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A Study of the
Impact of Input
Modification by
Using Glosses on
Vocabulary
Acquisition and
Retention
International Journal of English
Language & Translation Studies,
2019

I. and Translatio...

+ !
"

A Study of the Impact of Input Modification by Using Glosses on Vocabulary

Acquisition and Retention
[PP: 55-67]
Mousa Fathi
Urmia University, Urmia
Iran
Mehdi Sarkhosh
Urmia University, Urmia
Iran
ABSTRACT
Recently, electronic texts have become dominant in the academic world. This study examined the
impact of three different combinations of electronic gloss components on vocabulary retention. More
specifically, it tried to determine which of the combinations of electronic gloss components (only definition;
definition + translation; and definition + translation + picture) had a greater influence on vocabulary recall.
Participants consisted of 120 foreign language learners of English enrolled in a language program at an
Iranian Language Institute. 60 learners attended elementary courses in four classes and 60 others were
intermediate level learners forming four other classes. The participants received 5 hours of classroom
instruction per week in a computer lab. They also completed two screening vocabulary tests: one
immediately after the class and a delayed test after three weeks. The results showed a significant difference
between the three experimental groups who received different types of glosses and control group who did
not receive any types of glosses on both immediate and delayed tests. In addition, there was a significant
difference among the three experimental groups who received different kinds of glosses. These findings
confirm the results of the previous studies on the beneficial role of glosses on L2 vocabulary acquisition,
and they point to the pedagogical advantages of using electronic glosses in language programs.
Keywords: Electronic Glosses, Immediate Test, Vocabulary Retention, Delayed Test, Multimedia
ARTICLE The paper received on Reviewed on Accepted after revisions on
INFO 07/01/2019 09/02/2019 05/04/2019
Suggested citation:
Fathi, M. & Sarkhosh, M. (2019). A Study of the Impact of Input Modification by Using Glosses on Vocabulary
Acquisition and Retention. International Journal of English Language & Translation Studies. 7(1). 55-67.

1. Introduction making texts more comprehensible to

Foreign language learners encounter learners. One of the ways in making texts
two fundamental problems in their efforts to more comprehensible to readers is using
master the target language they have chosen computerized glosses or annotations.
or happen to be learning. In foreign Many researchers such as Knight
language learning, it is far from easy to (1994), Laufer (1997), and Yoshii and Flaitz
obtain suitable and enough language input, (2000) consider vocabulary learning an
both in and outside of language institutions. important part of each foreign language
This shortage creates the need to build a learner’s life. Vocabulary learning still
system that helps to increase the language brings about problems for many foreign
input potential of the learners in as language learners in spite of the recognized
consistently effective way as possible that importance of it for researchers and
will allow them to develop the acquisition language learners. They tend to forget newly
and retention of functional language and learned words quickly and they have
beyond. Since the appearance of computer- difficulty using them in either speaking or
assisted language learning (CALL), both writing; However, the advent of CALL has
teachers and scholars have tried to discover provided a new means for learning
ways in which computer technology can be vocabulary. With computers and Internet
of use in foreign language classes. Until becoming more and more popular, many
now, many researches in this regard have CALL programs and online materials have
been conducted (Makoto, 2006; De, Ridder, inundated the area of language teaching and
2002; Jeong, 2001; Groot, 2000; Ellis, 1994; learning. These CALL programs provide
Dunkel, 1991). As Jones (2000) puts FL/L2 learners with a variety of learning
forward, accessing many current electronic activities (Jing-hua, 2009).
resources provides enough opportunities for

International Journal of English Language & Translation Studies (www.eltsjournal.org) ISSN:2308-5460

Volume: 07 Issue: 01 January-March, 2019

One of the means of facilitating investigates the impact of glossing on

vocabulary learning and reading vocabulary learning by utilizing a
comprehension is glossing (e.g., Davis, computerized reading text in which the
1989; Hulstijn, 1992; Jacobs, Dufon, & target phrases are highlighted and
Hong, 1994; Ko, 2005; Watanabe, 1997). As hyperlinked to definitional enhancements.
Richards and Schmidt (2010) contend, The study focuses on the extent to which the
glossing in second language learning refers participants in learning conditions, while
to providing a summary of words’ meaning having control over the learning
in a text usually found as notes in the margin environment in their own ways, will achieve
or between the lines of the text. Research in the same way or very differently in terms
has shown that combining multiple forms of of comprehension, and most importantly in
media such as text, sound, pictures, terms of retention of English vocabulary,
animated pictures, and video can aid first by the end of the activity and then some
vocabulary learning and facilitate reading time later. In short, the study aims at
comprehension (Chun & Plass, 1996a, uncovering how the acquisition of English
1996b, 1997; Al-Seghayer, 2001; Lomicka, new vocabularies may be affected,
1998; Davis, 1998). Among studies done on comparing when participants intentionally
glossing as a means of vocabulary learning, learn and memorize the highlighted
some found that marginal glossing has a vocabulary items to when they incidentally
positive effect on vocabulary learning (e.g., acquire new items when reading an
Hashemian & Fadaei, 2012; Ko, 2012; Rott, academic text for comprehension.
2007; Rott, Williams, & Cameron, 2002), The major significance of the present
whereas some argued that it does not study lies in the fact that it investigates
necessarily lead to vocabulary learning as it different ways of presenting vocabulary
does not encourage differencing or word items to readers in a computerized
meaning retrieval (Huang & Lin, 2014). As environment with added help devices in an
Groot (2000) implies, there seems to be no attempt to find out which of the learning
feasible alternative to intentional learning of modes of vocabulary through reading would
many words with the aid of authentic L2 lead to better comprehension and longer
material. Groot referred to the fact that retention of the target items. This study
vocabulary in L1 is mainly learned intends to expand the understanding of the
incidentally and gradually over longer application of multimedia learning from the
periods of time and that for L2, this time psycholinguistic, teaching and testing
factor is not attainable at the same level, perspectives. It will investigate how text-
while the L2 learner needs a large number of picture, text-translation, and text-picture-
vocabulary words or phrases for instant use. translation glosses have an impact on L2
Although the above studies are a good learners’ vocabulary learning in three
start to exploring the effectiveness of learning orientations. Therefore, the current
electronic glosses in foreign language study attempts to answer the following
learning, additional empirical studies questions:
regarding the impact of glosses on 1. Does access to different gloss types affect
vocabulary learning and reading vocabulary learning in both elementary and
comprehension are still needed (Kamil & intermediate levels?
Lane, 1998; Ben Salem, 2006). The main 2. Does access to more gloss features result
objective of the present study is to explore in higher scores in vocabulary tests in both
ways of learning FL vocabularies that may elementary and intermediate levels.
lead to better reading comprehension and 3. Is there a difference between immediate
longer retention, while providing more and delayed vocabulary scores in vocabulary
learner independence. The principal tests?
objective of this research will be how 2. Review of Literature
different annotations influence L2 2.1 Theoretical Framework for the Study
vocabulary learning and reading Dual-Coding Theory
comprehension in incidental, intentional, Theory of Paivio’s dual-coding (1986)
and interactive orientations. The results explains how verbal and nonverbal
could contribute to the improvement of information is processed. Research has
instruction in the teaching and learning of shown that words that are associated with
foreign languages in general and the actual objects or images are better acquired
teaching and learning of English as a foreign and recalled (Clark & Paivio, 1991). This
language in particular. The study theory postulates that there are two cognitive

Cite this article as: Fathi, M. & Sarkhosh, M. (2019). A Study of the Impact of Input Modification by Using
Glosses on Vocabulary Acquisition and Retention. International Journal of English Language & Translation
Studies. 7(1). 55-67.
Page | 56

A Study of the Impact of Input Modification by Using Glosses on Vocabulary … Mousa Fathi & Mehdi Sarkhosh

subsystems: verbal and nonverbal. While the 1996a, 1996b; Plass, Chun, Mayer, &
verbal subsystem is specialized for Leutner, 1998) so that they utilize the
processing language (text and audio), the accessible text aides considering their needs,
nonverbal subsystem is for processing and though in others they are compelled to
representing nonverbal objects or events access both verbal and pictorial data (e.g.
(pictures, animations, or video). The two Plass, Chun, Mayer, & Leutner, 2003;
subsystems are linked to each other through Yanguas, 2009) due to the fact that it is less
referential connections (Ben Salem, 2006). demanding to build referential associations
Associational processing refers to the when the verbal and visual data is provided
connections within the verbal and nonverbal at the same time (Mayer, 2005).
subsystems. The links between the two Laufer (1997) contends that learners
subsystems are referred to as referential who have a resource knowledge of 3000
connections. Paivio (1991) claims that word families or 5000 lexical words can
pictures are thought to be more likely than accomplish a reading score of 56%, the
words to activate the verbal and nonverbal individuals who have a knowledge of 4000
subsystems upon processing. word families or 6400 lexical words can
2.2 Empirical Studies accomplish a reading score of 63%, while an
Many researchers believe that expansion to 6000 words families or 9600
vocabulary acquisition is the most critical lexical words will bring about a score of 77
part of second language learning (Knight, %.
1994). It is contended that, in order to This critical amount of required
develop linguistic abilities, second-language vocabulary is difficult to instruct in class as
(L2) readers must achieve a specific level of it would take the time required for learners
vocabulary threshold (Brisbois, 1995; Geva to learn other different skills, for example,
& Clifton, 1994; Jimenez, Garcia, & listening, reading, speaking, and writing
Pearson, 1996; Kim, 1995; Lomicka, 1998). (Groot, 2000). Hence, language learners
The impact of multimedia glosses on need to establish useful procedures to afford
vocabulary acquisition and reading newly introduced words (Harley, 1996).
comprehension has been of great interest to Customarily, some of these procedures
researchers in second language learning involve the utilization of dictionaries and
(Chun, 2006). Most of the conducted studies marginal glosses inserted in certain language
are based on testing the design principles textbooks. Yet these two techniques are not
proposed by the Generative Theory of very advantageous for learners who need to
Multimedia Learning (Mayer, 1997, 2001). stop and interfere with their reading process
The multimedia principle which suggests and dismiss the content to find and
that people learn better when they are recognize the meaning of new words.
exposed to both verbal and pictorial Moreover, in order to have the capacity to
information rather than either alone is one of utilize the dictionary proficiently, students
these principles that has received the most require special preparation, because
attention in second language learning. A availability of several meanings for a single
number of studies have examined this word can sometimes be troublesome
principle by exposing second language (Nation, 2001) and confusing (Luppescu &
learners to computerized texts that Day, 1993). Stahl (2003) believes that most
incorporate verbal and pictorial glosses. of the times, there are troublesome words in
Khezrlou, Ellis, & Sadeghi, (2017) contend the dictionary definition that makes the
that, electronic multi-glossing is effective in definition itself more difficult to understand.
aiding vocabulary learning even if the In line with generative theory, the dual
learners did not make intentional attempts to coding theory asserts that learning turns out
learn the words. to be surprisingly better when the data is
Despite the fact that these studies have gotten through two channels (verbal &
given consistent evidences to the impacts of visual) to develop meaning (Paivio, 1986;
multimedia on vocabulary learning, Clark & Paivio, 1991; Mayer, 1997; Mayer
uncertain results have been acquired for & Sims, 1994). Words that are related with
reading comprehension. One issue with the real things or pictures are easily learned and
current research that limits generalizability better retained (Clark & Paivio, 1991).
of discoveries is the level of control given to Various studies have been done to
the learners regarding their interaction with investigate the effect of different glosses that
the available multimedia information. In a use different media, on vocabulary
few studies, learners are permitted to choose acquisition and retention among second
the kind of multimedia (e.g. Chun & Plass, language learners (Al Seghayer, 2001; Chun

International Journal of English Language & Translation Studies (www.eltsjournal.org) ISSN:2308-5460

Volume: 07 Issue: 01 January-March, 2019

Page | 57

International Journal of English Language & Translation Studies (www.eltsjournal.org) ISSN:2308-5460

Volume: 07 Issue: 01 January-March, 2019

& Plass, 1996a; Davis & Lyman-Hager, outcomes demonstrated that words that were
1997; Lyman-Hager, Davis, Burnett, & explained with text and picture and those
Chennault, 1993; Kost, Foss, & Lenzini, with text and video were learned better than
1999). For example, the effectiveness of words with simply text definitions. Also the
glossing on reading comprehension of findings illustrated that words with text and
second language readers was examined by video explanations were remembered better
Lomicka (1998). She examined whether than words with text and pictures. Results
glosses paved the way or hindered reading obtained from Al-Seghayer's studies were
comprehension among students of French. opposite to those of Chun and Plass (1996a,
Three groups with different conditions were 1996b, 1997) whose outcomes illustrated
examined: full glossing (L1 translation, L2 that still pictures consolidated with
definitions, pronunciations, images, definitions are more viable for remembering
references, and questions), limited glossing than videos accompanied by definitions.
(L1 translation and L2 definitions), or no Despite the fact that researchers have
glossing. The study outcomes showed that explored some of the combinations of media
text comprehension in a computerized text that included fundamentally text, picture and
can be promoted when it is fully glossed. video, it still stays ambiguous which mixture
Lee (2015) in his studies concluded that the is helping more in vocabulary acquisition
electronic glossing condition resulted in the and reading comprehension. Definitely,
greatest gains of vocabulary. The electronic more research is required in this field to
glossing condition was also the most analyze the viability of various combinations
efficient in light of the cognitive load of media on reading comprehension and
framework, showing the highest word retention. The present study intends to
instructional efficiency. fill this gap by exploring the research
Researchers Chun and Plass (1996a, questions mentioned in introduction section.
1996b, 1997) explored the impact of text- 3. Method
picture and text-video glosses on vocabulary 3.1 Design
maintenance among English speaking The study has three experimental
learners of German language, discovered groups and one control group. It has two
positive effect of glosses. The outcomes posttests with between-subject and within-
demonstrated that words glossed with both subject analysis. It has an immediate and
text and pictures helped learners remember delayed posttest but not a pretest. The study
more vocabulary than words explained with explores and describes the performance in
just text or text and video. Kost et al. (1999) vocabulary learning of intermediate and
revealed a positive effect of pictorial elementary learners of Iran in a Computer
glosses, their study demonstrated that Lab in an Institute. Therefore, the study
learners who utilized a blend of text and utilized a quasi-experimental design because
picture gloss while reading a text, of not having pretest. The type of electronic
outperformed who utilized just either textual gloss and teaching orientations provided
gloss or the pictorial gloss. The results of with the texts were deemed as the
another study by Chen & Yen (2013) independent variables. There were three
concerning vocabulary acquisition suggested combinations of electronic gloss
that glosses were effective in aiding components: a) definition; b) definition and
vocabulary retention for both short-term and picture; and c) definition, picture and
long-term memory for medium and high- translation. The dependent variable included
proficiency participants. However, format participants’ scores on the immediate
did not significantly affect both test scores. vocabulary test and the delayed vocabulary
In a study like those of Chun and Plass test.
(1996a, 1996b, 1997), Al-Seghayer (2001) 3.2 Participants
studied the effects of video glosses versus Participants in this study were Iranian
still-image glosses among ESL learners at an students of intermediate and elementary
American college. A program presented level English enrolled in English courses at
three sorts of glosses to the learners. The Jahad Daneshgahi Institute of Maku. A total
first had literary definition and an audio number of 120 participants took part in the
section in which a local speaker articulated study: 80 females and 40 males. Sixty
the target word. The second type of gloss intermediate and sixty elementary level ESL
included pictures alongside the definitions, students studying at an Iranian institute took
while the third kind of gloss was video clips part in the study. Learners were of mixed L1
alongside the textual definitions. The backgrounds (Turkish, Kurdish and Persian),

Cite this article as: Fathi, M. & Sarkhosh, M. (2019). A Study of the Impact of Input Modification by Using
Glosses on Vocabulary Acquisition and Retention. International Journal of English Language & Translation
Studies. 7(1). 55-67.
Page | 58

A Study of the Impact of Input Modification by Using Glosses on Vocabulary … Mousa Fathi & Mehdi Sarkhosh

and constituted eight intact ESL classes. whether students who had access to gloss
Data collection took place in a computer lab outperformed students in the control group
and each session was a regularly scheduled who had only a reading passage The tests
part of their language course. Based on the included 10 multiple choice questions.
students’ self-expression, they were similar Participants received one point for each
in their experience with and attitudes toward correct answer and no points for an incorrect
using computers as a pedagogical tool in the answer. The maximum score possible was
ESL classroom. 10.
The age range of the participants at the Delayed Vocabulary Test
elementary classrooms was 12 to 16, The delayed multiple-choice
whereas the age of the participants at the vocabulary tests were also designed by the
intermediate classes ranged from 14 to 18. researcher and were identical to the
All participants were English language immediate tests but with the items in a
learners who had an interest in continuing different order. They were administered two
their English learning programs. The weeks after the intervention. The delayed
researcher could access to participants’ multiple-choice vocabulary tests allowed the
grades or overall performance in class while researcher to determine whether or not the
the study was conducted. The nature of the participants were able to recall the learned
study was explained to the participants and words two weeks after the intervention.
they were informed that all the information Foreign Language Annotator Program
collected during the study would be kept The Foreign Language Annotator
confidential; their scores would not be (FLAn) Program (Thibeault, 2014) was used
shared with anybody and would not affect to present unfamiliar words by means of
their final grades. hypermedia links in three formats of
3.3 Materials and Instruments definition, definition- picture and definition-
Reading passages picture-translation. The program can be
The researcher selected several available without any Internet connection
reading passages from an English textbook requirement. The screen layout is in
(Select Readings) used by the participants to accordance with pre-specified design
use in this study. It proved hard to come up principles. The screen consists of two
with accurate pictures that would represent frames. The left screen is devoted to the
certain words that needed to be glossed, reading passage with the title at the top, and
such as abstract concepts or action verbs that the right screen is allocated to the glosses. In
may usually be found in existing reading the definition gloss type, when participants
texts. Kost, Foss, and Lenzini, (1999) faced click on a hypermedia link, the right screen
the same problem when they were supplies a text definition of the word (figure
annotating the target words of their text. So, 1).
they deleted several sentences from the text
and replaced some words with others that
were easier to gloss with pictures. However,
in this study the passages remained intact to
preserve their originality as course texts. The
reason for selection of the passages out of
this textbook is that it is used as the reading
course book in these classes. To select the
words to be glossed in the passages, five Figure 1: A Screen Shot of Reading Condition 1:
volunteer students read the passages and Definition (D)
highlighted the words that proved unknown In the definition-picture type,
or difficult to them to understand. Then, the participants were able to see a text definition
researcher chose the words that were of a word along with a picture as a result of
selected three or more times by five students clicking on the word (figure 2).
as the target words to be glossed.
Immediate Vocabulary Tests
Immediate vocabulary tests were
designed by the researcher to measure the
effect of the three different combinations of
electronic gloss components on vocabulary
retention. The researcher designed the
vocabulary test to measure the effect of each
type of gloss on word retention and find out

International Journal of English Language & Translation Studies (www.eltsjournal.org) ISSN:2308-5460

Volume: 07 Issue: 01 January-March, 2019

Page | 59

International Journal of English Language & Translation Studies (www.eltsjournal.org) ISSN:2308-5460

Volume: 07 Issue: 01 January-March, 2019

Figure 2: A Screen Shot of Reading Condition 2: During the teaching sessions, the
Definition + picture (DP) participants had access to reading passages
And, in the definition-picture- at computer site. As it was mentioned above,
translation format, the participants click on a the participants in each group worked
highlighted word, and can see on the right through the passages under different
screen a picture that illustrates the word and conditions during four different sessions.
definition and translation of the word (figure The gloss groups could consult glosses by
3). clicking the mouse pointer over the colored
words. When the participants clicked on the
colored words, the program showed a
definition in English (textual gloss group), a
picture and definition (pictorial gloss group),
or a combination of glosses (textual plus
pictorial plus translation gloss group) on the
right hand of the screen. Participants in the
control group read the texts without having
Figure 3: A Screen Shot of Reading Condition 3:
Definition + picture + Translation (DPT) any access to glosses. After completion of
3.4 Procedure the reading task in different conditions by
The present study was conducted in the participants, the teacher-researcher asked
Maku Jahad Daneshgahi Institute’s them to answer immediate multiple choice
computer site that holds 17 computers. Four vocabulary test at the end of the session. A
intermediate groups each consisting of 15 soft copy of the test which consisted of ten
English language learners and four multiple choice questions was provided for
elementary groups each having 15 English each participant on the screen. The
language learners took part in this study, participants answered the questions on the
which totally comprised 120 participants. answer sheets which were provided on
The groups were homogenous because the screen towards the end of the reading task.
learners were screened before entering a The annotated words in the reading texts
certain class in Jahad Daneshgahi Institute. were the focus of the tests. However in three
After the researcher made certain that the types of orientations namely incidental,
participants are a homogenous sample, they intentional and interactive the learners
were randomly assigned to one of the four received different types of teaching. In
groups in each level; three gloss groups (D, incidental groups, the learners were
D+P and D+P+T), and a control group. On informed that after instruction there would
the day of exposure to the research be a vocabulary test. But in intentional
treatment, participants in the three gloss groups, the students were aware of the
groups received instructions for each gloss posttest and a list of new words which were
conditions. They were taken to the lab and the target of tests, were given to them. In
demonstrated how to use the Flan program interactive groups, a mix of traditional
before they began to read. All groups could method of teaching and glosses were used to
have access to the texts through Flan teach new words.
program on computer screen. Participants After two weeks, the delayed
were tested individually and they worked vocabulary post-test was given to the
through the text at their own pace. subjects, in the same way as for the
Definition gloss group read the immediate posttest. It differed from the
computerized written passages having immediate posttest in that it was
access to the definitions of the glossed administered two weeks after the reading. It
words in English. Pictorial plus definition used the same 10-item multiple-choice
gloss group read the computerized written vocabulary test that was employed for the
passages with access to the pictures and immediate posttest. The objective of this test
definitions of the glossed words. Definition, was to assess the level of retention of the
pictorial and translation gloss group read the vocabulary learned with the initial reading in
computerized written passages with access the project, and to measure the degree of
to the pictures, translation and the divergence or convergence such as loss,
definitions of the glossed words. Control maintenance, or increase in the quantity of
group read the computerized written texts the vocabulary items acquired, between the
without having any access to the definitions, immediate and delayed posttests. The
pictures or translations of the words. posttests were intended to record the impact
of the glossed reading task on the subjects at

Cite this article as: Fathi, M. & Sarkhosh, M. (2019). A Study of the Impact of Input Modification by Using
Glosses on Vocabulary Acquisition and Retention. International Journal of English Language & Translation
Studies. 7(1). 55-67.
Page | 60