Chapter One Introdution
Chapter One Introdution
Chapter One Introdution
INTRODUTION
chapter one Introduction
Chapter One
Introduction
Concrete as a building material has been around for thousands of years. Unlike other
isotropic building materials such as steel, wood, and aluminum, concrete and masonry
have a high compressive strength as compared to their relatively weak tensile strength.
Therefore, until the advent of reinforced concrete in the 1800s, concrete and masonry
structures mainly resisted only compressive forces. These structures generally consisted
of columns, arches, and domes to take advantage of their compressive capacity while
eliminating any tensile demand. Several examples include the following:
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In the middle of the 1800s, the idea of adding iron to concrete to resist tensile stresses
was first developed. Joseph Monier exhibited this invention at the Paris Exposition in
1867. With the invention of steel in the later part of the 1800s, the use of steel
reinforcing bars to resist tensile forces in concrete structures quickly became
widespread. Thus, "mild" reinforcing steel is strategically placed within, and
continuously bonded to, concrete members to resist tensile forces to which they may be
subjected. Mild steel reinforcing is also commonly used in combination with concrete
to resist compressive and shear forces.
In the early 1900s, the idea of tightening the reinforcing bars to compensate for the
shrinkage of the concrete was first suggested. Embedded high strength steel rods were
coated to prevent bond with the concrete. “Pre-stressed Concrete ”soon became the
single most significant new direction in structural engineering. This unique concept
gave the engineer the ability to control the actual structural behavior while forcing him
or her to dive more deeply into the construction process of the structural material. It
gave architects as well as engineers a new realm of reinforced concrete design pushing
not only the structural but also the architectural limits of concrete design to a level that
neither concrete nor structural steel could achieve.
Ordinary reinforced concrete could not achieve the same limits because the new long
spans that pre-stressed concrete were able to achieve could not be reached with
reinforced concrete. Those longer spans required much deeper members, which
quickly made reinforced concrete uneconomical. Additionally, steel structures weren’t
able to create the same architectural forms that the new pre-stressed concrete could.
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The other method of pre-stressing concrete is called post-tensioning. The prefix "post"
means that the pre-stressing ' steel is stressed after the concrete is cast. Instead of
stressing the high-strength steel between buttresses at a precast plant. The steel is
simply installed on the job site after the contractor forms up the member. The high-
strength steel is housed in a sheathing or duct that prevents it from bonding to the
concrete. The steel is attached to the concrete at the ends of the member by specially
designed anchorage devices. Once the concrete has cured (hardened), the steel is
stressed to induce forces in the concrete.
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High early-strength concrete allows for faster floor construction cycles. The use of
standard design details of the post-tensioned elements, minimum congestion of pre-
stressed and non-prestressed reinforcement, and earlier Stripping of formwork after
tendon stressing can also significantly reduce the floor construction cycle. Greater
span-to-depth ratios are allowed for post-tensioned members as compared to non-
prestressed members. This results in a lighter structure and a reduction in floor-to-floor
height while maintaining the required headroom.
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Fig[1.5.a] the typical components and construction sequence for an unbonded system
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Bonded post-tensioning systems consist of tendons with multiple strands or bars. The
strands or bars are placed in corrugated galvanized steel, high density polyethylene
(HDPE) or polypropylene (PP) ducts. Depending on the site conditions and system
used the strands may be installed before the concrete is placed or the ducts may be
installed without the strands. The strands are then pulled or pushed through the ducts.
Once the concrete has hardened the tendons are stressed and the ducts filled with grout.
Inlets and outlets are provided at high/low points to ensure that the grout fills the ducts
completely.Figure(1.5.b)shows the components of a typical multistrand grouted
system.The grout provides an alkaline environment and protects the prestressing
strands from corrosion.It also bonds the strands to the surrounding concrete.
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In a multistrand system. Multiple strands are typically installed in a single duct. Ducts
create voids in the concrete and may be made of galvanized steel. Multistrand anchors
are specially designed devices that are supplied by the post-tensioning supplier. These
devices are intended to anchor multiple strands to concrete and are specially designed
to accommodate the concentrated forces produced in the anchorage zone.
The prestressing steel used in a post-tensioning system can be either strand or bar.
1.6.1.1Strands
Strand for post-tensioning is made of high tensile strength steel wire. A strand is
comprised of 7 individual wires, wrapping six wires around a central straight wire.All
strand should be Grade 1860 Mpa (270 ksi) low relaxation, seven-wire strand
conforming to the requirements of ASTM A416 “Standard Specification for Steel
Strand, Uncoated Seven Wire Strand for Prestressed Concrete.” ASTM A416 provides
minimum requirements for mechanical properties (yield, breaking strength,
elongation) and maximum allowable dimensional tolerances. Strand from different
sources may meet ASTM A416 but not necessarily be identical in all respects. Strand
is most commonly available in two nominal sizes, 12.7mm (0.5in) and 15.2mm
(0.6in)diameter, with nominal cross sectional areas of 99mm2and 140mm2 (0.153 and
0.217 square inches), respectively.Though the majority of post-tensioning hardware
and stressing equipment is based on these sizes, the use of 15.7mm (0.62in) diameter
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strand has been increasing.Strand size tolerances may result in strands being
manufactured consistently smaller than, or larger than nominal values. Recognizing
this,“Acceptance Standards for Post-Tensioning Systems” (Post-Tensioning Institute,
1998) refers to the “Minimum Ultimate Tensile Strength” (MUTS), which is the
minimum specified breaking force for a strand. Strand size tolerance may also affect
strand-wedge action leading to possible wedge slip if the wedges and strands are at
opposite ends of the size tolerance range.Strand conforming to ASTM A416 is
relatively resistant to stress corrosion and hydrogen embrittlement due to the cold
drawing process. However, since susceptibility to corrosion increases with increasing
tensile strength, caution is necessary if strand is exposed to corrosive conditions such
as marine environments and solutions containing chloride or sulfate, phosphate,
nitrate ions or similar. Consequently, ASTM A416 requires proper protection of strand
throughout manufacture, shipping and handling. Protection during the project, before
and after installation, should be specified in project drawings and specifications.
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1.6.1.2 Bars
Prestressing bars typically have an ultimate strength of 1035 mpa (150 ksi). And
diameters ranging from 0.625 in. To 2.5 in. Couplers are used to connect bars and
lengthen the bar tendons. The types and configurations of bars vary by suppliers. Bar
tendons are typically used when short, straight tendons are required.
1.6.2 Anchorages
Anchorages are mechanical devices that transmit the tendon force to the concrete. For
single-strand tendons this includes wedges that grip the strands and a bearing plate that
transfers the tendon force to the concrete. Flat plate bearing directly against concrete
with nuts are used in bar systems as shown in figure(1.6.2)
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Stressing end anchors are used to stress the strand on site. A pocket former is typically
used during forming and casting operations to embed the stressing anchors in the
concrete. After stressing, the tendon tails are cut, and the pocket is grouted with non-
shrink grout to prevent the ingress of water. Figure(1.6.2.1) show the stressing
anchorage arrangements.
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For unbonded systems. The fixed-end anchorages are typically installed at the
fabrication facility before the tendons are shipped to the project site. This involves
stressing the tendon to a specified load to seat the wedges securely in the anchor. This
ensures that no slippage occurs at the fixed end during the stressing operation. Fixed-
end anchorages are used when the tendon is stressed from one end only. Proprietary
anchorage systems are commonly used in multistrand systems. For multistrand
tendons. The anchorage at the fixed end can be achieved by splaying the strands or
bonding the strand to the concrete for a sufficient length beyond the end of the member
see figure(1.6.2.2).
When the tendon is very long, or for staged construction. It may be necessary to provide
a construction joint along the length of the tendon. An intermediate anchorage is
required to stress the strand at a construction joint. Figure(1.6.2.3) show typical
intermediate stressing anchorages for unbonded.
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Strands in unbonded construction are coated with a corrosion inhibiting material that
typically consists of special grease. The coating is usually applied to the strand as a
part of the extrusion process. It acts as a barrier for ingress of water, inhibits
corrosion of the steel and lubricates the strand so that it can move independently of
the surrounding concrete.
1.6.4 Grout
In bonded construction the ducts containing the strands are filled with cement grout
as soon as possible after stressing of the tendons. The grout serves several important
functions. First the grout bonds the strand to the duct and hence to the surrounding
concrete, facilitating the transfer of force between the tendon and the concrete.
Second the grout provides a cementitious cover that slows the ingress of water and
corrosion causing contaminants. Third. The alkalinity of the grout creates a passive
environment for steel, further inhibiting corrosion. To be effective, the grout must
essentially fill the voids in the tendon. To do so, it must be fluid enough to be easily
pumped over long distances in confined spaces without excessively high pumping
pressure that could burst the duct or damage the structure, and it must maintain its
fluidity during the grouting operations.
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1.6.5 Duct/Sheathing
Ducts are used in bonded and, in some cases, in external post-tensioning to provide a
void that permits the installation and stressing of strands after the concrete has been
placed and hardened. The ducts also provide protection to the post-tensioning strands
after construction. Ducts for post-tensioning systems can be either rigid or semi-rigid
and made from ferrous metal, High Density Polyethylene Pipe (HDPE) for External
Tendons or Polypropylene(PP) .Ducts may be round, oval or flat. For bonded post-
tensioning, the ducts are corrugated to facilitate the transfer of force between the tendon
and the concrete. In contrast, the ducts for external post-tensioning usually have smooth
walls. Use of HDPE or PP ducts is recommended for corrosive environments. Plastic
ducts provide a noncorrosive impermeable barrier between the concrete and the grout.
Metallic ducts are usually galvanized to provide a degree of corrosion protection both
before and after construction. Galvanized ferrous ducts also provide a barrier to water
ingress but are not impermeable and may corrode over time in aggressive
environments. This may lead to an increase in the penetration of moisture and chlorides
or other deleterious substances, potentially reducing the long-term durability of the
structure.
Ducts are normally joined with fittings and sleeves that minimize grout leakage and
water ingress. Recently, a number of specially designed fittings have been developed
for plastic duct systems that are essentially watertight. These fittings, if properly
installed, can significantly decrease the amount of water that gets into the tendons and
can greatly enhance the structure's long-term durability.
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1.5TENDON LAYOUT
1.5.1- Overall Disposition of Tendons
There are several possible arrangements for the layout of the tendons in each design
strip.Figure [2.1-1]illustrates the alternatives. Note that the tendons in each direction
may be arranged in banded, distributed,or a mixed layout. In the banded direction all
of the tendons of a design strip are grouped in a number of flat bundles and placed
parallel to one another with a relatively small gap separating the constituent bundles.
The tendons form a narrow band, typically up to or slightly larger than 1.20 m (4 ft) in
width, following the support line. Tendons in the distributed direction are placed in
bundles of one to 4 strands, spread over the entire width of the design strip with
essentially equal spacing between the bundles.
Banded tendons in one direction, and distributed in the other direction
Banded in both directions
Distributed in both directions
Mixed banded and distributed in both directions
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FIGURE 2.1-1
All of the stated four options are deemed to provide equal strength capacity. The choice
of layout is generally governed by constructability. The option of banded in both
directions (Fig. 2.1-1(a)) is not permitted by the ACI Code. The constructability
advantage of this scheme is that it does not require interweaving of tendons in different
directions. The distributed tendons directly over the support (see Fig 2.1-2) are placed
and secured in position first, followed by placement of all banded tendons. Then the
rest of the distributed tendons are placed over the bands. Most other tendon layout
schemes require some interweaving. One other advantage of the banded-distributed
option, from a design standpoint, is that both directions can be designed with the
maximum permissible tendon drape. Banded and distributed tendons generally do not
cross at their high or low points, with the exception of two distributed tendons over the
supports (see Fig. 2.1-2). Therefore, the bulk of the strands can be placed with the
maximum allowable drape without interference from tendons in the perpendicular
direction. Views of distributed and banded tendons in a multi-story hotel construction
are shown in Figs. 2.2-2 and 2.2-3 respectively.
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FIGURE 2.1-2
FIGURE
2.2-2
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FIGURE 2.1-3
Tendon profiles are generally made up of parabolic segments and straight lines.In the
distributed direction and in beams the reversed parabola shown in Fig. 2.2-1, is
adopted. For banded tendons, a partial parabola as illustrated in Fig. 2.2-2 is commonly
used. In practice, the sharp break shown for the banded tendon profile over the support
is not achieved. The actual tendon profile follows a more gradual transition over this
region.
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FIGURE 2.2-1
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1.6 Types of Post-tension slabs
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Flat slab with column capitals Light: • Effective system for increasing
Up to punching shear capacity if
5 KN/m2 architectural considerations permit
To • Small caps have minor effect on
(8 to 11m)
Medium: flexural behavior
5-10KN/m2
Bands in one direction, and uniformly distributed
tendons in the other
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Slab with slab band Light:
• Can be very effective in panels with
Up to
rectangular aspect ratios
5 KN/m2
• two-way behavior must be justified
To
(8 to 14)m to avoid more restrictive one-way
Medium:
code requirements
Bands in one direction, and uniformly distributed 5-10KN/m2
tendons in the other .
Waffle slab with Drops Medium:
• Very effective for heavy loading
5-10KN/m2
and relatively long spans
Heavy:
(9 to 18)m • Most efficient if bay size is
Over
approximately square
10KN/m2
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CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIE
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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
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