Grammar And Syntax(Notes)

Gulsher Ali

Semester: 4th

What is syntax?

Syntax is the part of linguistics that studies the structure and formation of sentences. It
explains how words and phrases are arranged to form correct sentences. A sentence could
make no sense and still be correct from the syntax point of view as long as words are in their
appropriate spots and agree with each other.

Nom Chomsky is considered as father of modern syntax.

What is Grammar?
Grammar is the set of rules a language follows to convey meaning. Grammar is a broad term
that encompasses more specific areas of study including phonology, morphology, semantic
and syntax.

Or
Rules of arrangement or rearrangement of human language into phrases to syntax
Deference between Grammar and syntax

Grammar comprises the Syntax deals with the way

entire system of rules for a that words are put together to
language, including syntax form phrases, clauses, and
sentences

Grammar comprises the entire system of rules for a language, including syntax.
Syntax deals with the way that words are put together to form phrases, clauses, and
sentences.

Why should we study Grammar and Syntax?

• It gives us an insight into the natural/ rules of language

Steven pinker said: “language is the window to the human brain”
• It helps us in drawing a Comparative analysis of the human language
S+ V + O English language
S+ O+ V Urdu language
 • It helps us in studying the different structures of human languages and therefore,
helps us to discover the structure of the human brain.

• It helps us to understand the universal similarities among the human languages.

All languages have Noun, pronoun, verb, subject, object

My name is Faisal ‫اسمی فیصل‬
Note: Arabic language does not have Auxiliaries Verbs Ex: Is, Am, Are…..

Some Concepts and Misconceptions regarding Grammar and syntax.

Concept #01: All languages have syntax.
Concept #02: Language is innate(inherited or in built or natural) / Grammar is innate.
Concept#03: Syntax as a cognitive science which means that Syntax is the cognitive capacity
of human beings that allows us to connect linguistic meaning with linguistic form. And
Language is the cognitive/ psychological property of language.

• The ( i ) Language means internal language which means that the internal
psychological state of individual w.r.t. language. In linguistics internal language refers
to an individual's mental representation of language. It encompasses the knowledge
and rules that allow a speaker to understand and produce grammatically correct
utterances.
 • External language on the other hand refers to the actual manifestation of language in
speech or written form that is produced and understood by others.
• The ( E ) language means external language

Concept#04: Syntax as scientific method

Concept#05: language as an innate instinct. (Language is learned or acquired?)

One hypothesis is that humans have a unique cognitive capacity for language known as
Universal Grammar proposed by linguist Noam Chomsky. According to Chomsky the ability to
acquire and produce language is a result of innate grammatical structures that are hard-wired
into the human brain. These structures provide a set of rules or principles that guide language
acquisition allowing children to generate and understand an infinite number of sentences.
Evidence for innate language abilities can be observed in young children's language
development. Children acquire language rapidly and effortlessly even in complex syntactic
structures suggesting they possess innate language-specific knowledge. Additionally there are
certain linguistic universals such as the existence of subjects verbs and objects in sentence
structure which are found in languages across the world.
Another argument for language as an instinct comes from the critical period hypothesis. It
suggests that there is a limited time window during early childhood when language
acquisition is most efficient. If language input is not received during this critical period it
becomes increasingly difficult to learn a first language fully. This critical period implies the
existence of a biological predisposition for language acquisition.

However opposing viewpoints argue that language is primarily a learned behavior influenced
by environmental and cultural factors. They emphasize the role of social interaction cultural
context and exposure to language input in language development. They believe that while
humans may have some predisposition for language learning it is not innate in the same way
as other biological instincts.

Grammaticality Judgement: Grammaticality judgement is a fundamental concept in

linguistics that refers to the ability of a native speaker of a language to determine whether a
sentence is grammatically correct meaning that it adheres to the rules and principles of the
language's grammar or whether it is ungrammatical. It involves evaluating the structural
syntactic and morphological aspects of a sentence and determining if they conform to the
rules and patterns of the language.
It is important to note that grammaticality judgements can vary among individuals and
communities as different dialects or variations of a language may have different grammar
rules.
“Finite set of letters which have ability to create infinite structure” by Nom Chomsky
Innate Hypothesis: Given by renowned linguist Nom Chomsky
In linguistics, the innateness hypothesis, also known as the nativist hypothesis, holds that
humans are born with at least some knowledge of linguistic structure.

OR
“We are born with certain rules of languages”
Universal Grammar : (By Nom Chomsky)
Universal Grammar (UG) is a theoretical concept proposed by Noam Chomsky (not without
criticism or controversy from scholars in the scientific community) that the human brain
contains an innate mental grammar that helps humans acquire language. Chomsky theorized
that the brain contains a mechanism he referred to as a language acquisition device (LAD),
according to Chomsky, children would never be able to learn language from the input they
receive.
Hierarchical Structure

Why do languages have syntax?

(Syntax let’s people express themselves.)
Syntax is the set of rules and principles that govern the structure and arrangement of words
phrases and clauses in a language. It ensures that sentences are formed in a coherent and
structured manner allowing for effective communication and understanding. Syntax allows us
to convey meaning and convey ideas accurately ensuring that language is not only meaningful
but also comprehensible to others.
How do we evaluate a good syntax theory?

There are three qualifications by Nom Chomsky which we call “Level of Adequacy”
1. Observationally Adequate Grammar
2. Descriptively Adequate Grammar
3. Explanatorily Adequate Grammar
1) Observationally Adequate Grammar: Observationally Adequate Grammar
refers to a linguistic theory that posits a grammar for a language that is capable
of accounting for all the observed grammatical structures and patterns in that
language. In other words an observationally adequate grammar should be able
to accurately describe and explain the syntactic semantic and phonological
aspects of a language based solely on the data available from that language's
speakers. It aims to capture the underlying rules and principles that govern a
language's grammar without imposing external biases or assumptions.
2) Descriptively Adequate Grammar: Descriptively Adequate Grammar refers to
a grammar that accurately describes and accounts for the structures and
patterns observed in a particular language. It aims to capture the rules
constraints and regularities that native speakers unconsciously follow when
generating and understanding sentences. The goal is not to prescribe how a
language should be but rather to provide an accurate and comprehensive
description of how it actually is used in everyday communication. Descriptively
Adequate Grammar is an essential tool for linguists and language researchers
to gain insights into the underlying principles and mechanisms of a language.
3) Explanatorily Adequate Grammar: “A linguistic theory that aims for
explanatory adequacy is concerned with the internal structure of the device
[i.e. grammar]; that is, it aims to provide a principled basis, independent of any
particular language, for the selection of the descriptively adequate grammar
of each language” Chomsky
Example: How child acquire a language?
By passing through these three level Nom Chomsky says that any of theory which fulfill these
three qualifications, it is said to be considered as a good syntax theory.
Misconceptions:

• It is not about that grammar which we usually assume

• It does not improve any sentence structure.

Quotes:
“We are the prisoner of language” Anonymous
Edward Sapir claims “ Language is a guide to social reality”
What is phrase?

A phrase is one or more words functioning as a unit in a sentence. Typically, phrases consist
of a head and a modifier. The main word in a phrase is called the head and is assumed to be
an obligatory element in the phrase.
Words that describe the head word or give us more information about it are called modifiers;
modifier are seen as optional elements in a phrase. If they come before the head, they are
known as pre-modifiers; if they come after the head, they are called post-modifiers
“ Sentences are designed in hierarchical structures where words are put together in larger
part is called phrases”

Difference between term phrase and its technical use in linguistics?

In common use the term "phrase" refers to a small group of words that convey a specific
meaning but do not form a complete sentence. It is often used interchangeably with the term
"expression" or "idiom." In this sense a phrase can be a standalone utterance or part of a
larger sentence.

In linguistics however the technical use of the term "phrase" has a more specific meaning. In
this context a phrase is a syntactic unit that consists of one or more words and functions as a
constituent within a sentence. Phrases can be categorized based on their grammatical
structures such as noun phrases verb phrases prepositional phrases etc. They play a crucial
role in determining the grammatical structure and meaning of a sentence.
Level of phrase.
Phrase works at two levels
1 . Phrase level
2 . Word level.
In linguistics phrase level and word level refer to different levels of analysis when examining
language structure.
Word level analysis focuses on individual words and their properties such as meaning
pronunciation and grammatical functions. It analyzes how words combine to form meaningful
sentences and how they can be categorized into parts of speech or lexical categories.
Phrase level analysis on the other hand looks at larger units of language called phrases.
Phrases are groups of words that function as a single unit within a sentence. This analysis
observes how words within a phrase relate to each other and contribute to the overall
meaning and structure of the sentence.
For example in the sentence "She is reading a book word-level analysis would focus on each
individual word like "she "is "reading "a and "book examining their properties and roles.
Phrase-level analysis however considers the grouping of words such as "is reading" as a verb
phrase and "a book" as a noun phrase and how they interact within the sentence.

Why do we have phrase?

Sentence begins from phrase and therefore, it is a minimum required
Phrase structure rule: Phrase structure rules also known as syntax rules are a set of rules that
govern the formation and structure of phrases in a language. These rules specify how words
and phrases can be combined together to form grammatically correct sentences. They outline
the hierarchical relationships between different constituents or parts of a sentence.
1. Head: The head is the central or essential part of a phrase or sentence. It is the main word
that determines the grammatical category and meaning of the phrase. For example in the
noun phrase "the big house "house" is the head because it defines the category (noun) and
carries the main meaning.
2. Specifier: The Specifier provides additional information or clarifies the meaning of the
head. It occurs before the head and modifies it. In the phrase "the big house "the" is the
specifier because it indicates the definiteness of the noun "house."
3. Complement: The complement complements or completes the meaning of the head. It
usually occurs after the head and is required to make the phrase or sentence grammatically
complete. In the sentence "She ate an apple "an apple" is the complement of the verb "ate"
because it completes the action being described.
Basic Formulae of phrases.
 FINAL TERM

Systemic Functional linguistics/Systemic Functional Grammar.

Systemic functional linguistics is the study of the relationship between language and its
functions in social settings.

• This system is given by Michael Halliday in 1960

• He is functionalist.
• Every structure of phrase or word has its own function.
• Emphasis on the function of text/syntactical structure of grammar.
• Noam Chomsky is a structuralist
• He only talks about the structure of phrase or sentence not function of it.
• Form is same but function change.
• If we change the form the function will automatically change.
• Socio-economic and political functions.

Example; A little cat ate the mouse (Here The little cat is NP, and The mouse is also NP,
they both have same form (NP) but different function.
Definition: Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) is a linguistic theory that focuses on the
functional aspects of language and how it is used in social contexts.

Explanation: Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) is a linguistic theory developed by Michael

Halliday that focuses on the analysis of how language is used to communicate meaning within
social contexts. It examines the relationships between language, society, and individual users.
SFL considers language as a system of choices, where grammar plays a crucial role in
expressing meanings and organizing texts.
Language is used for a purpose to get things get done which means that through the language
speaker conveys his message with specific purpose. It may be emotional, factual or to get
political benefits. For instance, a politician speeches powerful words for his personal benefits
, moreover, we have seen on the television many type of news are told with selected words.

Register: SFL also highlights the notion of "register," which refers to the variety of language
used in different social contexts and situations. Each register has its own particular language
features and is characterized by its own set of choices in terms of vocabulary, grammar, and
discourse patterns.

Field( what is being conveyed= message)

Tenor (Who addresses whom? Speaker and listener)
Mode (Medium of communication written or spoken).
Within a given register, there are various fields, which indicate specific domains or areas of
human activity. Fields encompass specialized vocabulary, jargon, and expressions related to a
particular subject or profession. For example, the field of medicine has its own register with
distinct terminology that healthcare professionals use when communicating with each other
or with patients.
Tenor, on the other hand, refers to the social relationship between the participants in a
speech event or the roles they play. It involves the distinction between formal and informal
communication styles. For instance, the tenor in a conversation between a boss and an
employee would be different from that between close friends.
Mode refers to the medium or channel through which communication takes place. It can vary
between spoken, written, and even digital modes. Each mode has its own specific
characteristics, such as the use of tone, intonation, punctuation, or abbreviations in written
language.
Meta-Function: According to SFG, functional bases of grammatical phenomena are divided
into three broad areas, called meta-functions

• Ideational Function
• Interpersonal Function.
• Textual Function.

The ideational meta-function is concerned with the representation of experiences and the
expression of participants, processes, and circumstances. It deals with the content or
ideational meaning in a message. This meta-function allows speakers and writers to convey
information about the world and their experiences.
( language helps us to convey our thoughts) (Field= message)
The interpersonal meta-function involves the interaction between speakers or writers and
their audience. It enables the expression of attitudes, emotions, and social relationships. This
meta-function is responsible for establishing and maintaining interpersonal connections,
expressing social roles, and negotiating meanings within a communication event.
( The way we establish social relation) (Tenor= Speaker and listener or reader or audience)
The textual meta-function focuses on how language is organized and structured to create
meaning. It deals with the cohesive and coherent aspects of language, including how words,
phrases, and clauses are linked together to form texts. This meta-function includes features
such as grammar, sentence structure, and discourse markers that contribute to the overall
logic and flow of a text.
( Language gives us ‘tools’ to convey our message or content). ( It may be written, spoken or
body expression).
Transformative Generative Grammar or Transformational Grammar

Given by Noam Chomsky in 20th century

Transformative Generative Grammar is a theoretical framework within the field of linguistics
that was proposed by Noam Chomsky. It aims to explain the underlying structure of human
language and how it is generated in the mind. This approach emphasizes the idea that
language is generated by a finite set of rules that can generate an infinite number of
sentences. It also focuses on the notion of transformational processes that manipulate and
generate different linguistic structures from a basic underlying structure. The theory seeks to
understand the deep structure and surface structure of language, as well as the rules that
mediate between them
Features of TGG/TG;

• It distinguishes the ill- formed sentences from well-formed sentences.

In Transformative Generative Grammar, well-formed sentences are grammatically acceptable

and adhere to the rules of the specific language being used. These sentences are considered
"grammatical" and are typically understood and interpreted by native speakers. Well-formed
sentences follow the syntactic and semantic rules of the language, which govern the ordering
of words, phrase structures, and the relationships between different linguistic elements.
On the other hand, ill-formed sentences are syntactically or semantically incorrect, violating
the grammatical rules of the language. These sentences may be grammatically inconsistent,
have conflicting word order, or involve incorrect usage of linguistic elements. Ill-formed
sentences are typically not recognized as valid expressions by native speakers, as they deviate
from the established patterns and structures of the language.

• It makes difference between the surface and deep structure.

Surface structure refers to the actual order and arrangement of words that we perceive in a
sentence. It represents the syntactic structure that is visible and directly interpretable in
language.

Deep structure, on the other hand, represents the underlying meaning and abstract syntactic
structure of a sentence. It is the representation of a sentence that captures its core meaning
and can be transformed into different surface structures with the same underlying meaning.
The transformational aspect of this framework suggests that there are underlying syntactic
operations that can convert the deep structure into different surface structures. These
transformations allow for the generation of various sentence structures while maintaining the
same underlying meaning.
 • It establishes the common universals among the human language

The concept of common universals in transformative generative grammar refers to the

fundamental structural properties that are shared by all languages. According to Chomsky,
despite the vast diversity of languages across different cultures and regions, there exist
inherent similarities in their syntactic structures and rules.

To explain this feature, imagine we have two unrelated languages, Language A and Language
B. Transformative generative grammar seeks to identify the common universals between
these two languages.
For example, both Language A and Language B may have subject-verb-object (SVO) word
order as a common universal. This means that in both languages, the subject typically comes
before the verb, and the verb comes before the object. This common universal allows us to
understand that there is a shared structural element in how both languages convey basic
sentence structures.

Additionally, both languages may have similar grammatical categories, such as nouns, verbs,
adjectives, and adverbs, which are used to convey meaning. This shared feature suggests that
these basic categories are fundamental to human language and are present in various
languages around the world.

• It helps to describe the syntactical structure of human language. Vp, Np, Pp and Ap

Tests For Phrase Structure Rules.

Phrase structure rules are rules that define the structure of sentences in a language. These
rules specify how words can be combined to form phrases and how phrases can be combined
to form sentences. To test the validity and accuracy of these rules, linguistic researchers
employ various tests, including the substitution test, the movement test, and the coordination
test. Let's explore each of these tests in detail with examples.

• the existence of the syntactic constituents in tree structures can be verified with the
help of special tests
• Words are grouped in syntactical units called “Constituent”.
• Not every test works for every constituent

• The substitution test

“The substitution test involves replacing a phrase or a group of words in a sentence with a
single word. If the substitution results in a grammatical and meaningful sentence, it
demonstrates that the phrase or group of words being replaced functions as a constituent.”
 • the substitution test confirms that a phrase is a unit by replacing it by a single word:
• if a group of words can be replaced by a single word such as there, they, so, do, etc., it
is a syntactic constituent
Applying the test

Step-by-step:

1. Identify the string of words whose constituency you want to test.

2. Identify an appropriate substitution word, whose category you know.

3. Replace the string of words (and nothing else) with the chosen word.

4. Check the grammaticality. If it’s grammatical and it means exactly the same thing,
then you can conclude it’s a piece of evidence in favor of treating the string as a
constituent.

Examples;

• Substitution of Determiner Phrases ⇒ Use a pronoun (he, she, it, they, etc). (Make sure you
use the correct form of the pronoun! Don’t use he when him works better, etc.)
o Example: Carol saw the trees on the hill → Bill saw them, too.
o The citizen rebelled after they discovered the truth
o The students played game before they had practiced in the ground.
o Substitution of Verb Phrases ⇒ Use do so, changed to reflect the appropriate tense
if necessary.
o Example: Carol saw the trees on the hill → Bill did so, as well.
o The students will wear ties if the teacher will do so.
o The children will stop at the corner, if they see us do so.
• Substitution of Locative Prepositional Phrases ⇒ Use there. (This won’t work for all
prepositional phrases, only ones which refer to a location.)
o Carol sat on a bench → Bill sat there, too.
o They stopped at the corner and she stopped there too
o They played in the school ground. We played there too.
• Substitution of clauses ⇒ Use so. (Again, this won’t work for all clauses, only certain ones.)
o Example: Carol thinks that Isabelle left → Sam thinks so, too

• The movement test/ Head movement.

“If a group of words can be moved as a single unit to a different position within the sentence,
they constitute a phrase.”
Or
The movement test involves moving phrases or words within a sentence to see if the resulting
sentence remains grammatical. If the moved phrase or word results in a grammatical
sentence, it confirms that the phrase or word being moved is a constituent.

For example, let's consider the sentence: "John will read the book."
If we move the phrase "the book" to the beginning of the sentence, it still remains
grammatical: "The book, John will read."
This test indicates that the phrase "the book" is a constituent and can be moved within the
sentence.
Example;
The children stopped [at the corner]pp.
[At the corner]pp, they stopped.

Nimra bought a top from that strange little shop.

From that strange little shop Nimra bought a top

I go to work at 9’o clock

At 9’o clock I go to work.

The coordination test

“If a group of words can be joined to another group of words by a conjunction such as and,
or, or but, they constitute a phrase”
Or
The coordination test involves coordinating two or more phrases or words within a sentence
using conjunctions like "and" or "or". If the coordination of the phrases or words results in a
grammatical and meaningful sentence, it confirms that the coordinated parts are
constituents.
For example, let's consider the sentence: "She bought a red shirt and a blue dress."

In this sentence, the phrases "a red shirt" and "a blue dress" are coordinated using the
conjunction "and." The resulting sentence is grammatical and meaningful, indicating that
these phrases are constituents.
Example;
The children [stopped at the corner]vp and [looked both ways]vp.
He is not an intelligent but also a clever boy
They often play cricket but never do homework.
Neither he sings a song nor does she.

Tea or Coffee.
Replacement test;
The "replacement test" is a linguistic tool used to determine the constituents or phrases that
can be replaced by a single word or constituent within a sentence, thereby identifying the
structure of the sentence according to phrase structure rules. It helps to establish the
hierarchical relationships between different constituents within a sentence.
Example:
"The cat is sleeping on the mat."

To identify the constituents and their structure, we can apply the replacement test.
1. The test can be applied to the noun phrase "the cat." If we replace it with a pronoun, such
as "it," the sentence becomes: "It is sleeping on the mat." This suggests that "the cat" is a
noun phrase functioning as a single constituent.
2. We can also apply the test to the verb phrase "is sleeping." If we replace it with a single
verb, such as "meows," the sentence becomes: "The cat meows on the mat." This indicates
that "is sleeping" is a verb phrase functioning as a single constituent.
3. Finally, we can apply the test to the prepositional phrase "on the mat." If we replace it with
a single preposition, such as "under," the sentence becomes: "The cat is sleeping under." This
suggests that "on the mat" is a prepositional phrase functioning as a single constituent
Structural Ambiguity:
Structural ambiguity, also known as syntactic ambiguity, refers to a situation in which a
sentence or phrase can be interpreted in more than one way due to the presence of multiple
possible phrase structures or syntactic arrangements. In other words, it occurs when a
sentence has different interpretations based on the way its constituent parts are combined.
“Associating or giving two different meaning to one syntactical structure”
The tree Diagram in this situation can be different with accordance of sentence emphasis.

Here are a few examples of structural ambiguity in syntax:

1. "I saw the man with the binoculars."
This sentence can be interpreted in two ways:
 a) The speaker saw a man who had binoculars.
b) The speaker used binoculars to see a man.

2) The girl hit the boy with a book.

• ‘The girl hit the boy using a book’
• ‘The boy is holding a book when the girl hit him.
4)He hurt his sister with a knife:

• His sister was holding a knife when he hurt her

• Using a knife, he hurt his sister.
Thematic Relations
Thematic relations in syntax refer to the relationships between different constituents or words
in a sentence based on the roles they play in conveying meaning. These relationships are
crucial for understanding the organization of semantic content within a sentence.
Let's explore these thematic relations further with examples:
1. Agent: The agent is the initiator or doer of an action. It typically corresponds to the subject
of a transitive verb or an active verb. For example:

-John ate an apple.

-The storm destroyed the house
2. Theme: The theme is the entity or subject matter of a sentence. It can be the topic being
discussed or the main focus of attention. For example:

-The lecture was about history

- Amjad kept his syntax book.
3. Experiencer: The experiencer refers to the entity that perceives or experiences a certain
state or feeling. It is commonly associated with verbs of perception or emotion. For example:
- She loves chocolate

- Syntax frightens the students.

4. Instrument: The instrument is the means or tool used to perform an action. It often appears
as an oblique phrase introduced by a preposition. For example:
- "He cut the bread with a knife

- He kicked a ball with a bat.

- This key will open the door
5. Location: The location indicates the place or setting of an action. It is typically represented
by a prepositional phrase. For example:

- The cat is sitting on the mat.

- I live in Islamabad
6. Goal: the end point of movement.
The goal represents the entity towards which an action is directed. It typically answers the
question "to whom?" or "to what?" For instance:
- Alice gave the book to Bob.
 - The students donated money to the charity.
-Catherine went to Islamabad
7. Source: The source refers to the entity from which an action originates. It usually answers
the question "from whom?" or "from where?" Consider these examples:
- I received a gift from my friend.
- The river flowed from the mountains.
8. Beneficiary: The beneficiary represents the entity for whom an action is undertaken or on
whose behalf an action occurs. It often answers the question "for whom?" or "for what?" Let's
look at some examples:
- The chef cooked a delicious meal for the guests.
- Anne bought a gift for her sister.

Types of clause
1. Complement Clause:
A complement clause is a type of subordinate clause that functions as a complement to a verb
or adjective in the main clause. It provides additional information or completes the meaning
of the verb or adjective.
Example:
She believes that he is innocent.
I asked if/whether Amjad likes the winter

They decided to go for a walk after dinner.

He told me he feels tired.
We are aware of what you did.
2. Relative Clause:

A relative clause is a type of subordinate clause that provides additional information about a
noun or pronoun in the main clause(Additional information of main clause).It starts with a
relative pronoun (e.g., who, whom, which, that) or a relative adverb (e.g., where, when, why).
Example:

1. The book that I bought yesterday, is really interesting.

2. The woman who lives next door, is a doctor.
3. The car which was parked outside the mall, got towed.
4. I have a friend whose brother, works in a bank.

5. The dog that barks all night, keeps everyone awake.

3. Adverbial Clause:
An adverbial clause is a type of subordinate clause that functions as an adverb in the main
clause. It modifies a verb, adjective, or adverb, providing information about time, place,
manner, condition, purpose, or reason.
Example:
She at her meal very quickly.
He goes to play football at every week

If you work hard, you will secure good grades.

He always uses mobile before goes to bed.