(Early Syntactic Development).

So you think you know grammar? All well and good, but which type of grammar do you
know?
Linguists are quick to remind us that there are different varieties of grammar--that is,
different ways of describing and analyzing the structures and functions of language.

One basic distinction worth making is that between descriptive grammar and prescriptive
grammar (also called usage). Both are concerned with rules--but in different ways. Specialists
in descriptive grammar examine the rules or patterns that underlie our use of words, phrases,
clauses, and sentences. In contrast, prescriptive grammarians (such as most editors and
teachers) try to enforce rules about what they believe to be the correct uses of language.

1. Comparative Grammar

The analysis and comparison of the grammatical structures of related languages is known as
comparative grammar. Contemporary work in comparative grammar is concerned with "a
faculty of language that provides an explanatory basis for how a human being can acquire a
first language . . .. In this way, the theory of grammar is a theory of human language and
hence establishes the relationship among all languages" (R. Freidin, Principles and
Parameters in Comparative Grammar. MIT Press, 1991).

2. Generative Grammar

Generative grammar includes the rules determining the structure and interpretation of
sentences that speakers accept as belonging to the language. "Simply put, a generative
grammar is a theory of competence: a model of the psychological system of unconscious
knowledge that underlies a speaker's ability to produce and interpret utterances in a language"
(F. Parker and K. Riley, Linguistics for Non-Linguists. Allyn and Bacon, 1994).

3. Mental Grammar

The generative grammar stored in the brain that allows a speaker to produce language that
other speakers can understand is mental grammar. "All humans are born with the capacity for
constructing a Mental Grammar, given linguistic experience; this capacity for language is
called the Language Faculty (Chomsky, 1965). A grammar formulated by a linguist is an
idealized description of this Mental Grammar" (P. W. Culicover and A. Nowak, Dynamical
Grammar: Foundations of Syntax II. Oxford University Press, 2003).

4. Pedagogical Grammar

Grammatical analysis and instruction designed for second-language students. "Pedagogical

grammar is a slippery concept. The term is commonly used to denote (1) pedagogical
process--the explicit treatment of elements of the target language systems as (part of)
language teaching methodology; (2) pedagogical content--reference sources of one kind or
another that present information about the target language system; and (3) combinations of
process and content" (D. Little, "Words and Their Properties: Arguments for a Lexical
Approach to Pedagogical Grammar." Perspectives on Pedagogical Grammar, ed. by T. Odlin.
Cambridge University Press, 1994).

5. Performance Grammar

A description of the syntax of English as it is actually used by speakers in dialogues.

"[P]erformance grammar . . . centers attention on language production; it is my belief that the
problem of production must be dealt with before problems of reception and comprehension
can properly be investigated" (John Carroll, "Promoting Language Skills." Perspectives on
School Learning: Selected Writings of John B. Carroll, ed. by L. W. Anderson. Erlbaum,
1985)

6. Reference Grammar

A description of the grammar of a language, with explanations of the principles governing the
construction of words, phrases, clauses, and sentences. Examples of contemporary reference
grammars in English include A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language, by
Randolph Quirk et al. (1985), the Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English (1999),
and The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language (2002).

7. Theoretical Grammar

The study of the essential components of any human language. "Theoretical grammar or
syntax is concerned with making completely explicit the formalisms of grammar, and in
providing scientific arguments or explanations in favour of one account of grammar rather
than another, in terms of a general theory of human language" (A. Renouf and A. Kehoe, The
Changing Face of Corpus Linguistics. Rodopi, 2003).

8. Traditional Grammar

The collection of prescriptive rules and concepts about the structure of the language. "We say
that traditional grammar is prescriptive because it focuses on the distinction between what
some people do with language and what they ought to do with it, according to a pre-
established standard. . . . The chief goal of traditional grammar, therefore, is perpetuating a
historical model of what supposedly constitutes proper language" (J. D. Williams, The
Teacher's Grammar Book. Routledge, 2005).

9. Transformational Grammar

A theory of grammar that accounts for the constructions of a language by linguistic

transformations and phrase structures. "In transformational grammar, the term 'rule' is used
not for a precept set down by an external authority but for a principle that is unconsciously
yet regularly followed in the production and interpretation of sentences. A rule is a direction
for forming a sentence or a part of a sentence, which has been internalized by the native
speaker" (D. Bornstein, An Introduction to Transformational Grammar. University Press of
America, 1984)

10. Universal Grammar

The system of categories, operations, and principles shared by all human languages and
considered to be innate. "Taken together, the linguistic principles of Universal Grammar
constitute a theory of the organization of the initial state of the mind/brain of the language
learner--that is, a theory of the human faculty for language" (S. Crain and R. Thornton,
Investigations in Universal Grammar. MIT Press, 2000).

C. THE PARTS OF SPEECH

All words in the English language can be classified as one of the eight different parts of
speech. Understanding the different parts of speech is important in understanding how words
can and should be joined together to make sentences that are both grammatically correct and
readable. An understanding of the parts of speech is also important for knowing how to
correctly punctuate sentences.

The eight parts of speech are nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, conjunctions,
prepositions, and interjections.

1). Noun – A noun is generally defined as a person, place, or thing; however, ideas are also
nouns. For example, love is not a tangible thing that can be seen or held, but clearly it exists,
so it is a also a noun.

Nouns can be divided into two main categories: proper nouns and common nouns. Proper
nouns are the names of people or places that are capitalized (Aims Community College, John
Smith, etc.). Common nouns are names that do not require capitalization (book, chair, school,
etc).

2). Verb – A verb is a word that describes action or a state of being. The second part of this
definition is important, as many believe that verbs are always action words that can be
visualized. This is true of action verbs: run, walk, play, jump, sing, scream, etc.
However, there are also linking verbs, and these types of verbs do not express action; instead,
they express identity, classification, or existence. (The following are the most common
linking verbs: is, am, was, were, are, and verb phrases ending in be, been, being.)

Verbs often change their form as different endings are added to them. These endings are
changed to show a verb’s relationship to time. This is referred to as verb tense.

3). Pronoun – A pronoun is a word that is used to replace a noun For example, instead of
saying “Sam likes pizza” we can use “He” as a substitute for Sam. Writers need to be careful
with pronoun use, as pronouns should only be used after a noun has been used first, and it
must be clear which noun the pronoun is replacing.

4). Adjective – An adjective modifies (limits or describes) a noun or a pronoun. Essentially,

it provides more information about a person, place, or thing. For instance, in the sentence
Frank is a tall, skinny man, both tall and skinny are adjectives as they are used to describe
Frank.

5). Adverb – Similar to adjectives, an adverb modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.
In the sentence Susan walked slowly towards the door, the word slowly serves as an adverb
since it describes how she walked.

6). Preposition – A preposition shows the relationship between a noun or pronoun and some
other word in the sentence. This relationship is spatial, temporal, or directional. For instance,
in the sentence Mark walked towards the house, the word towards is a preposition since it
shows direction. When linked with nouns or pronouns, prepositions create word groups
referred to as prepositional phrases. (In the previous example, towards the house is a
prepositional phrase.)

7). Conjunction – Conjunctions are used to link words or parts of sentences together. There
are four different types of conjunctions: coordinating, subordinating, adverb, and correlative.

- Coordinating conjunctions (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) are used to connect similar words
or independent clauses (sentences) together. Coordinating conjunctions are often referred to
with the acronym FANBOYS.

- Subordinating conjunctions come at the beginning of subordinate clauses and are used to
connect the subordinate clause to the rest of the sentence (also referred to as the independent
clause). Common subordinating conjunctions include after, as, although, because, before,
even though, if, once, rather than, since, that, though, unless, until, when, whenever, whereas,
while.
- Conjunctive adverbs are transitional words used to connect one sentence to another.
Common conjunctive adverbs include additionally, in addition, moreover, also, consequently,
furthermore, otherwise, instead, for instance, for example, however, on the other hand,
conversely, nevertheless, accordingly, therefore, generally, in fact, in other words, in
conclusion, finally.

- Correlative conjunctions are a combination of a coordinating conjunction and another word

(example: In the sentence both John and I are having a hard time with the homework,
both…and are the correlative conjunctions.)

For more information about conjunctions and how to use and punctuate them, view the using
conjunctions page.

8). Interjection – An interjection is a word added to a sentence to convey emotion and is not
grammatically related to any other part of the sentence. Interjections can also serve as a
single word sentence (ex: Wow!). Interjections are rarely used in academic writing and their
use should be avoided in most essays.

D. 16 of Tenses
TENSES

1. Simple Present Tense

Although present mean now (sekarang) but matter of in don't be interpreted that the action
done at the moment. this tenses is used to express something that have the character of
remain to, real truth or habit. Because often concerning occurence of past time, now and will
come. This Tense at least having selected time description. English sentences generally must
have subject (S) and Predicate (P). Because that, all tenses formulatived like that.

Formulas of Present Tense:

(positive) : S + V1 / S + V1 + O

(Negative) : S + do (es) not + V1

(Interrogative) : Do (es) + S + V1 ?

If in the sentence have not another verb, so we use verb to be.

Affirmative (+) : S + Be (am, is, are)

Affirmative (-) : S + Be (am, is, are) + not

Affirmative (?) : Be (am, is, are) + S

Examples:

(Positive) : He drinks milk.

(Negative) : He does not drink milk.

(Interrogative) : Does he drink milk?

Passive Voice : Milk is drunk by him

2. Present Continuous Tense

This Tense is used to express something really action is doing in this time. sentences in this
tense a more regular weared than present tense.

Formulas of Present Continuous Tense:

(positive) : S + Be (am, is are) + V ing (present participle)

(Negative) : S + Be (am, is are) + not + V ing

(Interrogative) : Be (am, is, are) + S + V ing ?

Examples:

(Positive) : He is drinking milk.

(Negative) : He is not drinking milk.

(Interrogative) : Is he drinking milk ?

Passive Voice : Milk is being drunk by him

3. Present Perfect Tense

This is Tense which was generally assumed most was difficult to comprehended. To
overcome this matter is we have to recognize marking of Tense this. Present Perfect Tense Of
dot weigh against at "It have or have its" an action "is not at time doing" action. or equally
Present Perfect Tense don't make account of when the happening of an action but the
haveness of action done. Therefore this Tense have never followed by time description.

Formulas of Present Perfect Tense:

(positive) : S + have (has) + V3 (past participle)

(Negative) : S + have (has) + not + V3

(Interrogative) : Have (has) + S + V3?

Examples:

(Positive) : He has drunk milk.

(Negative) : He has not drunk milk.

(Interrogative) : Has he drunk milk ?

Passive Voice : Milk has been drunk by him

4. Present Perfect Continuous Tense

If an action started past time but still is doing till now hence us use sentence in the form of
Present Perfect Continuous Tense. This Tense is weared if Verb is including Static Nature
(bersifat tetap).

Formulas of Present Continuous Tense:

(positive) : S + have (has) + been + Ving

(Negative) : S + have (has) + not + been + Ving

(Interrogative) : Have (has) + S + been + Ving ?

Examples:

(Positive) : He has been drinking milk.

(Negative) : He has not been drinking milk.

(Interrogative) : Has he been drinking milk ?

Passive Voice : Milk has been being by him

PAST TENSE

1. Simple Past Tense

 is used to express an old world action that happened. Way past tense form depend on type
of second Verb. first way added d or of ed at second verb (regular verb). Second way in
generally change the vowel sounds (irregular verb).

Formula of Simple Past Tense:

(Positive) : S + V2 (preterite)

(Negative) : S + did not (didn’t) + V1

(Interrogative) : Did + S + V1 ?

Examples:

(Positive) : He drank milk.

(Negative) : He did not drink milk.

(Interrogative) : Did he drink milk ?

Passive Voice : Milk was drunk by him

2. Past Continuous Tense

This Tenses is used to express an action which is happened in past time. and at the same
time happened other action. This Tense emphasize is the happening of the action not its have.

Formulas of Past Continuos Tense:

(Positive) : S + was/were + V ing (present participle)

(Negative) : S + was/were + not + V ing

(Interrogative) : was/were + S + V ing?

Examples:

(Positive) : He was drinking milk.

(Negative) : He was not drinking milk.

(Interrogative) : Was he drinking milk ?

Passive Voice : Milk is being drunk by him

3. Past Perfect Tense

It is the same with Past Continuos Tense nor selfsupporting as simple sentence but have to
provide with Past Tense sentence. this used to express an action which have been done in past
time.

Formulas of Past Perfect Tense:

(Positive) : S + had + V3

(Negative) : S + had + not + V3

(Interrogative) : Had + S + V3?

Examples:

(Positive) : He had drunk milk.

(Negative) : He had not drunk milk.

(Interrogative) : Had He drunk milk ?

Passive Voice : Milk had been drunk by him

4. Past Perfect Continuos Tense

Present participle of Past this Perfect like action which still take place past time when an
other occurence cut.

Formulas of Past Perfect Continuos Tense:

(Positive) : S + had been + V ing

(Negative) : S + had not + been + V ing

(Interrogative) : Had + S + been + V ing?

Examples:

(Positive) : He had been drinking.

(Negative) : He had not been drinking.

(Interrogative) : Had he been drinking ?

Passive Voice : Milk had been being drunk by him

FUTURE TENSE

1. Simple Future Tense

This Tense is used to express an action to happen in the future.

Formulas of Simple Future Tense:

(Positive) : S + shall/will + V1

(Negative) : S + shall/will + not + V1

(Interrogative) : Shall/will + S + V1 ?

Examples:

(Positive) : He will drink milk.

(Negative) : He will not drink milk.

(Interrogative) : Will He drink ?

2. Future Continuous Tense

This Tense is used to express estimated to action underway at the time of selected is future
or there is happened other action.

Formulas of Future Continuous Tense:

(Positive) : S + shall/will be + V ing

(Negative) : S + shall/will + not + be + V ing

(Interrogative) : Shall/will + S + Be + V ing?

Examples:
(Positive) : He will be drinking milk.

(Negative) : He will not be drinking milk.

(Interrogative) : Will he be drinking milk ?

Passive Voice : Milk will be being drunk by him

3. Future Perfect Tense

This Tense is used to express an estimated action have been done at the selected time in
future or if there are any other action.

Formulas of Future Perfect Tense:

(Positive) : S + shall/will have + V3

(Negative) : S + shall/will + not + have + V3

(Interrogative) : Shall/will + S + have + V3?

Examples:

(Positive) : He will have drunk milk.

(Negative) : He will not have drunk milk.

(Interrogative) : Will he have drunk milk ?

Passive Voice : Milk will has drunk by him

4. Future Perfect Continuous Tense

This Tense is weared to express an estimated action will come in selected future period or
if there are any happened other action. This Tense seldom wear.

Formulas of Future Perfect Tense:

(Positive) : S + shall/will have been + V ing

(Negative) : S + shall/will + not + have been + V ing

(Interrogative) : Shall/will + S + have been + V ing?

Examples:

(Positive) : he will have been drinking milk.

(Negative) : he will not have been drinking milk.

(Interrogative) : Will he have been drinking milk ?

Passive Voice : Milk will has being drunk milk

PAST FUTURE TENSE

1. Past Future Tense

This Tense generally only used in Conditional (Kalimat Pengandaian) or Reported Speech
(Kalimat tidak langsung).

Formulas of Past Future Tense:

(Positive) : S + will + V1

(Negative) : S + will not + V1

(Interrogative) : Will + S + V1?

Examples:

(Positive) : He will drink milk.

(Negative) : He will not drink milk.

(Interrogative) : Will he drink ?

Passive Voice : Milk will be drunk by him

2. Past Future Continuous Tense

This Tense is weared very rare and if there are any, only met in Reported Speech.

Formulas of Past Future Continuous Tense:

(Positive) : S + will be + V ing

(Negative) : S + will not be + V ing

(Interrogative) : will + S + be + V ing?

Examples:

(Positive) : He will be drinking milk.

(Negative) : He will not be drinking milk.

(Interrogative) : Will he be drinking milk ?

Passive Voice : Milk would have been drunk by him

3. Past Future Perfect Tense

This Tense intrinsically only weared in Conditional (kalimat Pengandaian) as main clause
for expressing unreal past (lampau tak nyata).

Formulas of Past Future Perfect Tense:

(Positive) : S + will have + V3

(Negative) : S + will not + have + V3

(Interrogative) : will + S + have + V3?

Examples:

(Positive) : he will have drunk milk.

(Negative) : he will not have drunk milk.

(Interrogative) : Will he have drunk milk ?

4. Past Future Perfect Continuous Tense

This Tense is used very rare even in Reported Speech even if.

Formulas of Past Future Perfect Continuous Tense:

(Positive) : S + will + have + been + V ing

(Negative) : S + will + have not + been +V ing

(Interrogative) : will + S + have been + V ing?

Examples:

(Positive) : he will have been drinking milk

(Negative) : he will have not been drinking milk

(Interrogative) : Will he have been drinking ?

 Conclusion

Studying the English language has a more obvious practical application: it can help you to
use the language more effectively." (Sidney Greenbaum and Gerald Nelson, An Introduction
to English Grammar, 2nd ed. Longman, 2002)

"Grammar is the study of how sentences mean. And that is why it helps. If we want to
understand the meaning conveyed by sentences, and to develop our ability to express and
respond to this meaning, then the more we know about grammar, the better we will be able to
carry out these tasks...

"Grammar is the structural foundation of our ability to express ourselves. The more we are
aware of how it works, the more we can monitor the meaning and effectiveness of the way
we and others use language. It can help foster precision, detect ambiguity, and exploit the
richness of expression available in English.

And it can help everyone—not only teachers of English, but teachers of anything, for all
teaching is ultimately a matter of getting to grips with meaning." (David Crystal, Making
Sense of Grammar. Longman, 2004)

"[T]he study of your own grammatical system can be quite revealing and useful, and provides
you with insights into how language, your own and others', whether spoken or signed,
actually works...

"With an understanding of how language actually works, and a concise vocabulary to talk
about it, you will be equipped to make more informed decisions and choices about grammar
and usage, and to tease out linguistic fact from linguistic fiction."

(Anne Lobeck and Kristin Denham, Navigating English Grammar: A Guide to Analyzing
Real Language. Wiley-Blackwell, 2013)

*Also worthwhile is the Assembly's website, simply outfitted with grammar links, teaching
tips, and a grammar bibliography. In short, it's a place where people know that grammar
matters—and how, and why.
 References

https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&url=https://www.ef.co.id/englishfirst/
efblog/grammar-and-vocab/tips-tata-bahasa/tips-menguasai-16-tenses-bahasa-
inggris/&ved=2ahUKEwiy0-mg8-
jgAhWDiXAKHcLJDZoQFjAWegQIBBAB&usg=AOvVaw0wLvl39QHyZ4sBtjhik5DY

https://www.thoughtco.com/types-of-grammar

https://www.thoughtco.com/why-does-grammar

R. Freidin, Principles and Parameters in Comparative Grammar. MIT Press, 1991

F. Parker and K. Riley, Linguistics for Non-Linguists. Allyn and Bacon, 1994