AIM AND OBJECTIVES

The aim of the study is to evaluate the impact on environment that hasoccurred already with the
following objectives:
􀂾 To assess the existing air quality.
􀂾 To assess the extent of pollution of water bodies due to developmental
activities.
􀂾 To assess the quality of soil and extent of soil pollution and soil degradation.
􀂾 To assess the extent of noise pollution.
􀂾 To assess the quantities and types of solid wastes generated, assess the
efficacy of present disposal method and to propose suitable methods ofdisposal.
􀂾 To assess the amounts of sewerage generated and its quality.
􀂾 To assess the efficiency of existing sewage system and propose sewage
treatment facilities.
􀂾 To assess the existing biotic components in Pudukkottai town (flora and
fauna).
􀂾 To assess the socio-economic impact of urbanization in Pudukkottai.

REVIEW OF LITERATURE
This section reviews the various spects (Urbanization, Air, Noise, Water,
Soil, Waste water, Solid waste, Flora, Fauna and Socio-economic status) that arerelated to the
research work.
2.1. Impact of Urbanization
Maiti and Agrawal (2005) reported some of the important environmentalproblems caused by over
population growth and rapid urbanization process in themetropolitan cities of India. Total urban
population in India has increased more thanten times surpassing India’s total population growth,
which has increased less thanfive times during 1901 to 2001. Also, there was about three-fold
increase in thepercentage of total urban population in Class-I city followed by almost a fifty-fold
increase in the total population in the million plus cities in India from 1901 to 2001.Despite several
Government housing policies, 41% of the total slum population ofIndia is residing in million plus
city alone.A three-fold increase in the number of motor vehicles has been found inIndia in the last
decade. In all the four metro cities SPM was found highest alongwith the problem of solid wastes.
The noise pollution was noticed more than theprescribed standard in all the four metro cities. Five
and more person residing insingle room was faced by more than one fourth population of Mumbai
followed by alittle less than one fifth population of Kolkata and about 10% population of Delhi
and Chennai both. Also there is an acute shortage of piped drinking water in thesemetro cities.
India’s urban future is grave. Therefore there is an urgent need to tacklethe urban environmental
problem in a rational manner giving attention to the needfor improving urban strategies.
Between 2005 and 2030, the world’s population is expected to increase by1.7 billion people, from
6.5 billion in 2005 to 8.2 billion in 2030. Almost all growthof the world’s population between 2005
and 2030 is expected to occur in lessdeveloped regions. In particular, the projected population
growth at the world levelwill be primarily accounted for by the growth in the urban areas of the less
developed regions.That is, while the world population is projected to grow by 1.8 billion people
between 2005 and 2030, the urban population is projected to increase by 1.7 billion.The absolute
growth in the total population is lower than that of the urbanpopulation because of a declining rural
population over the next 25years (U.N.1993).

2.2 Air Pollution

The main source of air pollution are industrial plants, power stations,automobiles, locomotives,
aeroplanes, jets, missiles, domestic furnaces, dead bodiesburning, burning of oils, sewers ,refuse
burning ,etc. The emissions from thesesources mainly consist of aerosols, odour, and gases. These air
pollutants affect man,animals, vegetation and also having economical, sociological and
psychologicalimpact. It causes irritation of the mucous linings of the eyes, nose and throat,
headaches, nausea, chronic bronchitis, bronchial asthma, asthmatic bronchitis,pulmonary
emphysema, cancer, death etc.Nowadays, acid rain has become the talks of the day. Today every
body hasa craze for having own vehicles and in most of the cities automobiles are rapidly
becoming the main source of air pollution. Although the number of vehicles, plying
in Indian cities including metropolitan is still insignificant as compared to thenumber of USA,
Europe and Japan, due to the inferior maintenance of vehicles incombination with lower combustion
efficiency is making the vehicular exhausts amenance to the city dwellers. The auto mobiles are
mostly driven by petrol or diesel.The petro-burning vehicles emit carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons
and oxides ofnitrogen. Diesel engines emit relatively little of these but produce more particulates
and smoke. Oxides of nitrogen and hydrocarbons interact in the presence of sunlightto produce
oxidant smog which irritates the eyes and lungs and damage sensitiveplants (Trivedy and Goel,
1995).Ghosh and Seth (1994) reported that atmospheric pollutants get deposited onthe earth’s surface
through various physical and chemical process. Precipitationpathway for deposition of atmospheric
aerosols and anthropogenic materials containpollutants of varying nature, causing deterioration of
physical ,chemical andbiological characteristics of waters.Prasanthi and Rajeswari (2003) conducted
a survey at major traffic points inKurnool town to investigate the effect of vehicular emissions on the
health of 53traffic policemen. It was found that these personnel were directly exposed tovehicular
emissions for nearly 8 hours per day. The main symptoms observed werecough 80%, breathlessness
20%, headache and dizziness 30% and passage of black
sputum in the morning 3%and also conducted pulmonary function test (PFT) onthese personnel.
Some of them exhibited normal pulmonary function test. About60% showed mild to moderate
obstruction, out of which 65% were non-smokers and35% were smokers. In case of 20% of smokers
the obstruction was severe .It wasconcluded that traffic policemen were suffering from respiratory
disorders due toexposure to vehicular pollution.
Diesels engine exhausts have significantly higher particulate and gas phasepollutants. The chemicals
associated with the paticles may interact with the lungcells and cause damage, inflammation and
excess mucus production (Santondilonataet al., 1978).Pedro et al (2007) study applied a
methodology for discriminating local andexternal contributions of atmospheric particulate matter
(PM) at a rural backgroundstation in the North-western coast of Spain. The main inputs at the nearest
scale hadcome from soil dust, marine aerosol and road traffic. At a larger scale, the
highestcontributions had come from fossil-fuel combustion sources, giving rise to relativelyhigh
ammonium sulphate background levels, mainly in summer. Externalcontributions from long-range
transport processes of African dust and nitrate hadbeen detected. Morocco and Western Sahara were
identified as the main potentialsource regions of African dust, with a higher content of Al and Ti than
other crustalcomponents. Geographical areas from central and Eastern Europe were identified
aspotential sources of particulate nitrate.Pandey et al., (1992) reported the diurnal patterns in the
concentrations ofozone (O3), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), sulphur dioxide (SO2) and total
suspendedparticulate matter (TSP) in the urban atmosphere of Varanasi city in India during1989. The
city was divided into five zones and three monitoring stations wereselected in each zone. Ambient
concentrations of NO2 and SO2 were maximumduring winter but ozone and TSP concentrations were
highest during summer. NO2and SO2 concentrations peaked in the morning and evening. Peak
concentrations ofO3 occurred in the afternoon, generally between noon and 4 p.m.Mrinal et al (2005)
reported that the public health implications of vehicularemissions were substantial. The particulate
matter, particularly that less than 10 μ insize, can pass through the natural protective mechanism of
human respiratory systemand plays an important role in genesis and augmentation of allergic
disorders. Theydiscussed the approach for the selection of air monitoring stations, the
methodologyadopted for sampling and subsequent analysis. The results of SPM, RPM, NO x, SO2,CO
and Pb levels indicated that they were at levels dangerous to human health. Inorder to mitigate air
pollution in the city a strategic air pollution management planwas proposed and the possible different
measures that could be adopted to maintainthe balance between sustainable development and
environmental management have
been discussed.
Khan (2005) suggested that the freshness of the air in one's environment hasa most fundamental and
direct impact on the quality and length of one's life. Air ismore a necessity of life than either food or
water.Inhalable particulate present in urban air frequently co-exist with otherrespiratory irritants such
as oxidant gases like ozone or acidic aerosols. Exposure toNO2 at concentrations of 500ppm or
greater for short periods of time can results inpulmonary edema with broncho pneumonia and finally
death.1ppm of SO2 exposurecaused consistent changes in pulmonary compliance, breathing
frequency etc.The adverse effect of this complex mixture on lungs include increased
incidence of respiratory infections, bronchitis, asthma, pneumonia, emphysema,
cancer etc (Bofetta et al., 1990).

2.3. Noise Pollution

Professor Gunther Lehman, President of International Association AgainstNoise has observed,
“Noise is not a measure of the progress of technology but a signof regression” (Encyclopedia
Americana, 1991).Noise pollution, as it affects humans, has been a recognized problem fordecades,
but the effect of noise on wildlife has only recently been considered apotential threat to animal health
and long-term survival. Research into the effects ofnoise on wildlife, which has been growing rapidly
since the 1970s, often presentsconflicting results because of the variety of factors and variables that
can affectand/or interfere with the determination of the actual effects that human-producednoise is
having on any given creature. Both land and marine wildlife have beenstudied, especially in regards
to noise in the National Parks System and theonslaught of human- made cacophony in the oceans
from military, commercial andscientific endeavours. Most researchers agree that noise can affect an
animal'sphysiology and behaviour, and if it becomes a chronic stress, noise can be injuriousto an
animal's energy budget, reproductive success and long-term survival. Armedwith this understanding
it should follow that humans would attempt to minimize thethreat to wildlife by reducing the amount
of noise that they are exposed to in naturalareas; but this has not been the situation.Natural areas
continue to be degraded by human-made noise, wildlifecontinues to suffer from these disturbances,
and to date the majority of the debaterevolves around the egocentric demands of people to either
produce more noise innature (through motorized recreation, scientific research, military exercises
etc.) orexperience natural areas in the absence of anthropogenic noise. Neither side hasadequately
addressed the issue from the bio centric view of wildlife and the known,or as yet undiscovered,
damage that our increasingly noisy human-alteredenvironment is inflicting upon them (Sharma and
Khur, 1994).
Noise is a disturbance to the human environment that is escalating at such ahigh rate that it will
become a major threat to the quality of human lives. In the pastthirty years, noises in all areas,
especially in urban areas, have been increasingrapidly. There are numerous effects on the human
environment due to the increase innoise pollution. Slowly, insensibly, we seem to accept noise and
the physiologicaland psychological deterioration that accompanies it as an inevitable part of our
lives.Although we attempt to set standards for some of the most major sources of noise,we often are
unable to monitor them. Major sources of noise can be airplanes attakeoff and landing, and a truck
just off the assembly line, yet we seem accept andenjoy countless other sounds, from hard rock music
to loud Harley Davidson motorcycles( Nunez, 2000).
Sudden and unexpected noise has been observed to produce marked changesin the body, such as
increased blood pressure, increased heart rate, and muscularcontractions. Moreover, digestion,
stomach contractions, and the flow of saliva andgastric juices all stop. Because the changes are so
marked, repeated exposure tounexpected noise should obviously be kept to a minimum. These
changesfortunately wear off as a person becomes accustomed to the noise. However, even
when a person is accustomed to an environment where the noise level is high,physiological changes
occur (Broadbent, 1957).

2.4. Water Pollution

As our communities grow, we notice many visible changes, includinghousing developments, road
networks, expansion of services, and more. Thesechanges impact our precious water resources, with
pollution of water resourcesbeing one potential impact. To understand how our water supplies can
becomepolluted, it’s important to understand the oldest solar-powered “recycling” system:
the water cycle, also called the hydrologic cycle.The hydrologic cycle transportswater between
earth’s land, atmosphere, and oceans. The major processes movingwater are evaporation,
transpiration, condensation, and precipitation. Evaporationoccurs when the sun’s energy turns liquid
water on the earth’s surface into watervapor, which enters the atmosphere. Water vapor leaves plants
in a process calledtranspiration. Collectively, these two processes are called evapotranspiration. The
water vapor in the atmosphere cools to form clouds (condensation).Throughprecipitation in the form
of rain or snow, the water returns to earth. Snowaccumulates in the mountains, providing storage in
the form of a snow pack that willslowly melt and release water in the spring and summer. Some of
the rain runs offthe land, into rivers or lakes. While it’s hard to believe, rivers contain only about
0.0001 percent and fresh water lakes only about 0.009 percent of all water on earth!
Rain also soaks into the ground, or infiltrates, and replenishes.The increase in impervious or hard
surfaces, including rooftops andpavement (roads, driveways, and parking lots), decreases the amount
of water thatsoaks into the ground, or infiltrates. This increases the amount of surface runoff. The
impervious surfaces collect and accumulate pollutants, such as those leaked fromvehicles, or
deposited from the atmosphere through rain or snowmelt. The runoffwater carries pollutants directly
into water bodies. Because there is less infiltration,peak flows of storm water runoff are larger and
arrive earlier, increasing themagnitude of urban floods. Paving may alter the location of recharge, or
replenishment, of groundwater supplies, restricting it to the remaining unpavedareas. If infiltration is
decreased sufficiently, groundwater levels may decline,affecting stream flows during dry weather
periods. Lowered groundwater levels canresult in subsequent well failures. While the effects of
urbanization on the watercycle can be major, if wise choices are made during the development
process, theimpacts can be minimized and our future water supply protected (ENVIS, 2005).
Freshwater resources all over the world are threatened not only by overexploitation and poor
management but also by ecological degradation. The mainsource of freshwater pollution can be
attributed to discharge of untreated waste,dumping of industrial effluent, and run-off from
agricultural fields. Industrialgrowth, urbanization and the increasing use of synthetic organic
substances haveserious and adverse impacts on freshwater bodies. It is a generally accepted fact that
the developed countries suffer from problems of chemical discharge into the watersources mainly
groundwater, while developing countries face problems ofagricultural run-off in water sources.
Polluted water like chemicals in drinking watercauses problem to health and leads to water-borne
diseases which can be preventedby taking measures even at the household level.In a survey
conducted by the Central Pollution Control Board, there were2000 large and medium scale industries
in the country which polluted the groundwater. Of these only 27% had adequate treatment plants
14% of the industries thetreatment units were still under construction. Of the 17% sugar industries,
only 6%had effluent treatment plants. The remaining 42% industries were simply disposingthe
wastes without any sort of prior treatment into the aquatic bodies which were the
potential sources of public water supply. They generated enormous problems ofwater pollution
(Trivedy and Goel, 1984). Now 50% of industries simply disposingthe waste water without
treatment. Studies have revealed that some of our major rivers are polluted far beyondthe permissible
limit prescribed for human use and consumption. The mighty Gangain the North and Cauvery in the
South are also heavily polluted that the once lifegiving forms have now become a menace to aquatic
life and human population.India suffers from water, air and soil pollution contributing to the
overalldegradation of the environment.Indiscriminate water pollution is a phenomenonparticularly in
densely populated industrial cities at India (Babacar et al., 2005).
Schueler and Holland (2000) suggested that the effects of urbanization on thewater cycle can be
major; if wise choices were made during the developmentprocess, the impacts could be minimized
and our future water supply be protected.Purandara et al (2003) reported that with the rapid growth
of population andindustrialization in the country, pollution of natural water by municipal and
industrial wastes had increased tremendously.

2.4.1. Groundwater and its contamination

Many areas of groundwater and surface water are now contaminated withheavy metals, POPs
(persistent organic pollutants), and nutrients that have anadverse affect on health. Water-borne
diseases and water-caused health problems aremostly due to inadequate and incompetent
management of water resources. Safewater for all can only be assured when access, sustainability,
and equity can beguaranteed. Access can be defined as the number of people who are guaranteed
safedrinking water and sufficient quantities of it. Urban water generally have a highercoverage of
safe water than the rural areas (Allen et al., 1980).In the urban areas water gets contaminated in
many different ways, some ofthe most common reasons being leaky water pipe joints in areas where
the waterpipe and sewage line pass close together. Sometimes the water gets polluted at
source due to various reasons and mainly due to inflow of sewage into the source.Ground water can
be contaminated through various sources and some of these arementioned below (Allen et al., 1980).

2.4.2. Pesticides
Run-off from farms, backyards, and golf courses contain pesticides such asDDT that in turn
contaminate the water. Leechate from landfill sites is another majorcontaminating source. Its effects
on the ecosystems and health are endocrine andreproductive damage in wildlife. Groundwater is
susceptible to contamination, aspesticides are mobile in the soil. It is a matter of concern as these
chemicals arepersistent in the soil and water (Joshi et al., 2004).

2.4.3. Sewage
Untreated or inadequately treated municipal sewage is a major source ofgroundwater and surface
water pollution in the developing countries. The organicmaterial that is discharged with municipal
waste into the watercourses usessubstantial oxygen for biological degradation thereby upsetting the
ecologicalbalance of rivers and lakes. Sewage also carries microbial pathogens that are the
cause of the spread of disease (Tyagi, 1998).

2.4.4. Nutrients
Domestic waste water, agricultural run-off, and industrial effluents containphosphorus and nitrogen,
fertilizer run-off, manure from livestock operations, whichincrease the level of nutrients in water
bodies and can cause eutrophication in thelakes and rivers and continue on to the coastal areas. The
nitrates come mainly fromthe fertilizer that is added to the fields. Excessive use of fertilizers cause
nitratecontamination of groundwater, with the result that nitrate levels in drinking water is
far above the safety levels recommended. Good agricultural practices can help inreducing the amount
of nitrates in the soil and thereby lower its content in the water.

2.4.5. Synthetic organics

Many of the 100 000 synthetic compounds in use today are found in theaquatic environment and
accumulate in the food chain. POPs or Persistent organicpollutants represent the most harmful
element for the ecosystem and for humanhealth, for example, industrial chemicals and agricultural
pesticides. Thesechemicals can accumulate in fish and cause serious damage to human health.
Wherepesticides are used on a large-scale, groundwater gets contaminated and this leads tothe
chemical contamination of drinking water. Acidification of surface water, mainlylakes and
reservoirs, is one of the major environmental impacts of transport overlong distance of air pollutants
such as sulphur dioxide from power plants, otherheavy industry such as steel plants, and motor
vehicles. This problem is more severein the US and in parts of Europe (Kataria, 1994).Ramakrishnan
et al (1991) had studied the physico-chemical parameters offive drinking water sources at
Tiruvannamalai. All parameters except DO Calciumand magnesium were found to be in the
permissible limit.Gupta Hari Om and Sharma Brijmohan (1993) had analysed quality of water
at Laliltpur, an industrial area of Donnvalley. Calcium, magnicium and PO4 werefound above the
permissible limit in natural waters.The river and canal waterconfirmed the increased pollution due to
industrial development.Vaithuyanathan et al (1993) studied the transport and distribution of heavy
metals in Cauvery River. Tributaries Hemavathi and Kabini draining highlymineralized areas
contribute significantly to the heavy metal load of the CauveryRiver. Particulate metal transport is
influenced by the presence of major dams builtacross the river.

2.4.6. The effects of Water pollution

Water pollution is the acceleration of the eutrophication processes of waters.Eutrophication is the
aging of a lake by biological enrichment of its water. In ayoung lake the water is cold and clear,
supporting little life. With time, streamsdraining into the lake introduce nutrients such as nitrogen
and phosphorus, whichencourage the growth of aquatic organisms. As the lake's fertility increases,
plantand animal life burgeons, and organic remains begin to be deposited on the lake
bottom. Over the centuries, as silt and organic debris pile up, the lake growsshallower and warmer,
with warm-water organisms supplanting those that thrive in acold environment. Marsh plants take
root in the shallows and begin to fill in theoriginal lake basin. Eventually the lake gives way to bog,
finally disappearing intoland. Depending on climate, size of the lake, and other factors, the natural
aging of alake may span thousands of years.
However, pollutants from man's activities can radically accelerate the agingprocess. During the past
century, lakes in many parts of the earth have been severelyeutrophied by sewage and agricultural
and industrial wastes. The primecontaminants are nitrates and phosphates, which act as plant
nutrients. They overstimulate the growth of algae, causing unsightly scum and unpleasant odors, and
robbing the water of dissolved oxygen vital to other aquatic life. At the same time,other pollutants
flowing into a lake may poison whole populations of fish, whosedecomposing remains further
deplete the water's dissolved oxygen content. In suchfashion, a lake can literally choke to death.
Moreover in the case of lake andreservoirs with a long time of water turnover phosphorus will
accumulate in theaquatic ecosystem determining periodic cycles of algal proliferation with inorganic
P being organized in the algae cells followed by microbial decomposition of algalresidues with the
organic P being remineralized. Only the removal of organicsubstance from the lake either as sludge
accumulated on the bottom or as livingorganism (e.g. fish) can reduce the water body
eutrophication.The cities among the coastal areas are discharging their effluents in sea and
oceans. The coastal area of Bombay has become slightly acidic and polluted. Themain areas of old
and New Delhi are on the West Bank of Yamuna, while the oldShahdara is located on the left bank.
At Wazirabad, where the river enters the Unionterritory of Delhi, it is tapped for the water supply.
The river leaves the unionterritory at Okhla, where the city waste water is discharged after treatment.

2.5. Soil Pollution

Soil is the natural medium for the growth of land plants. Soil covers land as acontinuum except on
rocky slopes and in regions of continuous cold. Itscharacteristics in any one place results from the
combined influence of climate andliving matter, acting upon rock material as conditioned by relief
over periods oftime. Soil is a dynamic three dimensional piece of landscape that supports plants. It
has a unique combination of both internal and external characteristics. Its uppersurface is the land; its
lower surface is defined by the lower limits of soil formingprocesses; and its sides are boundaries
with other kinds of soil. In short, each soil isa natural body which is surrounded by other soils with
different properties (Sharmaand Khar, 1995).
2.5.1. Evolutionary nature of soil
The soils undergo continual change. Each soil has a life cycle in terms ofgeological time. The soil
properties have been influenced by the integrated effects ofclimate and living matter acting upon
parent material over a period of time.Weathering of bedrock provides the debris which is the parent
material for theevolution of soil profiles. Over a period of time a soil horizon will come into
existence.

2.5.1.1. The soil profile

When soil is examined vertically it shows the presence of more or lessdistinct horizontal layers. Such
a section is called a “profile” and the individuallayers are called as horizons. The horizons found
above the parent material arecollectively called as solum. The word “solum” is a latin word meaning
soil, land ora piece of land (Sharma and Khar, 1995).

2.5.1.2. Horizons of soil

The upper layers of soil contain large amounts of organic matter. These layersare the major zone of
organic matter accumulation. The underlying subsoil containslesser organic matter. In mature humid
regions of the soil the subsoil layers may bea) an upper zone of transition b) a lower zone containing
sufficient amounts ofcompounds like iron, aluminium oxides, clays, gypsum and calcium carbonate.

2.5.1.3. Components of soil

Soil is a mixture of mineral matter, organic matter water and air. Theapproximations are as follows –
mineral matter45%, organic matter5%, water 25%,air 25%. These proportions vary from time to
time. The volume of air and water beara reciprocal relationship. Half the volume is pore space.

2.5.2. Soil nutrients

For the growth of plants certain elements are definitely essential. Thecapacity of soils to supply the
essential elements and crop residues are oftenamended in order to enhance plant growth and crop
returns. The soil nutrients can bedivided into two classes-Macronutrients and Micronutrients.

2.5.2.1. Macronutrients
Six elements are used in large quantities and they are “nitrogen, phosphorus,potassium, calcium,
magnesium and sulphur”. Growth of plants may becomeretarded if these are available too slowly or
if they are in adequately balanced byother nutrients. Nitrogen, Phosphorus and potassium are
commonly supplied to thesoil as farm manure and commercial fertilizer.

2.5.2.2. Micronutrients
The other nutrient elements like iron, manganese, copper, zinc, boron,molybdenum chlorine and
cobalt are required by the plants in very small amounts.These are called micronutrients or trace
elements.

2.5.3. Life in the soil

Living organisms in the soil, both fauna and flora are very essential in theprocess of degradation and
synthesis of humus. These organisms are essential for thenumerous biochemical changes, help to
stabilize the structure of the soil. The soil isnot complete without the living components (flora and
fauna) and cannot function.Of all the microbes, bacteria are by for the most numerous (one thousand
million insingle gram of soil) followed by viruses, fungi, actinomycetes, algae, protozoa. Theycreate
air ways within the soil that are essential to plant roots.
2.5.4. Soil deterioration
1. Fragilitry: - Man’s influence severely upsets the natural balance.
2. Progressiveness: - The vicious circle of “cause and effect” can also damage
the soil.
3. Irreversibility: - Loss of animal and plant species.
Due to these reasons erosion and deterioration of soil can lead to
desertification. Looking after soil which was the original meaning of cultivation is
literally the basis of human culture. Yet man’s many activities is increasing
converting the fertility and productivity of soil into an irreversible situation of
unproductivity. Yet arable land is being thoughtlessly consumed for infrastructural
facilities.

2.6. Aquatic Macrophyte

Duckweed and water velvet both have shown bioaccumulation co efficient ofabout 1000 for Cu and
Cr (Rutiner, 1953). Of all the aquatic plants used for wastewater remediation more basic biology and
remediation application work has beendescribed for species of family lemnaceal commonly called
duckweed(Tarver,1986).The plant is easy to grow under simple laboratory condition(Hillman, 1961).

2.7. Solid Waste Management

The United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) projects thatthe annual production of
municipal solid waste in India will climb to about 200million tons by the year 2000 and to 230
million tons by 2010. These projectionshave prompted interest in composting municipal solid waste
as an alternative tolandfills and incineration. Municipal solid waste (MSW) is composted to reduce
waste volume and disease-causing organisms, and to cycle nutrients. Whilemunicipal solid waste can
be converted into compost, the question arises about whatto do with the compost once it is produced.
Since there are limited markets and fewstandards on how to utilize MSW compost on land, only 30%
of all such compost isused for agriculture, landscape, and horticulture, while 70% of the compost is
landfilled. Agricultural lands are excellent sites for beneficially using municipal solid
waste compost as an organic soil amendment. The organic matter present in manysoils throughout
Minnesota and the U.S. has gradually decreased over the past 100to 200 years. Most agricultural
cropping systems result in the depletion of organicmatter. Soil organic matter acts as a sink and
source of nutrients in the soil systembecause it has a high nutrient-holding capacity. It also acts as a
large pool for thestorage of nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur, and has the capacity to supply these
andother nutrients for plant growth. Soil organic matter interacts with trace metals, oftenreducing
their toxicity to plants. The physical benefits of organic matter on soilinclude improved soil structure,
increased aeration, reduced bulk density, increasedwater-holding capacity, enhanced soil
aggregation, and reduced soil erosion. Theapplication of municipal solid waste compost to
agricultural soil can be a means toreturn the organic matter to agricultural soil and in some cases
reduce the cost ofmunicipal solid waste disposal.The weight of solid waste generated per person per
day usually lies between250 and 1000 gm worldwide and the main constituents of domestic waste
arevegetable putrescible matter, inert matter, paper glass and metals (Flintoff andMillard, 1969).

2.7.1. Generation of Municipal Solid Wastes

Municipal bodies have to manage the solid wastes arising from residential,commercial and
institutional activities along with waste from street sweepings.Normally the municipal bodies handle
all the waste, deposited in the communitybins located at different places in the city. The municipal
solid waste is transportedto processing / disposal facilities. Majority of the municipalities do not
weigh theirsolid waste vehicles but estimate the quantities on the basis of the number of trips
made by thevehicles. Since the density of waste is considerably less as compared tothe material for
which these vehicles are designed to carry, such data on quantity cannot be relied upon. In a number
of studies carried out by NEERI the waste quantitywas measured. The data indicates that the quantity
varies between 0.2- 0.4 kg percapita per day depending upon the population of the urban centre. In
metropolitancities quantities upto 0.5kg/ capita/day have been recorded (Table 2.11). The
percapita waste quantity tends to increase with the passage of time due to variousfactors like
increased commercial activities, standard of living, etc. Increase inpercapita waste quantity is also
known to occur at a slightly lesser rate than theincrease in GDP / Capita. This increase is estimated to
occur in India at a rate of 1-1.33% per year (Gaikwad et al., 1985).

2.7.2. Waste Composition

The organic content is high due to the practice of the common use of freshvegetables and fruits in the
food. The high organic content also necessitates frequentcollection and removal of the waste.The
paper, glass and plastic content is small;these materials are sold by the citizens to hawkers, who
collect and sell them forreuse or recycling. Hence it is only that fraction which does not have a resale
valueand is in a non usable form, remains in the waste. The waste contains a high
percentage of ash and fine earth. This is due to the common practice of depositingstreet sweepings in
community bins. Similarly in many case the surfaces adjoiningthe roads are uncovered and a large
amount of earth materials are swept away andmixed with the waste materials. The calorific value of
Indian solid waste variesbetween 300- 500 kg/ m3 (Bhide and Sundaresan, 1980).

2.7.3. Trace Elements and MSW Compost

Many metals and metalloids are present in minute ("trace") amounts in thesoil and water. These trace
elements occur naturally as a result of the weathering ofrocks. They can be leached into surface water
or groundwater, taken up by plants,released as gases into the atmosphere, or bound semi-permanently
by soilcomponents such as clay or organic matter.
Metals appear in the municipal solid waste stream from a variety of sources.Batteries, consumer
electronics, ceramics, light bulbs, house dust and paint chips,lead foils such as wine bottle closures,
used motor oils, plastics, and some inks andglass can all introduce metal contaminants into the solid
waste stream. Compostsmade from the organic material in solid waste will inevitably contain these
elements,although at low concentrations after most contaminants have been removed.
In small amounts, many of these trace elements (e.g., boron, zinc, copper,and nickel) are essential for
plant growth. However, in higher amounts they maydecrease plant growth. Other trace elements
(e.g., arsenic, cadmium, lead, andmercury) are of concern primarily because of their potential to
harm soil organismsand animals and humans who may eat contaminated plants or soil. The impact
ofmetals on plants grown in compost amended soils depends not only on theconcentration of metals,
but also on soil properties such as pH, organic content andcation exchange capacity. Different types
of plants also react very differently tometals which may be present (Linsay, 1973).

2.7.4. Effects on Water Quality

In addition to affecting plant and animal health, trace elements contained inMSW composts may be
leached (carried by water) from the soil and enter eitherground or surface water. As with plant
uptake, soil pH, organic matter content, andother soil characteristics affect the amount of leaching.
While other data on leaching from MSW composts is scarce, the evidencefrom long-term
applications of sewage sludge suggests that the rate of leaching islow. Leaching of metals into
groundwater is only likely to occur with heavy,repeated applications of MSW composts over many
 years in areas with sandy soilsor other conditions that limit the opportunity for adsorption of metals
by soil (Sinhaet al., 1977).

2.7.5. Effects on Soil Organisms

Little is known about the effect of trace elements in MSW composts on soilorganisms such as
invertebrates (e.g., earthworms) and micro-organisms (e.g.,nitrogen-fixing bacteria). When sewage
sludge is applied to land, the concentrationof some trace metals (e.g., cadmium) in earthworms is
increased, but this increasedoes not pose a significant risk to the worms or to wildlife that consumes
thembased on the risk assessment performed to establish the new APL (Acceptable
Permissible Limit) values for sewage sludge. The average values of lead, copper,and zinc in MSW
composts exceed soil limits proposed by a group of Europeanresearchers to protect soil invertebrates.
Those limits may be conservative, however,since metals are often less biologically available in
composts than in mineralsoils.There is contradictory evidence as to whether metals in MSW
composts mayharm soil micro-organisms, including nitrogen-fixing bacteria (Stevenson, 1982).

2.8. Socio-Cultural Determinants of Urban Occupation

All the human elements that determine or affect man’s occupation orlivelihood can conveniently be
grouped into three broad categories (a)Socialelements-comprising a number of elements related with
society,(b)Culturalelements-referring to the process and stage of development of a society which
includes the level and trends of urbanization, economic advancement-agriculturaland industrial
development, transportation and communication network, publichealth and education system etc
and(c)personal elements-denoting the individualcharacteristics of man such as his age, sex, health
and education together with hisattitude and psychology. Age and sex are very important aspects of
personalenvironment in determining ones capacity and ability to adopt an occupation.
The quantum strength of labour force is determined by age-structural ofpopulation .The age structure
influences the economic and social interactions, socialattitudes and social and occupational mobility.
Education and training are mostinfluential factors to determine man’s occupation. It is education and
training thatencourage rural to urban migration motivated by the objective of acquiringprestigious
non-agricultural occupations and also accelerate the pace of occupationalmobility from agriculture to
diversified non-agricultural fields. Educationstrengthens the capacity of the social group s to respond
to them and there bypromotes the process of development. It is a fact that high ratio of educated
andtrained persons make the task of economic development much easier. Further
education level is higher in urban areas than in rural areas where most of thepopulation is illiterate
and uneducated.

PROPOSED METHODOLOGY

According to the Federal Office of Road Safety's National In-Service Vehicle Emissions Study, if all
vehicles were tuned correctly there would be up to:

 16% less tailpipe hydrocarbon emissions

 26% less tailpipe carbon monoxide emissions
 9% less nitrogen oxides emissions.

The study also revealed that on average, maintenance to polluting vehicles does not require the
replacement of major or expensive parts. Tuning is mainly limited to:

 replacing points and air filter

 replacing fuel filter
 replacing oil and oil filter
 checking spark plug condition and gap—adjusting or replacing
 checking distributor condition and operation and adjusting
 checking and adjusting idle mix and speed
 checking and replacing spark plug and distributor leads
 checking and replacing hoses and other minor items in fuel/electrical/emission control system
 examining vehicle diagnostics and replacing faulty components.

INTRODUCTION

 Air quality plays an important role in occupational and environmental medicine and many
airborne factor negatively influence human health [1-6]. This review summarizes recent data on
car indoor air quality published by research groups all over the world. It also refers to formerly
summarized established knowledge concerning air pollution. Air pollution is the emission
of toxic elements into the atmosphere by natural or anthropogenic sources. These sources
can be further differentiated into either mobile or stationary sources. Anthropogenic air
pollution is often summarized as being mainly related to motorized street traffic
(especially exhaust gases and tire abrasion). Whereas other sources including the burning
of fuels, and larger factory emissions are also very important, public debate usually
addresses car emissions.
 The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates 2.4 million fatalities due to air
pollution every year. Since the breathing of polluted air can have severe health effects
such as asthma, COPD or increased cardiovascular risks, most countries have
strengthened laws to control the air quality and mainly focus on emissions from
automobiles.
 In contrast to the amount of research that is currently conducted in the field of health
effects, only little is known on specific exposure situations due to external sources which
are often present in the indoor environment of a car but not related to the car emissions.
The studies addressed a number of vehicular or non-vehicular sources.

CONCLUSION

The quality of the car indoor air may be improved by procedures such as window-opening or the correct
use of fans or automated air conditioning systems. In striking contrast to the multitude of studies that
address outdoor air pollution, only little is known about indoor air quality in cars. Therefore, modern
scientometric tools which are in use for the analysis of other research are not applicable in this area.

Factors that may improve indoor air quality in cars when used correctly.

There are numerous approaches present which may bring light to this field of environmental sciences. In
specifics, sources and levels of different substances need to be identified and analyzed. Then, further
research should be performed about mechanisms, i.e. with the use of modern techniques of biochemistry,
toxicology and molecular biology.
ANALYSIS

India is the 7th largest country in the world covering an area of 3.5 million square km and has a
population of 1.2 billion. According to 2011 census figures, 30 percent of India’s population lives in
urban areas and the rate of urbanization is growing steadily due to the push/pull effects of employment
opportunities and the declining viability of the agricultural sector. This, in addition to the fact that India
now has the 4th largest economy in the world - $4.463 trillion (2011 est.), has resulted in a large and
growing movement of goods, services, and people fueled by trade and employment opportunities – almost
all of which is powered by fossil fuels.

A growing demand of passenger and public transport has led to more air pollution and greenhouse gas
(GHG) emissions. A study conducted by the Central Pollution Control Board (New Delhi, India) in six
cities – Delhi, Kanpur, Bangalore, Pune, Chennai, and Mumbai, concluded that the transport sector
contributes to more than 30 percent of the ambient air quality in these cities – either directly from the
vehicle exhaust or indirectly via the re-suspension of dust on roads due to vehicular movement.
According US Energy Information Administration, India's transportation energy use will grow at about
5.5 percent a year – significantly higher than the world average of 1.4 percent per year, more than
quadrupling the total energy use from the road transport in 2035. Likewise the per capita energy use for
passenger vehicles in India is estimated to increase threefold.

Besides major cities like Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai, Kolkata, Bangalore, Hyderabad, and Ahmedabad, the
secondary cities (with population more than 2 million) like Pune, Surat, Indore, Bhopal, Nagpur, Jaipur,
Varanasi, Nagpur, Agra, Guwahati, Patna, Kanpur, Panaji, Trivandrum, and Cochin, are growing both
geographically as well as in population, putting pressure on local infrastructure.

The increase in traffic along with inadequate infrastructure facilities is responsible for higher emissions of
local pollutants and GHGs in several of these cities. While the message is clear; with the growing air
pollution and GHG emissions from the transport sector in cities and at the national level, regulatory
agencies will have to take a quantum leap, especially in terms of managing traffic in cities and freight at
the national level. They will have to implement radical solutions ranging from technical, social, policy, to
economic, within a short time-frame for long-term gains. This study focuses on the energy and emissions
outlook for the transport sector in India which could effectively result in a co-benefits framework for
better air quality management in the cities and a national climate policy dialogue.

The total registered vehicle fleet in India is 112 million in 2010 (click here for total registered vehicle
fleet by State for 2010). Of the passenger transport fleet, 2-Wheelers are very popular due to their cost,
fuel efficiency, and ease of use in congested traffic. All the vehicles (motorized and non-motorized) are
utilized for multiple purposes, for both passenger and freight transport, varying loading conditions, at all
terrains from high altitude Kashmir to the plains of Tamilnadu and Kerala. While the total vehicle
numbers have increased significantly between 1990 and 2010, the per capita rate of ownership of private
cars in India is still lower than many of the European Nations, United States, and Canada. As incomes
rise, car ownership will increase proportionately and consequently the total emissions and pollution. We
estimate that the total fleet will increase to 500 to 600 million by 2030, based on low and high sales
growth projections, with major of the passenger fleet concentrated in the urban centers.

The emissions inventory is built for the following pollutants – particulates in two bins (PM10, PM2.5),
sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), carbon monoxide (CO), volatile organic compounds (VOC),
black carbon (BC), organic carbon (OC) and Carbon Dioxide (CO2), for the period of 2010 to 2030 under
the business as usual and some control scenarios (click here for total emissions by State and by pollutant
for 2010)

Emissions from the transport sector are a result of multiple factors - including but not limited to, vehicle
fuel standards, badly maintained roads and public transport vehicles, lack of transportation and urban
planning, adulterated fuel, aging fleet, and freight movement. There cannot be a silver bullet to address
this issue and one cannot have an impact on emissions from transport using only one policy instrument.
For instance improving vehicle standards by itself will not reduce pollution, unless it is accompanied by a
host of other complementing policies. While technological improvements and stricter emission standards
will decrease the on-road emissions, factors such as a greater number of vehicles (diesel fueled in
particular), the large number of short trips and traffic congestion – may offset the benefits derived from
these improvements. A summary of results from business as usual and assumed “what-if” scenarios is
presented below.

It is assumed that the actual emissions in 2030 could be anywhere between the red line (business as usual
- BAU) and the dotted black line (LE5-15UPT = lower sales projections with introduction of Bharat 5
(equivalent of Euro 5) standards by 2015, with an aggressive urban passenger transport policy to promote
public transport and non-motorized transport, in order to reduce 25 percent of the vehicle kilometers
traveled from passenger vehicles).

The total emissions are further gridded to a spatial resolution of 0.25° grid size covering an area between
7°N to 39°N in latitude and 37°E to 99°E in longitude, utilizing (a) gridded population (b) gridded road
density maps (c) activity maps like ports and airports that are hot spots to freight movement (d) urban
center locations that are hot spots to the passenger travel (e) landuse maps distinguishing populated,
agricultural, mining, and forest areas. These layers of information, along with modeling results are present
in the panel of maps.

RELEVANCE

The large majority of today's cars and trucks travel by using internal combustion engines that burn
gasoline or other fossil fuels. The process of burning gasoline to power cars and trucks contributes to air
pollution by releasing a variety of emissions into the atmosphere. Emissions that are released directly into
the atmosphere from the tailpipes of cars and trucks are the primary source of vehicular pollution. But
motor vehicles also pollute the air during the processes of manufacturing, refueling, and from the
emissions associated with oil refining and distribution of the fuel they burn.

Primary pollution from motor vehicles is pollution that is emitted directly into the atmosphere, whereas
secondary pollution results from chemical reactions between pollutants after they have been released into
the air.

While new cars and light trucks emit about 90 percent fewer pollutants than they did three decades ago,
total annual vehicle-miles driven have increased by more than 140 percent since 1970 and are expected to
increase another 25 percent by 2010. The emission reductions from individual vehicles have not
adequately kept pace with the increase in miles driven and the market trend toward more-polluting light
trucks, a category that includes sports utility vehicles (SUVs). As a result, cars and light trucks are still
the largest single source of air pollution in most urban areas, accounting for one quarter of emissions of
smog-forming pollutants nationwide. Carbon monoxide, ozone, particulate matter, and the other forms of
pollution listed above can cause smog and other air quality concerns, but there are vehicular emissions
that contribute to a completely different pollution issue: global warming. The gases that contribute to
global warming are related to the chemical composition of the Earth's atmosphere. Some of the gases in
the atmosphere function like the panes of a greenhouse. They let some radiation (heat) in from the sun but
do not let it all back out, thereby helping to keep the Earth warm. The past century has seen a dramatic
increase in the atmospheric concentration of heat-trapping gasses, due to human activity. If this trend
continues, scientists project that the earth's average surface temperature will increase between 2.5°F and
10.4°F by the year 2100. Vehicular emissions that contribute to air quality problems, smog, and global
warming can be reduced by putting better pollution-control technologies on cars and trucks, burning less
fuel, switching to cleaner fuels, using technologies that reduce or eliminate emissions, and reducing the
number of vehicle-miles traveled.

Pollution Control Technology

Federal and California regulations require the use of technologies that have dramatically reduced the
amount of smog-forming pollution and carbon monoxide coming from a vehicle's tailpipe. For gasoline
vehicles, "threeway" catalysts, precise engine and fuel controls, and evaporative emission controls have
been quite successful. More advanced versions of these technologies are in some cars and can reduce
smog-forming emissions from new vehicles by a factor of ten. For diesel vehicles, "two-way" catalysts
and engine controls have been able to reduce hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide emissions, but nitrogen
oxide and toxic particulate-matter emissions remain very high. More advanced diesel-control technologies
are under development, but it is unlikely that they will be able to clean up diesel to the degree already
achieved in the cleanest gasoline vehicles. Added concerns surround the difference between new vehicle
emissions and the emissions of a car or truck over a lifetime of actual use. Vehicles with good emission-
control technology that is not properly maintained can become "gross polluters" that are responsible for a
significant amount of existing air-quality problems. New technologies have also been developed to
identify emission-equipment control failures, and can be used to help reduce the "gross polluter" problem.

Burning Less Fuel

The key to burning less fuel is making cars and trucks more efficient and putting that efficiency to work
in improving fuel economy. The U.S. federal government sets a fuel-economy standard for all passenger
vehicles. However, these standards have remained mostly constant for the past decade. In addition, sales
of lower-fuel-economy light trucks, such as SUVs, pickups, and minivans, have increased dramatically.
As a result, on average, the U.S. passenger-vehicle fleet actually travels less distance on a gallon of gas
than it did twenty years ago. This has led to an increase in heat-trapping gas emissions from cars and
trucks and to an increase in smog-forming and toxic emissions resulting from the production and
transportation of gasoline to the fuel pump. This trend can be reversed through the use of existing
technologies that help cars and trucks go farther on a gallon of gasoline. These include more efficient
engines and transmissions, improved aerodynamics, better tires, and high strength steel and aluminum.
More advanced technologies, such as hybrid-electric vehicles that use a gasoline engine and an electric
motor plus a battery, can cut fuel use even further. These technologies carry with them additional costs,
but pay for themselves through savings at the gasoline pump.

Cleaner Fuels

The gasoline and diesel fuel in use today contains significant amounts of sulfur and other compounds that
make it harder for existing control technology to keep vehicles clean. Removing the sulfur from the fuel
and cutting down on the amount of light hydrocarbons helps pollution-control technology to work better
and cuts down on evaporative and refueling emissions.

Further large-scale reductions of other tailpipe pollution and CO 2 can be accomplished with a shift away
from conventional fuels. Alternative fuels such as natural gas, methanol, ethanol, and hydrogen can
deliver benefits to the environment while helping to move the United States away from its dependence on
oil. All of these fuels inherently burn cleaner than diesel and gasoline, and they have a lower carbon
content—resulting in less CO 2 . Most of these fuels are also more easily made from renewable resources,
and fuels such as natural gas and methanol help provide a bridge to producing hydrogen for fuel-cell
vehicles.

Reducing Driving

Because we are still dependent on fossil fuels and the number of cars on the road is expected to double, a
significant reduction in vehicular pollution requires more than gains in fuel efficiency. Measures that
encourage us to drive less can help curb vehicular pollution and protect natural resources and public
health. Alternatives that can reduce the number of vehicle-miles traveled include:

 providing transportation alternatives to cars, including mass transit, bicycle, and pedestrian
routes;
 promoting transit-oriented, compact developments in and around cities and towns; and adopting
policies to improve existing roads and infrastructure.

Personal Contributions

Individuals can also make a difference in the effort to reduce pollution from cars and trucks. How we
drive and how we take care of our vehicles affects fuel economy and pollution emissions. The following
are several ways people can reduce the harmful environmental impact of cars.

 Driving as little as possible is the best way to reduce the harmful environmental impact of
transportation needs. Carpooling, mass transit, biking, and walking are ways to limit the number
of miles we drive. Choosing a place to live that reduces the need to drive is another way.
 Driving moderately and avoiding high-speed driving and frequent stopping and starting can
reduce both fuel use and pollutant emissions.
 Simple vehicle maintenance—such as regular oil changes, air-filter changes, and spark plug
replacements—can lengthen the life of your car as well as improve fuel economy and minimize
emissions.
 Keeping tires properly inflated saves fuel by reducing the amount of drag a car's engine must
overcome.
 During start-up, a car's engine burns extra gasoline. However, letting an engine idle for more than
a minute burns more fuel than turning off the engine and restarting it.
 During warm periods with strong sunlight, parking in the shade keeps a car cooler and can
minimize the evaporation of fuel.