Climate change and SINO-US relation: impact on international relation and

national security
Abstract

Global climate change presents a complex and multi-dimensional challenge, ranking

among the most significant global public concerns. Climate change has wide-ranging
consequences that affect international security, politics, and economic trade relations. The
unequal distribution of greenhouse gas emissions generated by humans across borders
means that all nations share responsibility to address this issue. As a result, the impact of
climate change and its securitization has significant implications for international
relations. Climate change encounters the traditional view of human societies, usually
interconnected with the global political system. The impact of climate change, like resource
scarcity, rising sea levels, displacement of populations, and extreme weather, can lead to
conflict over limited resources, which affects security dynamics and diplomatic relations.
Notably, China and the United States, having different perspectives on the challenges of
climate change, are the world’s largest greenhouse gas emitters and play a pivotal role in
this landscape. While historical cooperation on climate change between these two nations
exists, its depth and substance remain limited. Given climate change’s irreversible and
worldwide implications, the political sway of climate-related matters is continually
escalating. An in-depth analysis is required to address the situation. For the said purpose,
a qualitative descriptive method is adopted. This paper offers an in-depth investigation and
reflective exploration of the influence of climate change on international relations, mainly
focusing on China and the United States. This study addresses the economic, political, and
global security perspectives and presents a forward-looking assessment of potential future
scenarios.

Keywords: Climate Change, International Relations, National Security, Cooperation and

Conflict.

Introduction
In today’s global landscape, climate change has ascended to paramount importance.
Among other security challenges, like water, food, health, and trade; climate change has
become modernised in the centre of international politics from the margin. Security
challenges may vary from region to region, and one population size to another as in
comparison to developed countries people from developing world are more vulnerable to
the impact of climate change. In the same form, it challenges national security for the
global community. Gradually, it affects states’ foreign policy and bilateral relations for
economic and security interests. The issue of global climate change has metamorphosed
into a worldwide political anxiety, transcending ecological and environmental realms to

23
encompass internal and external security domains. The securitization of climate change by
China and the United States is becoming a national security concern that distresses foreign
relations between these states. The climate change impacts are undoubtedly aggravating the
problems for national security and multiple international conflicts.
Climate change is an interconnected and complex challenge that makes it difficult
beyond environmental concerns for states to control population displacement, rebuild
infrastructure, deal with spreading disease, and access water and food, which has reflective
implications for global governance and security. Despite many international efforts to
address climate change, their consequence appears limited to control its effects. These
energies are hindered by limitations and disparities among nations and international
entities, leading to cooperation and conflicts, making it imperative for countries to initiate
comprehensive strategies to deal with the security risks related to social, economic and
environmental dimensions.1

The world’s two largest greenhouse gas emitters, China, 12.7 billion metric tons, and
the United States, 5.9 billion tons annually, 2 meet significant international pressure
regarding emission reduction. Their international standing amplifies the influence of their
cooperation on climate change, holding the potential to catalyse global collaborative action.
Chinese perspective is opposite to the American securitization of climate change and
prefers to resolve it through political process instead of taking it as a matter of urgency
controlled by security establishments. The pronounced climate strategic disparities between
the United States and China slow down the process of shared responsibilities, which also
distresses the bilateral relations in the long run.
Professor Mike Hulme (University of East Anglia) introduced six theoretical
frameworks concerning climate change: market economy failure, technology-driven risk,
global inequality, excessive consumption, natural phenomenon, and planetary tipping point.
Remarkably, these six frameworks intersect the domain of international relations,
constituting the root causes behind the influence of climate change on international
relations. The overarching framework, encompassing international climate consensus

1 Li Qiang, "The Impact Of Global Climate Change On International Relations And The Necessary
Response," Journal of Jinan Municipal Party School 02 (2011). ISSN: 1672-6359, 115-117.
2 Lisa Friedman, "U.S. and China on Climate: How the World’s Two Largest Polluters Stack Up," 19 July 2023,
https://www.nytimes.com/2023/07/19/climate/us-china-climate-issues.html.
24
agreements such as the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the
Kyoto Protocol, holds an essential role in guiding and projecting the influence of climate
change on international relations.3
In 1992, Maurice F. Strong, Secretary-General of the United Nations Conference on
Environment and Development in Rio, underscored, “The Cold War has ended, and
environmental issues have risen to the forefront of global concerns.” 4 The rise of anxiety
about the international environment is partly a by-product of the Cold War related to
scientific endeavours and military efforts to control and dominate atmospheric space. The
scientific revolution in weather satellites, forecasting, meteorology and geophysics
developed global attention and considerations towards the interrelation of human activities.
The scientific studies of pollution, ecological impacts and resource depletion established
the need for international cooperation. For example, ozone depletion set the global stage
‘the Montreal Protocol’ to negotiate and eliminate the ozone-depleting substance. Such
environmental movements have influenced politics and international relations to pass
environmental legislation and the advent of organisations like Greenpeace.
Climate change intensifies a global threat to human beings, escalating the demand for
international cooperation between developed and developing states. Comparatively,
higherincome countries produce ten times greater gas emissions than low-income countries.
The United Nations reported that the Group of 20 (G20) Economies account for 78% of
global greenhouse gas emission.5 Regrettably, despite frequent international climate
conferences, substantive progress remains elusive. If climate challenges are left unchecked,
the potential exists for drastic shifts in international relations as nations contend for living
space and resources. Encouragingly, global attention is directed towards this predicament.
Policymakers, scholars, scientists, think tanks and even spiritual leaders acknowledge the
gravity of the situation and have commenced corresponding actions. Within the context of
globalisation, a promising future emerges with collaborative efforts.

3 Mike Hulme, Wind and Rain Erosion: The Cultural Implications of Climate (Jiangsu Phoneix Education
Press, September 2021). ISBN: 9787549995325, 1-16.
4 Sun Yiming, "On The Institutionalized Interaction Between China And The United States In The Global
Environmental Field After The Cold War—Taking Climate Change As An Example,"
https://xueshu.baidu.com/usercenter/paper/show?paperid=43f129557edb51c8f76192f05adcbf6f&site=xueshu
_se.
5 United Nations Environment Programme, "Emissions Gap Report 2019,"
https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/30797/EGR2019.pdf.
25
 This paper comprehensively explores the multifaceted impact of climate change on
states, scrutinising its specific implications for international relations and the corresponding
response strategies that governments and international organisations embrace. What are the
logical reasons for the perspectives of the primary states, especially the United States and
China, to deal with the challenges of climate change? The far-reaching influence of global
environmental matters permeates diverse domains, including international politics,
economics, military affairs, science, technology, trade, and socio-cultural aspects. This
research holds profound significance, serving as a compass to guide international exchange
and cooperation and to direct the resolution of international disputes and conflicts.

Climate Change and Sino-US Common Challenges

Climate change has noteworthy social and economic impacts on states, directly distressing
global development equity targets of national security. Due to such threats to national
security, the collective response among states becomes frail to address global challenges like
climate change, disaster risk management, renewable energy development and trade routes.
Individually and collectively, natural factors like solar radiation, variations in Earth’s
climate, volcanic eruption and human activities are responsible for changing climate
patterns. Since the mid-20th century, human activities have been dominantly warming the
globe. As the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) concluded that the United
States and China are critical global emitters of greenhouse gases, so their role, individually
and reciprocally, in mitigating climate change is crucial at the international level. 6 The Paris
Agreement has provided the United States and China an international stand to negotiate and
engage themselves to deal with the climate challenges to achieve common goals. However,
addressing the global climate challenges is greatly affected by trade and geopolitical
rivalries among states. This diversity momentously affects cooperation and diplomacy and
hinders the development of effective strategies, frameworks, and the implementation of
policies globally. These factors are multi-fold in resolving climate challenge without
cooperation and mutual understanding, especially in the relationships between the United
States and China.

6 Yan Bo, "Securitization and Chinese Climate Change Policy," Chinese Political Science Review 1, no. 1
(Feburary 24, 2016), https://doi.org/10.1007/s41111-016-0003-5.
26
National Security
The state remained a core subject for security as realists consider the state a unitary
actor. Every measure will be taken to protect state security. During the Cold War, the realist
and neorealist approaches dominated security studies and remained attentive to the
statecentric military procedures for security. The end of the Cold War modified state
security perspectives. Post-structuralism emerged and brought the attention of states
towards the
“People-Centred” security approach. Environmental, regional, sociological and economic
securities became the broader agenda of security studies beyond traditional military
concerns.7 These developments heavily influence internal intellectual arguments,
technological advancement and great power politics. The post-Cold War era witnessed the
disintegration of the bipolar system, fostering the emergence of a new international security
framework characterised by a trend towards multi-polarity. The global security system
functions as an institutional framework that aims to mitigate security threats, promote trust,
and cultivate avenues for dialogue and collaboration between nations.8
Today’s notion of international security embraces military, political, economic, and
environmental facets encapsulated within the concept of ‘comprehensive security.’
Environmental security forms its foundation; financial security is its core; military security
provides the safeguard, and political security is the linchpin. It is irrefutable that
international security’s influence on international relations is unparalleled. A nation’s
survival and growth depend upon ensuring its national interests, which intrinsically connect
with national security. The ascent of terrorism and the propagation of infectious diseases
stemming from climate change embody significant threats to international security. The
underlying predicament lies within climate change’s impact, precipitating environmental
and ecological concerns. Such degradation often diminishes human life quality, coercing
nations to react promptly. These reactions, in turn, could potentially incite international

7 Ali Muhammad and Sugeng Riyanto, "International Security Studies: Origins, Development And
Contending Approaches," Brazilian Journal of Strategy & International Relations 10, no. 20 (December 15,
2021), file:///C:/Users/Redmi/Downloads/cepik,+FINAL-EN-230-249-1.pdf.
8 "Encylopedia of China Military Editorial committee," Encylopedia of China Military (China Encyclopedia
Publishing House, July 2007), https://book.douban.com/subject/2184848/.
27
conflicts or foster anti-government factions and terrorism. Environmental issues,
manifested through resource shifts such as water, oil, and food or alterations in living
spaces due to pollution, ozone depletion, and desertification, can kindle international
conflicts.9 Moreover, climate change has amplified global refugee crisis. Escalating poverty,
unemployment, and crime precipitate social challenges, thereby unsettling formerly stable
nations and regions reminiscent of the conditions leading to the surge of fascism in the
1930s, borne out of economic turmoil.

 The Sino-US Common Interest and Security Challenges

For common interests, characterising and identifying the issues mentioned above
created by the states together requires development of significant policies at the global
level. Controversial approach in planning and policies brings nothing to fruition. The
United States recognised and securitised climate change actively. China also acknowledges
the climate change issue but is concerned about resolving it over political ramifications.
China’s concentration on climate change is on its social system, development, natural
ecosystem, food security and economic security. This assessment provides a ground to
China that the climate change issues should be dealt with political consensus instead of
securitisation efforts primarily through the United Nations Security Council (UNSC),
which may affect the sovereignty and internal affairs of China and other states. 10 China
favours the discussion and proposal of the issue, which should be prepared by extensive
participation and widely acceptable.
Another astonishing factor is the United States’ dynamic change in climate policy. The
country is isolating itself from the worldwide efforts to combat global warming issues. In
2017, former United States President Donald Trump announced that ‘the United States
would withdraw from the Paris climate accord’ and considered it a ‘pernicious threat to the
economy and American sovereignty.’10 The accord was signed by 196 countries worldwide.

10
9 Qiang, "The Impact Of Global Climate Change On International Relations And The Necessary Response,"
Yan Bo, "Securitization And Chinese Climate Change Policy," Chinese Political Science Review 1 (2016).
10 "Trump Will Withdraw U.S. From Paris Climate Agreement, 2017," June 1, 2017,
https://www.nytimes.com/2017/06/01/climate/trump-paris-climate-agreement.html.
28
Still, the United States president preferred the ‘America First’ foreign policy doctrine to
pursue national interest for security, which affects other countries while pursuing common
goals of the world community. In 1992 the United Nations conducted a conference on
‘Environment and Development’ at the Rio De Janeiro ‘Convention on Biological
Diversity,’11 which legally bound ‘conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use
of its components and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the
utilisation of genetic resources,’ but Republican lawmakers opposed the treaty. 12 They
claimed it would threaten the country’s commercial interests and sovereignty, increasing
financial burden. Even after winning the election of 1992, American President Bill Clinton
failed to ratify it by the Senate. Till now, President Biden is also facing strong opposition to
ratifying the Convention by the Senate as they claim that it threatens the state’s
sovereignty.13 In December 1997, the United Nations adopted the Kyoto Protocol and
entered into force in February 2005.
At the global level, 192 states ratified it to reduce greenhouse gases, but the United
States didn’t approve the treaty, which may cause a severe hazard to the American
economy. This treaty allowed the developing countries not to cut down or limit their
emission under it, but the developed countries were bound. 14 Stockholm Environment
Institute reported in 2010 that the United States emits 37% of global greenhouse gas,
whereas the European Union 24%, China 02%, and India 0.1%. 15 The various examples
explain how national leaders can interrupt the practical implication of global climate
schema. It may be political commitments to their voters or protection of business interests,
but these non-state actors viciously affect the relations with other states.

11 "Office Of Legal Affairs," 2023, https://www.un.org/ola/.

12 Kal Raustiala, "Domestic Institutions And International Regulatory Cooperation: Comparative Responses
To The Convention On Biological Diversity," World Politics 49, no. 4 (1997).
13 Benji Jones, "Why The US Won’t Join The Single Most Important Treaty To Protect Nature," Vox, May 20,
2021, https://www.vox.com/22434172/us-cbd-treaty-biological-diversity-nature-conservation.
14 Jon Hovi, Detlef F Sprinz, and Guri Bang, "Why The United States Did Not Become A Party To The
Kyoto Protocol: German, Norwegian, And US Perspectives," European Journal of International Relations 18,
no. 1 (2012).
15 Anton Bespalov, "How Climate Change Is Shaping International Relations," Valdaiclub,
https://valdaiclub.com/a/highlights/how-climate-change-is-shaping-international-relations/.
29
Economic and Trade Perspective
In the realm of economic globalisation, international economic trade exerts a
profound influence on international relations. A nation’s economic and business landscape
resonates across the broader international community, triggering ripple effects. Climate
change significantly impacts domestic production and imports by disrupting natural
resources. For instance, climate resources are crucial natural assets and foundational
elements for a nation’s survival. Consequently, a nation’s climate resources substantially
dictate its economic development trajectory. The Stern Review 2006 underscores that
extreme weather/climate events alone could amass costs equivalent to 0.5-1% of global
GDP annually by the mid-century, with escalated risk to developed economies due to
climate warming. A 5-6-degree Celsius temperature increase could inflict 5-10% global
GDP losses, exceeding 10% for impoverished nations. 16 The absence of effective global
warming control augurs a profound global economic recession. Notably, the ramifications
of climate change on the global economy are unevenly distributed, disproportionately
affecting the least developed countries. This results from the heightened vulnerability of
agriculture – a cornerstone of many developing economies – to climate change.17
China and the United States, as the world’s two largest economies, grapple with
differing stages of development, translating to ambiguous cooperation goals. Despite
numerous bilateral and multilateral climate agreements signed, their collaborative
initiatives remain fragmented within broader economic and trade agreements. International
trade dynamics further amplify disparities.18 Developed nations export manufactured goods
while developing nations export primary products, the latter exposed not only to their
climate impact but also to the climate externalities originating from developed countries.
Trade frictions between China and the United States primarily stem from microeconomic
disagreement. Several of their collaborative ventures in climate change yield limited
substantive outcomes, exacerbating inequality in natural resource distribution and
catalysing a ceaseless stream of international trade disputes.

16 Intergovernmental Panel On Climate Change, "Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis," Agenda
6, no. 07 (2007).
17 Nicholas Stern, The Economics of Climate Change (Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 2006), 45-56.
18 Cao Wenshan, "Differences Between China And The United States In Climate Change Cooperation And
Their Solutions," Poyang Lake journal 06 (2011).
30
Political Perspective
American political parties, the Republican and Democratic party has a vibrant
division in prioritising climate change in their political strategies, even used in the
presidential electoral campaign as well. Republicans prefer national economic and trade
safety relative to global climate challenges and, on this ground, decide which international
climate agreements or organisations to adopt as the recent Republican President Trump did.
In addition, such a party’s political preferences of the United States, being a hegemonic
power, didn’t impact only domestic politics. Still, it had grave consequences on
international politics and foreign relations. The environmental terrain, shaped by climate
change, constitutes the foundation and material underpinning for the international relations
system’s existence and growth. It intricately intersects with a nation’s strength, status,
diplomatic strategy, and bilateral relationships, wielding a profound impact on the entire
international relations ecosystem. As such, environmental concerns claim a fundamental
position on the international relations research agenda. Climate security was considered in
low politics for national interests in the past. But now, it has significantly gained
importance as high politics like other factors, i.e. economy and trade.
Climate change has a profound transformative impact on global political landscape
that demands joint action beyond national borders to meet the challenges. Climate change’s
indivisible, global nature necessitates collective effort by the international community, as
reflected in numerous joint declarations and treaties in various global forums. Despite
being recognised as a significant challenge to humanity by the world, the intricacies of
climate change have failed to achieve much attention in foreign policy and international
relations academia. Comprehending the multifaceted manner in climate change interrelates
with conventional security paradigms and ensuring that scholarly discourse considers the
urgent realities of our rapidly changing world requires bridging the gap between policy
concerns and academic research.
However, despite shared interests in climate change, realising substantive and
comprehensive cooperation among nations is often elusive or lacks depth and breadth. This
deficiency emanates from a lack of international strategic trust rooted in divergent national
interests. The complex dynamics that define the connection between China and the United
31
States provide a compelling illustration of the nature of this phenomenon. Despite mutual
recognition of the potential mutually advantageous outcomes, the spirit of climate change
cooperation and strategic deception persists due to divergence in dealing with the
overarching global problem. Both nations concurrently seek to protect their national
interests while vigorously engaging in initiatives to mitigate emissions. This apparent shift
from a focus on climate-centred conflicts to landscaped economic, trade, and political
decisionmaking underscores the complex relationship of interests shaping the contours of
this nuanced relationship.

Future Prospects for Climate Change and International Relations

Climate change poses a danger to environmental safety that triggers a cumulative threat to
security and peace by troubling bilateral relations among states, which may lead to
violence, regional tension and humanitarian disasters. In contrast, significant global powers
and organisations promote security and political stability by avoiding and examining
military clashes. However, they paid less attention towards environmental degradation and
extreme climate-related crises caused by frequent climate changes. The international
governance didn’t link the climate crises with peace and security at the commencement.
The prospect of climate change in future is highly interconnected because it continues to
pose significant global challenges to comprehensive stability. From 2015 to 2019, only
0.77% of top international relations journal research focused on the studies of climate-
related issues. The main competitors are security, economic interest and immediate political
changes in which political leaders and policymakers are more interested than climate
change, as universal attention requires cooperation and coordination among states,
especially by the developed countries.19

Contemporary Strategies of China and Climate Challenges

China perceives climate change as a danger to be resolved for economic security
and development, social system, food security and natural ecosystem instead of a national
security issue. China actively played its role in tackling climate change and remained a

19 Ole Jacob Sending, Indra Øverland, and Thomas Boe Hornburg, "Climate Change And International
Relations," Journal of International Affairs 73, no. 1 (2020): 184-194.
32
responsible and constructive member in relevant international cooperation besides
individual responsibility. When America refused to fulfil its responsibilities in the Paris
Agreement,
China didn’t change its policy towards the agreement and followed it as per commitments.
To counter the climate challenge, China also promotes south-south cooperation to benefit
developing countries. No doubt climate change will likely impact peace and security, but
the connection between security and climate is very complex in nature. Potentially, the
‘microconcept’ of climate change, food shortages, drought and floods, unfair distribution of
resources and environmental degradation are realistically immediate factors in the
emergence of conflicts and tension. Transmission and consideration of climate change as a
security risk, practically and scientifically, is unfair to humanity. For international
cooperation and effective conflict resolution, diverting global attention to the core issues
will not be beneficial.20 President Xi Jinping, in a speech to the 19th Party Congress in
2017, expressed that climate change is an “unconventional security threat like terrorism,
cyberinsecurity, [and] major infectious diseases.”21 In 2013, Ireland and Niger presented a
“Draft Resolution on Climate and Security” to the United Nations Security Council, in
which the Chinese delegation desisted from the voting and cleared its position on the stance
that to avoid the worst impact of climate change is to reduce greenhouse gas emission until
net zero is achieved significantly. The responsible states should apply the values of joint
and differentiated tasks on every climate change platform without distressing the basic
principle. Developing and island nations are the primary victims of climate change
problems, and developed countries are responsible for enhancing social and economic
resilience and strengthening the capacity building of those affected countries. However, the
developed nations are not ready to fulfil their commitments and historical responsibilities. 22

20 “Explanation of Vote by Ambassador Zhang Jun On the Security Council Draft Resolution on Climate and
Security," Permanent Mission of the People's Republic of China to the UN (2021),
http://un.chinamission.gov.cn/eng/hyyfy/202112/t20211214_10469514.htm.
21 Arnaud Boehmann, National Security And The Climate Crisis – China Is Still Not Joining The Dots
(2023), Https://Merics.Org/En/Comment/National-Security-And-Climate-Crisis-China-Still-Not-JoiningDots.
22 Explanation of Vote by Ambassador Zhang Jun On the Security Council Draft Resolution on Climate and
Security.
33
 The projections laid out by the China Meteorological Administration 2010-20 draw
a picture of climate change’s projected influence in the years to come. 23 As greenhouse gas
emissions persist, global and regional climate systems are set up to undergo further
transformations. The consequences of these changes encompass shifts in all climate system
components. A collective effort toward substantial and sustained reductions in greenhouse
gas emissions becomes imperative to navigate this impending challenge effectively. The
urgency to mitigate the impact of climate change on the international stage underscores the
need for coordinated and swift action. Climate change remains a source of tension between
the United States and China relations. Most prominent are disagreements over issues like
intellectual property rights, trade barriers over clean energy technologies, and carbon
pricing.
Recent Developments of the Biden Administration’s Climate Policies
In 2017, the United States withdrew from the Paris Agreement. It further strained
the climate relations between the United States and China, as China endorsed its obligations
to the agreement and “positioned itself as a global leader in climate action.” 24 President
Biden revised American policy towards climate crisis and modified it as required by the
scientific studies. The President focused on a clean energy economy for the advantage of
the American people. President Biden restored American leadership on the world stage and
rejoined the Paris Agreement. He formed the first-ever National Climate Task Force
(NCTF), which will work under cabinet leaders to achieve the targets of reducing
greenhouse gas emissions, producing 100% carbon pollution-free electricity, achieving a
net zero emissions economy, and utilising federal investment in climate and clean energy to
disadvantaged communities.25

An Analysis of Future International Relations

In the contemporary global context, guiding principles for peace and development
are the pillars of international engagement. In an era of profound interconnectivity and
23 “China Metrological Administration," (2010),
https://www.cma.gov.cn/en/aboutcma/brochure/201203/P020120319791316093320.pdf.
24 Gustavo Sosa-Nunez and Ed Atkins, "Environment, Climate Change and International Relations"
EInternational Relations Bristol, 2016, ISBN 1910814091.
25 "National Climate Task Force | The White House," Whitehouse, 2023,
https://www.whitehouse.gov/climate/.
34
interdependence, the imperative of cooperation and the pursuit of mutual benefit has
become increasingly pronounced. This paradigm dictates that nations and international
organisations embrace a cooperative ethos, minimising avoidable conflicts and disputes. A
noteworthy case lies within the intricate interplay between China and the United States.
The tenure of the Trump administration accelerated the recalibration of Sino-U.S. relations.
Instead of healthy economic competition, the trade war initiated by America mainly
engaged in recreation, a critical role in diversifying the ties between the two economic
powers. Concurrently, the global upheaval caused by the COVID-19 pandemic propelled
the underlying trajectory of strategic competition and confrontation between these two
major powers. This juxtaposition of dynamics underscores the delicate balance that nations
must ensure as they steer their strategic interests and global responsibilities. 26 Oleg
Barabanov noted that “experts are increasingly often talking about “environmental neo-
colonialism when advanced countries are denying the poorest states the right to
development.”27
The evolving international landscape also incites academic introspection and
research. The shift in global power dynamics has compelled scholars and policy experts to
reassess long-standing assumptions. China’s ascendancy and concurrent diplomatic
recalibration have become focal points of intellectual inquiry. By leveraging the insights
from such research, China and the United States can chart a more constructive course for
bilateral relations. The pandemic’s transformative impact on global dynamics and the
heightened awareness of ‘a great change in the past hundred years’ offers a broader
historical perspective essential for informed decision-making. Developing countries and
China preserved that climate change should be debated as sustainable development rather
than a security threat or securitisation of climate change.

26 Zhou Wenxing, "Strategic Competition Between China And The United States And Strengthening
International Political Research Turn: A Review Of China's International Political Research Works In 2020,"
China Book Review 05 (2021). 106-115.
27 "How Climate Change Is Shaping International Relations ,” (2023), https://valdaiclub.com/a/highlights/how-
climate-change-is-shaping-internationalrelations/#masha_2=2:1,2:109;7:1,7:23|masha_3=5:22,5:23.
35
Assessment of Climate Change’s Effects on International Affairs
As the future unfolds, economic globalisation and political multi-polarisation forces
will gain momentum, fostering an environment conducive to collaboration and potentially
mitigating international conflicts. In the meantime, differences in the individual interests of
the state, clean electricity production, agriculture, industry and transportation need to be
prioritised through collaborative actions for a better future for the interdependent world.
While climate change remains a formidable challenge, the concerted efforts of global
institutions such as the IPCC, the Norwalk Declaration 2008, 28 the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), and the Kyoto Protocol 1977
promise to elevate global climate governance to new heights. 29 The strategic imperative of
effectively tackling climate change is creating robust and equitable international
mechanisms. This approach facilitates international cooperation and positions climate
change governance as a cornerstone for addressing many global challenges.30
The relations among states could also be controversial because of the involvement
of climate-related non-state actors, like non-governmental organisations and
intergovernmental organisations, in environmental diplomacy, as it has the aptitude to
undermine states’ authority at the decision-making level. The state sets its agenda and
priority policy for its security and interests, which may interlink to the state’s economy,
trade or defence determinations. The policies of the said organisation cannot meet the
state’s security dimensions as the United Nations Security Council deals with peace and
security but sometimes intervenes in the developing countries’ sovereignty in climate
change. Moreover, such organisations and environmental diplomacy have grown in
importance due to the complex ecological challenges at the global level. But sometimes,
states prefer their concerns as the United States did so.
Notably, international relations rooted in climate change governance transcend
traditional geopolitical boundaries. They possess a depth and resonance that can withstand
the shifting sands of national interests. Climate change is an issue of planetary concern,

28 “Norwalk Community College For Active and Responsible Environmental Sustainability," (USA, 2012),
https://norwalk.edu/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/climateactionplan.pdf.
29 "What is the Kyoto Protocol? | UNFCCC," 2023, https://unfccc.int/kyoto_protocol.
30 Wang Zishuai, "The Game and Coordination of Great Powers in the Issue of Climate Change" (2017),
https://cdmd.cnki.com.cn/Article/CDMD-10276-1017850669.htm.
36
transcending individual nations. This profound interdependence aligns with the vision of a
‘community of human destiny’ championed by Chinese President Xi Jinping. As
governments increasingly recognise their shared responsibility for safeguarding the planet,
the prospects for international relations based on climate change governance set-up to
evolve positively. However, this optimistic trajectory also carries the potential for climate
change to emerge as a new focal point for international disputes, underscoring the need for
proactive diplomacy and cooperative engagement. Bilateral relationships should not be
affected by the so-called strategic competition, promote win-win cooperation, and open all
means of communication and dialogues.

Conclusion
Climate change is an issue of unparalleled significance, transcending mere
environmental concerns. It encompasses shared interests of humanity and has evolved into
a complex and pressing challenge. This urgency and gravity inherently spur international
collaboration in the climate domain. The global community recognises that the climate
issue directly impacts the shared interests of all, and international cooperation represents
the most viable path toward addressing this formidable global challenge. The signing and
implementation of the UNFCCC policies and the Kyoto Protocol are tangible testaments to
the feasibility and necessity of international climate cooperation. The UNO, especially the
UNSC, should force the developed nations to fulfil their commitments and obligations in
technological transfer, monetary mechanisms and capacity building of climate change
practically.
Despite various challenges in their geopolitical relationship, China and the United
States have multiple opportunities to cooperate on climate change, especially carbon
capture and storage, climate finance and technological development-related measures for
renewable energy. China and the USA made bilateral agreements and took noteworthy
initiatives to promote clean energy and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The United States
and China can serve as key examples of how international cooperation can be revolutionary
in resolving one of the most significant matters of our day. Both countries signed the US-
China Joint Announcement on Climate Change in 2014 to control carbon emissions and
increase renewable energy in their sources. Besides the differences in climate perspective,
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the cooperation between China and the United States may reduce the long-standing climate
issues for developing and developed states.
As we peer into the future, the intersection of climate change and international
relations reveals a dual-edged dynamic. The disparities between developed and developing
nations may sow seeds of disputes and conflicts, illustrating the interwoven nature of
climate change and international relations. The changes on one front inevitably reverberate
on the other. Climate change has seemingly transformed into a new arena for global
competition, extending beyond politics, economics, and soft power. The increasing
elevation of climate challenges goes beyond their status as environmental issues, and their
significance provide a fertile ground for shaping determinants of global governance,
security, and socioeconomic stability to this novel brand of international relations. The
importance of climate change in international relations arises as a powerful force
influencing our collective global future as nations deal with this intricate connection’s
complexities.
Climate change has caused devastating consequences quicker than we feared and it
simultaneously affects every corner of the world. Besides affecting human lives, it also
threatens global peace and security. The socioeconomic tensions among states amplified the
competition for resources such as water, food and land. This race, along with the climate
emergency, made relations among states worse. ‘The climate emergency is a race we are
losing, but it is a race we can win,’ said the United Nations Secretary-General Antonio
Guterres on the 75th anniversary of United Nations Organizations in 2020. Collective
measures are compulsory to manage the challenge, which requires positive interstate
relations based on mutual respect. The imperatives of survival and progress embody
collective interests of humanity. These interests revolve around crucial components like
space, resources, and environment. Upholding human survival and progress requires
preserving the sovereign space of nations against external aggression, ensuring equitable
distribution and exchange of vital resources, and safeguarding the environment from
widespread devastation.
While future remains uncertain, cultivating a proactive approach toward climate
change and international relations remains imperative. Strengthening international
exchanges, fostering cooperation, and mitigating conflicts and disputes constitute essential
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steps forward. International cooperation to resolve the challenge is dynamic through setting
common grounds, trust building and fostering diplomatic relations. Over the years, dozens
of international climate conferences have been convened, propelled by the framework set
by the United Nations Convention on Climate Change. Climate governance has
progressively evolved from conceptual frameworks to practical essences. The policymakers
must also diminish the division between developed and developing nations in the climate
change discourse. The enhancement of mechanisms and the fortification of institutions
emerge as pivotal strategies in elevating the significance of climate change within
international relations. Through these efforts, the international community can aspire to
forge a future where environment and global cooperation thrive.

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