International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (IJTSRD)

Volume: 3 | Issue: 2 | Jan-Feb 2019 Available Online: www.ijtsrd.com e-ISSN: 2456 - 6470

Fuel Cell System and Their Technologies: A Review

Rameez Hassan Pala
M.Tech Scholar, Electrical Engineering Department,
Yamuna Institute of Engineering & Technology, Yamunanagar, Haryana, India

ABSTRACT
Renewable energy generation is quickly rising in the power sector industry and extensively used for two groups: grid
connected and standalone system. This paper gives the insights about fuel cell process and application of many power
electronics systems. The fuel cell voltage drops bit by bit with increase in current because of losses related with fuel cell. It is
difficult to control large rated fuel cell based power system without regulating tool. The issue associated with fuel based
structural planning and the arrangements are extensively examined for all sorts of applications. In order to increase the
reliability of fuel cell based power system, the combination of energy storage system and advanced research methods are
focused in this paper. The control algorithms of power architecture for the couple of well-known applications are discussed.

KEYWORDS: Distributed generation; Renewable energy sources; Fuel cell systems; Power-conditioning units; dc/dc converters;
dc/ac inverters

I. INTRODUCTION
The price of fossil fuel is increasing step by step because of accomplish an existence time of 40,000 h by 2011 with 40%
absence of accessibility. The power system industries are effectiveness for distributed power and 5000-h life by 2015
restructuring to renewable energy based power generation to 60% efficiency for transportation. Fuel cell technology has
as an alternate solution. By considering environmental many advantages as compared with the other conventional
factors, the fuel cell based energy generation is a most renewable energy sources.
suitable renewable system than solar and wind energy
system [1]. Recently, fuel cells are rapidly developed and II. TYPES AND OPERATION OF FUEL CELLS
commercially available with high, medium and low power Water electrolysis to produce hydrogen and oxygen gases is
range applications. In order to reduce the cost of fuel cell, a well-known established process. Basically, the principle of
researchers have been focused to improve the reliability and a water electrolyser is to convert water and DC electricity
efficiency of the fuel cell based power system [2]. The into gaseous hydrogen and oxygen, that is to say the reverse
analysis report shows that the fuel cell market is increasing of a hydrogen fuel cell. This process was firstly
every year [3]. demonstrated by Nicholson and Carlisle in 1800. In the
1820s Faraday clarified the principles and in 1934 he
The first fuel cell was accidentally invented in 1839 by Sir introduced the word “electrolysis”. Electrolysis was not used
William Robert Grove, however, no down to earth's commercially to produce hydrogen from water until 1902 by
utilization was found for one more century [2]. General the Oerlikon Engineering Company. During the same period,
Electric Company (GE) started creating fuel cell in the 1950s Nernst developed the high-temperature electrolyte ZrO2
and was granted the agreement for the Gemini space mission with 15% Y2O3, this being the basis for solid oxide
in 1962. The 1 kW Gemini energy unit framework had a electrolysis (SOEC) and solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC). In 1951,
platinum stacking of 35 mg Pt/cm2 and execution of 37 the first commercially available high pressure electrolyser
mA/cm2 at 0.78 V [3]. In the 1960s enhancements were (30 bar) was presented by Lurgi. Nowadays, low
made by joining Teflon in the impetus layer specifically temperature electrolysis technology is available with at least
contiguous the electrolyte, as was finished with the GE fuel 13 manufactures (3 using alkaline electrolysers and 10 using
cell unit at the time. Extensive upgrades were made from the polymer membranes). On the other hand, SOEC technology is
mid-1970s, forward to the reception of the completely still under development. This technology attracted great
fluorinated Nafion layer. interest in the 1980s because of the studies curried out by
Donitz and Erdle [3], where they reported the first SOEC
The department of energy (DOE) and national energy results within the HotElly project from Dornier System
technology laboratory (NETL) are mainly concentrated on GmbH using electrolyte supported tubular SOEC. In this
developing fuel cell based power plants for standalone and program, single cells have been operated during long-term
grid connected applications [4]. periods with current densities of −0.3Acm−2 and 100%
Faraday efficiency at a voltage as low as 1.07V. In addition,
The overall commercialization of fuel cell has not yet come. Westinghouse Electric Corporation Research and
The two biggest obstructions for commercialization is life Development Centre contributed to the development of
time and expense [5]. The lifetime needed by a commercial SOEC. They reported Area Specific Resistance (ASR) values
fuel cell is more than 5000 working hours for light-weight of about 0.6 cm2 per cell in a seven-cell stack at 1003 ◦C [4].
vehicles and more than 40,000 working hours of stationary Research in high temperature electrolysis has increased
power with not as much as a 10% decay [6], [7]. At present, significantly in recent years, as will be described in the
most power devices display real execution rot after around a present review.
thousand hours of operation [8], [9]. The DOE targets are to

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2.1. Types of fuel cell particularly used as stationary power generators and which
Fuel cells are mainly classified according to the electrolyte is not efficient electrically.
and types of fuel used. The main categories of fuel cells
available in the market are explained below. 2.1.4. Alkaline Fuel Cell (AFC)
Here, alkaline solutions are used as electrolyte of fuel cell
2.1.1. Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFC) and pure hydrogen is used as fuel. The operating
Acid polymer is used as the electrolyte and pure hydrogen is temperature is about 70 °C and which is more stable.
used as fuel. The operating temperature of the PEMFC is This type fuel cell is mainly used as standalone power
below 100°C. Now a day, this fuel cell is popular and widely generators.
used in vehicle application.
2.1.5. Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC)
2.1.2. Direct Methanol Fuel Cell (DMFC) This type of fuel cells is widely used as stationary power
In DMFC, the polymer membrane used as an electrolyte, and generator and its operating temperature is around 1000 °C.
the fuel used is methanol. The operating temperature of The solid ceramic electrolyte like zirconium
DMFC is below 60 °C and it is mainly used for portable oxide and syngas type of fuels are used in this fuel cell.
power applications below 259 W.
2.1.6. Molten Carbon Fuel Cell (MCFC)
2.1.3. Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell (PAFC) Here, Molten carbonate salt suspended in a porous ceramic
In PAFC, The liquid phosphoric acid is used as the electrolyte matrix is used as the electrolyte and hydrocarbon is used as
and pure hydrogen is used as the fuel. The operating fuel. The operating temperature is around 650 °C and which
temperature is around 180 °C. These types of fuel cell are is mainly used for high power application.

Table 1 Different types of Fuel cell technology

Operating
Types of fuel cell Electrolyte Fuel Oxidant Efficiency
Temperature
Alkaline potassium hydroxide pure hydrogen, or
50–200°C O2/Air 50–55%
(AFC) (KOH) hydrazine
Direct methanol
polymer 60–200°C liquid methanol O2/Air 40–55%
(DMFC)
Phosphoric acid hydrogen from
phosphoric acid 160–210°C O2/Air 40–50%
(PAFC) hydrocarbons and alcohol
Sulfuric acid alcohol or impure
sulfuric acid 80–90°C O2/Air 40–50%
(SAFC) hydrogen
Proton-exchange
membrane polymer, proton
50–80°C less pure hydrogen from O2/Air 40–50%
(PEMFC) exchange membrane

molten salt such as

Molten carbonate
nitrate, sulphate, 630–650°C hydrocarbons or methanol CO2/O2/Air 50–60%
(MCFC)
carbonates
ceramic as stabilised
Solid oxide
zirconia and doped 600–1000°C natural gas or propane O2/Air 45–60%
(SOFC)
perovskite
Protonic ceramic thin membrane of
600–700°C hydrocarbons O2/Air 45–60%
(PCFC) barium cerium oxide

2.2. Fuel cell operation

The working principle of the fuel cell is simple, however, it The overall reaction of the water electrolysis is:
has complicated design. Fuel cell essentially comprises of 1
cathodes, electrolyte and fuel. The positive and negative H 2 O → H 2 + O2 (1)
2
terminals are known as cathode and anode, respectively.
These are two terminals are contacted with the electrolyte The reactions in the cathode and anode sides are:
inside and external electric circuit. The fuel is continuously
H 2 O + 2e − → H 2 ( g ) + O 2− (2)
fed to the anode while oxidant supplied to cathode. Generally,
1
the fuel is pure hydrogen or contains some hydrogen gases O 2 − → O 2 + 2e − (3)
like methanol, ethanol and natural gases. The oxidants are 2
pure oxygen or contains oxygen gases like air or halogens like
chlorine [20], [21], [22]. III. RECENT DEVELOPMENT IN FUEL CELLS
The optimal selection of size of the fuel cell is important to
In most of the cases, the combustion of Hydrogen and oxygen locate the fuel cell in distributed system to meet the peak load
produces the water and it will split into two electrochemical demands for different applications of utilities [21]. The
reactions at the electrode independently, which are termed as various intermediate ranges of different fuel cells available in
two cell reaction. The basic reaction taking place in a fuel cell markets from 0.5 kW to 2 MW are given in this classical
is given in Eqs. (1), (2), (3). paper [10]. Particularly the research is focusing on PEM,

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MCFC and SOFC fuel cells, to reduce the cost of the fuel stacks The performance of the fuel cell is improved by
and to increase their life span more than 40,000 h. At present thermodynamics and electrical efficiency of the system. The
a 7 kW capacity PEMFC development is carried out by plug thermodynamic efficiency depends upon the fuel processing,
power for residential applications and 250 kW capacity is water management and temperature control of the system.
under tested condition by Ballard power generation system. But the electrical efficiency depends on the various losses
The Department of Energy (DOE) and Fuel Cell Energy, Inc. over the fuel cells like ohmic loss, activation loss and
have researched MCFCs heavily for stationary power concentration loss. In reality, the fuel cells differ in terms of
applications. A 1.2 MW system is largest distributed characteristics, material used in construction and their
generation power plant located at Santa Clara, CA and for the suitability of applications. This includes military, space,
commercialization purpose the development of 250, 300 and portable devices, residential, stationary and transportation
400 kW capacity MCFC for cogeneration is researched in applications [5], [13].
various countries such as Europe, Holland, Italy, Germany
and Spain [5], [6], [7], [8], [9], [10], [13]. The SOFC has IV. POWER-CONDITIONING UNITS (PCUS)
likewise achieved success in stationary power applications. Looking to the drooping characteristics of fuel cell the
Siemens Westinghouse has developed and tested a 250 kW development of power-conditioning units (PCUs) plays an
hybrid system that has achieved efficiency of 52% and the important role to interface the fuel cell system with
efforts are also going on to develop the SOFCs in different standalone/grid-connected system. The available fuel cell in
ratings as 1 and 25 kW. They are also developing a high the market is only in the range of 25–50 V due to its higher
efficiency 5 kW SOFC-GT system to reduce its high production cost. The generated fuel cell voltage is converted
installation cost. More over further research is focusing on into directly ac supply by using single stage dc/ac inverter
PEMFC and PAFC systems for the combined heat and power topologies or by a combination of a dc/dc converter in series
generation [13], [17], [18], [19]. The research is also focusing with dc/ac inverter forming multistage conversion as shown
on development of 100 kW to 1 MW DMFC and other fuel cell in Fig. 2[35].
types such as DFAFC, DEFC, PCFC and DBFC for commercial
applications [11], [12], [13], [14], [15], [16], [20].

3.1. I–V characteristics of fuel cells

The fuel cell voltage is usually very small, around 1.2 V. Due
to their low output voltage it becomes necessary to stack
many cells that need to be connected in cascaded series and
parallel form to increase its power capacity. A typical fuel cell
polarization characteristic with electrical voltage against
current density is shown in Fig. 1[22]. It can be seen that a
linear region exists because as the current density increases
the voltage drops due to its ohmic nature. This region is
called ohmic polarization, it is mainly due to internal
resistance offered by various components. At low current
level, the ohmic loss becomes less significant; the increase in
output voltage is mainly due to activity of the chemical
reactions (time taken for warm up period). So this region is
also called active polarization. At very high current density
the voltage fall down significantly because of the reduction of
gas exchange efficiency, it is mainly due to over flooding of Fig.2. Schematics of fuel cell power electronic-conditioning
waters in catalyst and this region is also called concentration systems
polarization.
The selection of power-conditioning unit is based on some
significant factors like lower cost, higher efficiency, electrical
isolation, ripple free and reliable operation. The efficiency of
the power-conditioning unit depends upon the conduction
and switching losses. The conduction losses can be effectively
reduced by reducing the usage of components and their
operating ranges. The switching losses can be reduced by soft
switching techniques either by zero voltage crossing (ZVS) or
zero current crossing (ZCS) techniques. The major
advantages of soft switching technique over hard switching
conditions are to reduce the losses over the device by about
20–30% [36]. In order to reduce the cost and to increase their
reliability the selection of topology must have reduced
component count. More over an electrical isolation is
required to protect the fuel cell stacks under overload
conditions.

With the ideologies of fuel cell requirements and operations,

several dc/dc converters and dc/ac inverter topologies are
researched [35], [36], [37], [38], [39], [40], [41], [42], [43], [4
Fig.1. Typical fuel cell polarization curve 4], [45], [46], [47], [48], [49], [50], [51]. In dc/dc converters

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the efficiency of the conventional boost converter is always
greater than the other converter topologies like push pull,
half bridge, full bridge, etc., because it has reduced
component counts and simplicity in control. But for the
protection point of view electrical isolation is not possible in
boost converter as shown in Fig. 3. However for isolation and
high boost ratio, push pull, half bridge and full bride can be
considered as candidate topologies [37]. Fig. 4 shows a push
pull converter is used to reduce the conduction loss in
switches by operating only one switch at any time to interface
the fuel cell voltage to dc bus. But the major problem is the Fig.6. Isolated full bridge dc/dc converter.
transformer saturation which results in converter failure
because the two half portions of the center tap transformer Development of dc/ac inverters topologies are also studied
windings cannot be equal or symmetrically wound. Therefore based on their relative characteristics under operating
it is suitable for low and medium power applications conditions. From this paper [38], [42], it is clear that for
only [38]. Though the half bride converter as shown in Fig. single phase loads single phase 3 wire inverter shown in Fig.
4 is suitable for high power applications, it requires large 7 is the best choice compared to single bus inverter with two
value of secondary/primary transformation ratio to deliver paralleled half bridge inverter and dual bus inverter with two
the desired output voltage or it requires large value of dc link split half bridge topologies, because it satisfies the ultimate
capacitors to eliminate the transformer saturation that basic requirements of reduced components, simple design
increases cost of the converter [36]. The full bridge converter and control.
as shown in Fig. 5 is suitable for high power applications
compared to half bridge. Though it has more components, it
has an advantage of reduced device current ratings,
transformer turns ratio and the voltage and current stresses
are small compared with other topologies [40], [41].

Fig.7. Single bus inverter with two paralleled half bride

topology.

V. FUEL CELL APPLICATIONS

Fuel cells are used in many applications including distributed
generation (DG), automotive application and
telecommunication application. In all these applications, the
Fig.3. Non-isolated dc/dc boost converter. technical, economic and environmental advantages of fuel
cells are exploited. Some of the specific applications of fuel
cell are explained in the next subsections.

A. Fuel cell vehicle

Fuel cells are a promising innovation in transportation.
The main objective of the automotive industry is to improve
the fossil fuel efficiency and reduce the harmful gas emission.
Because of this fact, the growth of fuel cell rapidly increases
in e-vehicles applications [24]. A fuel cell vehicle is becoming
popular and attracts more due to the absence of internal
combustion engines. Also, it has the advantages of
Fig.4. Push pull converter. simple construction with more reliable and pollution free.
The main challenge of fuel cell based vehicle is to convert and
control of the electrical power to mechanical power. Fig.
3 shows the fuel cells are becoming more attractive in the
automotive industry. The main challenge in using fuel cell for
vehicle application is to convert the power generated to
mechanical power and controlling of the generated electric
power. Fig. 3shows the generalized block diagram of a heavy
duty fuel cell powered transit bus [25].

B. Telecommunication
Fuel cells are popular in telecommunication systems [31],
Fig.5. Isolated half bridge dc/dc converter. [32]. The fuel cell framework is currently under test by the
distinctive telecom organization in worldwide for backup
application. Giuseppe Gianolo et al. have been proposed a
new system named electro7 fuel cell power system for
telecommunication application [33].

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C. Underwater vehicle [6] Schmittinger Wolfgang, Vahidi Ardalan. A review of the
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VI. CONCLUSIONS
comprehensive review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev
This paper presents a detailed review of the fuel cell, which
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includes the chemical and electrical aspects of the fuel cell.
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