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Boilers Basics
Boilers Basics
Boilers
Objectives
After completing this chapter, you will be able to:
14.1 Identify the components of boilers and the purpose of boilers in the
process industries. (NAPTA Boilers 1, 3-5*) p. 292
14.2 Identify the common types of boilers and their applications. (NAPTA
Boilers 2) p. 296
14.3 Explain the operating principles of boilers. (NAPTA Boilers 6) p. 298
Key Terms
Air registers—devices that control the flow of air to the burners to maintain the
correct fuel-to-air ratio and to reduce smoke, soot, or NOx (nitrogen oxide) and CO
(carbon monoxide) formation, p. 297.
Blowdown—the process of taking water out of a boiler to reduce the concentration
level of impurities. There are two types of blowdown, continuous and intermittent,
p. 293.
Burners—devices that introduce, distribute, mix, and burn a fuel (e.g., natural gas,
fuel oil, or coal) for heat, p. 297.
290
Stack—an opening at the top of the boiler that is used to remove flue gas, p. 297.
Steam drum—the top drum of a boiler where all of the generated steam is collected
before entering the distribution system, p. 293.
Steam trap—a device used to remove condensate or liquid from steam systems, p. 294.
Superheated steam—steam that has been heated to a very high temperature so that a
majority of the moisture content has been removed (also called dry steam), p. 300.
Superheater—tubes located near the boiler outlet that increase (superheat) the
temperature of the steam, p. 297.
Waste heat boiler—a device that uses waste heat from a process to produce
steam, p. 297.
Water tube boiler—a type of boiler that contains water-filled tubes that allow water
to circulate through a heated firebox, p. 296.
14.1 Introduction
Steam has many applications and a long history in the process industries. Steam provides
efficient heat transfer and contains a high amount of latent heat. It is used to heat and cool
process fluids, power and purge equipment, fight fires, facilitate distillation, and induce
other physical and chemical reactions.
Boilers are an important source of energy in the process industries because they supply
steam to operate process equipment and produce the steam used throughout the process
facility. Examples of process equipment that uses steam includes turbines, reactors, distilla-
tion columns, stripper columns, and heat exchangers.
Main gas
spuds (6)
Pilot gas
spud
A. B.
Drums
The drums that comprise a water tube boiler resemble a large water distribution header
connected by a complex network of tubes. The mud drum is the lower drum in a boiler. The Mud drum the lower drum in a
steam drum is the upper drum of a boiler where all of the generated steam is collected. The boiler; serves as a settling point for
solids in the boiler feedwater.
mud drum and water tubes are filled completely with water, while the steam drum is only
partially full. Maintaining this vapor space in the upper drum allows the saturated steam to
Steam drum the top drum of a
collect and pass out of the header. boiler where all of the generated
Feedwater to the boiler is treated to achieve the required chemical composition. Water steam is collected before entering the
lost in the boiler is replaced through a makeup water line. Sediment accumulates in the distribution system.
bottom of the mud drum and is removed through blowdown. Blowdown is the process of
Blowdown the process of taking
removing small amounts of water from the boiler to reduce the concentration of impurities. water out of a boiler to reduce the
Blowdown can be either continuous or intermittent. Continuous blowdown is the constant concentration level of impurities.
removal of a small quantity of boiler water from the steam drum to remove suspended s olids There are two types of blowdown,
continuous and intermittent.
and salts that could concentrate in the steam drum. Intermittent (or bottoms) blowdown is
the occasional opening of a valve on the bottom of the mud drum to remove solids that have
settled.
Economizer
The economizer is the section of a boiler used to preheat feedwater before it enters the
main boiler system. Preheating the water increases boiler system efficiency. This heat Economizer the section of a boiler
exchanger transfers heat from the stack gases to the incoming feedwater. The economizer used to preheat feedwater before it
enters the main boiler system.
is usually located close to the stack gas outlet of the boiler. Economizers can be supported
from overhead or from the ground. The feedwater line that serves the boiler is piped into
and travels through the economizer. No additional feedwater control valves or stack gas
dampers are required.
An economizer is similar to the convection section in a direct-fired heater. Both oper-
ate under the energy-saving concept of recovering some of the heat from the hot flue gases
before they are lost out of the stack. The typical improvement in efficiency of a boiler with
an economizer is 2 to 4 percent.
be reduced for the turbines that drive process pumps and compressors that require lower
pressure steam.
Condensate condensed steam, Most steam used in a process facility is ultimately condensed to water. Condensate is
which often is recycled back to the typically returned through condensate return systems and reused as boiler feedwater. This
boiler.
saves the plant considerable money because the condensate, which has already been treated
with chemicals, reduces the cost of boiler feedwater treatment.
A facility’s steam system is usually composed of two or three piping systems with
different pressure steam headers. There are different methods of maintaining several
steam headers operating at different pressures. One method is through a letdown valve
or a reducing station in which a pressure control valve is used. In this type of arrange-
ment, a pressure drop across the valve equalizes with the pressure contained in the lower
pressure steam header. In many instances, the steam header itself has another letdown
valve that repeats the same function, supplying steam to yet another, lower p ressure
steam header.
Another method of supplying steam to headers of different pressures is by piping
the exhaust of steam turbines into headers. For example, a steam turbine that operates at
1,500 psig pressure might exhaust into a 550 psig steam header. The turbine that uses the
550 psig steam then might exhaust into a 50 psig header. A letdown valve or reducing station
(see Figure 14.2) offers the advantage of maintaining a steam header at an interim pressure
that might not be suitable for all steam turbines.
Figure 14.2 A. Diagram of a letdown station. B. Letdown station with pressure-reducing valve, safety valves,
and separator.
RV
12
1500 PSIG
Pressure reducing valve
Isolating Isolating
Turbine valve valve
PC Separator
44 High
Low
pressure
pressure
steam Safety
550 PSIG flow Strainer
valve
Turbine
PC
45
A. 50 PSIG B. Condensate
Some process plants are supported by a cogeneration plant, in which electricity and
steam are generated in the same unit. Steam is brought to a very high temperature and pres-
sure. This high-pressure steam is used to turn a turbine that turns an electrical generator.
The exhaust from the turbine goes into a lower pressure steam header. In this way, a cogen-
eration plant supplies the process facility with both electricity and steam.
Steam trap a device used to An important component used in steam systems is a steam trap. Steam traps are used
remove condensate or liquid from to remove condensate or liquid from steam systems. There are several steam trap designs.
steam systems.
The most common, however, are the mechanical trap (Figure 14.3) and the thermostatic trap
(Figure 14.4). See also Figures 4.18 and 4.19.
Mechanical traps operate based on the density difference between steam and conden-
sate. Internal floats attached to mechanical linkages are found inside most mechanical traps.
As the condensate levels rise, the linkage causes the valve to open. As the levels drop, the
valve closes. Inverted bucket and float traps are both common examples of mechanical traps.
Figure 14.3 Examples of different designs for mechanical steam traps. A. Inverted bucket trap. B. Float trap.
Inlet
Vent
Thermostatic
air vent
Outlet Inlet
Ball float
Valve head
Inverted bucket
Valve seat
A. B. Outlet
Thermostatic traps operate on the principle of temperature change (steam is hotter than
condensate). These traps contain valves that are opened or closed by thermal expansion
and contraction. Bimetallic and bellows traps are examples of temperature-operated traps.
Condensate will cause the bellows to collapse or bimetallic element to move, releasing the
condensate. When the condensate is removed and steam is present, the bellows expands or
the bimetallic element moves the opposite way, and the steam trap closes.
Figure 14.5 A. Diagram of water tube boiler components. B. Water tube boiler.
CREDIT: B. melnikofd/Fotolia.
Flue gas
Damper
Induced draft fan
Stack
Saturated steam out
Superheated
steam
Radiant tubes Steam
drum Economizer Desuperheated
Radiant section steam
Burner
Air register
Water
Air
Downcomer
Fuel Riser
Convection
Pilot
section
burner
Mud drum
A. B.
Heat is generated in the boiler through a direct-fired heater with a natural gas, oil, or
combination burner. The heat from the burner is transferred to the water tubes. As water
flows through the tubes, the combustion gases heat the water and produce steam. This steam
is collected in the upper drum, while combustion gases exit the boiler stack as flue gas.
Several types of tubes are found inside the boiler. Generating tubes are attached to
the upper and lower drums. Water flows through the tubes from the upper (steam) drum
down to the lower (mud) drum and back up to the steam drum. The downcomer tube is the cold
water line between the upper and lower drums. The riser tube is the hot water/steam line
Firebox the area of a boiler where between the lower and upper drums. Superheater tubes are tubes where steam is removed from
the burners are located and where the steam drum and heated to remove moisture content without an increase in pressure.
radiant heat transfer occurs.
The water level in a water tube boiler is controlled in the steam drum. The water level in
this drum must be maintained for safety reasons and for compliance with standard operating
Refractory lining a bricklike form
of insulation used to reflect heat back procedures. Loss of water level can damage boiler equipment. Excessively high water levels
into the box and protect the structural can result in carryover, which can cause steam to become saturated with water containing
steel in the boiler. chemicals, which in turn can result in fouling in the steam system. An even greater risk is
that water carryover will result in wet steam, which can cause operational upsets.
WATER TUBE BOILER COMPONENTS The heating portion of a boiler is similar to that of
a furnace. Like furnaces, boilers contain a firebox where the burners are located and radiant
heat transfer occurs. A special refractory lining (a bricklike form of insulation) is used to
reflect heat back into the box and protect the structural steel in the boiler.
Located in the firebox area of the boiler are radiant tubes. Radiant tubes and riser tubes Radiant tubes tubes containing
both contain boiler feedwater that is heated by radiant heat from the burners and boiled to boiler feedwater that are heated by
radiant heat from the burners and
form steam that is returned to the steam drum. boiled to form steam that is returned
Burners are devices that introduce, distribute, mix, and burn a fuel (e.g., natural gas, to the steam drum.
fuel oil, or coal) for heat. Pilots are used to light burners. A burner can be a premix burner
(fuel gas and air mixed before either enters the burner tip), a raw gas burner (gas not pre- Burners devices that introduce,
distribute, mix, and burn a fuel (e.g.,
mixed with air), or a combination. natural gas, fuel oil, or coal) for heat.
Air registers control the flow of air to the burners to maintain the correct fuel-to-air ratio
and to reduce smoke, soot, or NOx (nitrogen oxide) and CO (carbon monoxide) formation. Pilot an initiating device used to
A draft fan is used to control draft in a boiler. Depending on the design of the boiler, the ignite the burner fuel.
draft fan either forces the air through the boiler (forced draft) or pulls the air through the boiler
Premix burner a device that mixes
(induced draft). In some boilers, a combination of the two is used (balanced draft). fuel gas with air before either enters
Water tube boilers have a stack at the top of the boiler to remove flue gas. Contained the burner tip.
within the stack is a damper for regulating the flow of flue gases.
Raw gas burner a burner in which
A steam drum at the top of the boiler is where all generated steam gathers before exiting gas has not been premixed with air.
the boiler. Depending on the boiler design, water enters the steam drum or the mud drum
from the economizer. Air registers devices that control
At the bottom of the boiler is the mud drum, where sediment accumulates. This sedi- the flow of air to the burners to
maintain the correct fuel-to-air ratio
ment is removed by intermittent blowdown, which is done manually. and to reduce smoke, soot, or NOx
Downcomers are tubes that transfer water from the steam drum to the mud drum. As (nitrogen oxide) and CO (carbon
cooler water descends from the steam drum and flows through the downcomers, it picks up monoxide) formation.
heat from the firebox and replenishes the water supply to the mud drum. Riser tubes allow
Draft fan a fan used to control draft
water or steam from the lower drum to move to the upper drum. in a boiler.
The superheater is a set of tubes located toward the boiler outlet that increases (super-
heats) the temperature of the steam flow. The steam drum usually is connected to the super- Stack an opening at the top of the
heater through a coil or pipe. boiler that is used to remove flue gas.
A desuperheater is a temperature control point at the outlet of the boiler steam flow that
maintains a specific steam temperature by using boiler feedwater injection through a control Damper a movable plate that
regulates the flow of air or flue gases
valve. The purpose of the desuperheater is to lower the temperature of the steam. in boilers.
Boiler casing
Steam Waste heat boiler a device that
Refractory drum
lining uses waste heat from a process to
produce steam.
Bare tubes
Boiler casing
Super-heated
Bare tubes
steam outlet Downcomer
pipes
Mud drum
Smokebox
Secondary
air
Cylinders
Piston Boiler Primary air
Grate
Waste heat boilers improve efficiency and save money by allowing steam to be produced
through the use of waste gases. Use of waste gases as a heat source reduces the amount of
money spent on burner fuels and reduces environmental impact.
Because of the duty required of waste heat boilers, construction is usually thick-walled
and designed to withstand high pressures and temperatures. Waste heat boilers usually are
single-pass, floating-head type heat exchangers that experience a considerable amount of
expansion and contraction of the tubesheet.
In many furnaces, the waste heat boiler is on the outlet of the furnace. This design recov-
ers heat by generating steam and thus cooling the flue gas stream exiting the furnace stack.
Because of this, waste heat boilers are sometimes referred to as steam generators.
A. B.
Steam out
Figure 14.8 Simple boiler.
Drum
Steam
turbine
Water in
Burner
Fuel in
To illustrate how boilers work, consider the simple boiler shown in Figure 14.8. Simple
boilers consist of a heat source, a water drum, a water inlet, and a steam outlet. In this type
of boiler, the water drum is partially filled with water and then heat is applied. Steam forms
after the water is heated sufficiently. As the steam leaves the vessel, it is captured and sent
to other parts of the process (e.g., used to turn a steam turbine, or sent to a heat exchanger
to heat a process fluid). Makeup water is then added to the drum to compensate for the
liquid lost as steam.
Boilers use the principle of differential density when it comes to fluid circulation. For
boilers to work properly, they must have adequate amounts of heat and water flow. Factors
that affect boiler operation include pressure, temperature, water level, and differences in
water density. As fluid is heated, the molecules expand and the fluid becomes less dense.
When cooler, denser water is added to hot water, convective currents are created that facili-
tate water circulation and mixing.
Water Circulation
The circulation of boiler water (shown in Figure 14.9) is based on the principle of convection.
A fluid that is heated expands and becomes less dense, moving upward through heavier,
denser fluid. Convection and conduction transfer heat through pipe walls and water cur-
rents, resulting in unequal densities. Cold water flows through the downcomer to the bottom
of the mud drum and then flows upward through the riser (water wall tubes) as it is heated.
In a water tube boiler, circulation occurs because the temperature of the fluid in the down-
comer is always lower than the temperature in the boiler and generating (riser) tubes. Steam
bubbles are formed as the liquid temperature continues to increase. These bubbles increase
Steam outlet
Figure 14.9 Water
circulation.
Steam
drum
Feed water
Downcomer
Riser
Mud
drum
the circulation as they move up the riser tubes. The pressure builds as the water vapor col-
lects in the upper drum. Each time the water passes through the tubes, it picks up more heat
energy. As the pressure increases, the boiling point of the water increases. When the target
pressure is achieved, steam is delivered to the steam header. To maintain this pressure,
makeup water must be added, heat must be continually applied, and circulation must be
controlled. In a fire tube boiler, the water level in the boiler shell must be maintained above
the tubes to prevent overheating of the tubes.
Superheated Steam
Saturated steam steam in Saturated steam is steam in equilibrium with water (e.g., steam that holds all of the moisture
equilibrium with water (e.g., steam it can hold and still remain a vapor). Saturated steam can be used to purge process equip-
that holds all of the moisture it can
without condensation occurring).
ment or perform other functions, or it can be superheated.
As long as the steam and water are in contact with each other, the steam is in a saturated
condition. Saturated steam cannot absorb additional water vapor, but the boiler can continue
to add heat energy to it. Steam that continues to take on heat energy or get hotter is known
as superheated steam.
Superheated steam steam that Superheated steam, which is produced downstream of the steam drum (typically in the
has been heated to a very high firebox), is steam that has been heated to a temperature above its saturated temperature.
temperature so that a majority of the
moisture content has been removed Superheated steam is typically 200 to 300 degrees F (93 to 149 degrees C) hotter than satu-
(also called dry steam). rated steam. Typical uses for superheated steam include:
• Driving turbines
• Catalytic cracking
• Product stripping
• Maintenance of steam pressures and temperatures over long distances
• Producing steam for systems that require dry, moisture-free steam.
Desuperheated Steam
Superheated steam might not be the best choice for heat transfer in some heat exchangers
because the amount of energy given up by superheated steam is relatively small compared
to the energy given up by saturated steam. Also, some facility processes cannot tolerate the
high temperatures of superheated steam. The process of cooling the superheated steam is
Desuperheated called desuperheating. Desuperheated steam is superheated steam from which some heat
steam superheated steam has been removed by the reintroduction of boiler feedwater. Typically, desuperheating does
from which some heat has been
removed by the reintroduction of not occur at the boiler but at specific points in the process where boiler feedwater is injected
water. It is used in processes that into superheated steam.
cannot tolerate the higher steam
temperatures.
Boiler Feedwater
Boiler feedwater levels and flows are critical to proper boiler operation. If feedwater flow is
reduced and the water level decreases to the point where the boiler runs dry, the tubes will
overheat and fail. If the boiler water level becomes too high, excess water will be carried over
into the steam distribution system. This negatively affects process facility steam consumers
and can damage turbines and other equipment.
During the boiling process, most suspended solids stay in the water section of the
drum while steam is sent to the distribution system. Suspended solids are removed from
the steam drum by sending a small amount of the feedwater, called continuous blowdown,
to a blowdown tank. This continuous blowdown is usually released to a waste water treat-
ment processing unit. Boilers utilize both continuous and intermittent blowdown systems
to remove suspended solids from the steam drum and solids that have settled from the
mud drum. Blowdowns limit the scale buildup that can negatively affect turbine blades
and superheater tubes.
1. Clean the water. This step removes suspended solids. Depending on water source this
could include:
a. Coagulation/sedimentation
b. Filtration
2. Remove minerals. This step is done to the clean water (from step 1) to remove minerals
that could build up on steam turbines or other process equipment. Depending on the
water source, this step could be one or more of these processes:
a. Softening Coagulation a method for
concentrating and removing
b. Demineralization (ion exchange) suspended solids in boiler feedwater
c. Reverse osmosis (membrane) by adding chemicals to the water,
which causes the impurities to cling
3. Remove the oxygen. Dissolved oxygen and other gases (primarily CO2) in boiler feedwater together.
are major causes of boiler system corrosion. While oxygen results in localized corrosion
(pitting), CO2 forms carbonic acid and damages condensate piping. This step could include: Filtration the process of removing
particles from water or some other
a. Deaeration fluid by passing it through porous
b. Oxygen scavenging media.
Coagulation adds chemicals to reduce coarse suspended solids, silt, turbidity, and col- Softening the treatment of water
loids through the use of a clarifier. The impurities gather together into larger particles that removes dissolved mineral salts
such as calcium and magnesium,
and settle out of the chemical/water solution (sedimentation).
known as hardness in boiler
Filtration removes coarse suspended matter and sludge from coagulation or from feedwater.
water softening systems. Gravel beds and anthracite coal are common materials used
for filter beds. Demineralization a process that
uses ion exchange to remove mineral
Softening is the treatment of water to remove dissolved mineral salts such as calcium salts; also known as deionization.
and magnesium, known as hardness, in boiler feedwater. Softening methods include The water produced is referred to as
deionized water.
the addition of calcium carbonate (lime soda), phosphate, and/or zeolites (crystalline
mineral compounds).
Reverse osmosis method for
Demineralization is the removal of ionized mineral salts by ion exchange. The processing water by forcing it through
process is also called deionization, and the water produced is called deionized water. a membrane through which salts
and impurities cannot pass (purified
Reverse osmosis uses pressure to remove dissolved solids from boiler feedwater by bottled water is produced this way).
forcing the water from a more concentrated solution through a semipermeable
membrane to a less concentrated solution. Deaeration removal of air or
other gases from boiler feedwater
Deaeration removes oxygen or other gases from boiler feedwater by increasing the by increasing the temperature and
temperature, using steam, to strip out the dissolved gases. stripping out the gases.
Specific terms describe the water as it moves through these steps. Water starts as raw
water and becomes demineralized water, then deaerated water, and finally boiler feedwater.
Steam that has been condensed (condensate) is already clean and can be fed back into the
system at the deaerator. This saves the cost of treating more raw water, making it practical
to recycle any used steam condensate.
Burner Fuel
Boilers use a single fuel or a combination of fuels, including refinery gas, natural gas, fuel
oil, and powdered coal. In some complexes, scrubbed off-gases are collected from process
units and combined with natural gas or liquefied petroleum gas in a fuelgas balance drum.
The balance drum establishes a constant system pressure and fairly stable BTU (British
thermal unit) content. It also provides for separation of suspended liquids in the gas vapors
to prevent large slugs of liquid from being carried over into the fuel distribution system. As
the scrubbed gases enter the balance drum, heavier liquids fall to the bottom along with any
gases that have condensed into liquid. The lighter gas leaves the top of the balance drum
and goes to the fuel distribution system. The fuel oil system delivers fuel to the boiler at the
required temperatures and pressures. The fuel oil is heated to pumping temperature, sent
through a coarse suction strainer, pumped to a temperature-control heater, and then pumped
through a fine mesh strainer before being burned.
Contributing Factors
Several factors can contribute to problems in boiler operation, including the design
and age of the equipment, instrument problems, fouling, tube temperatures, and external
factors.
EQUIPMENT AGE OR DESIGN The types of boiler equipment that are most subject to
failure from aging include boiler feedwater pumps, blowdown valves, and system piping.
In addition, linkages on stack dampers can wear out from inadequate lubrication or from
the collection of dust and grit. Freezing and earth movements can crack concrete equipment
foundations and cause external corrosion of structural components. Worn or damaged tube
supports can create stress problems for the boiler tubes.
WATER AND OTHER CONTAMINANTS Water and contaminants can contribute to instru-
ment malfunctions and other problems that can activate boiler interlocks and trip a boiler.
For example, water can condense in the pressure sensing leads in the firebox and cause faulty
pressure readings, automatically shutting down the boiler.
Tube life in a boiler can also be significantly affected by the quality of the feedwater. For
example, improper feedwater treatment can create salt deposits inside the tubes. These salt
deposits cause tube corrosion and/or hot spots, leading to premature tube failure.
EXTERNAL FACTORS Other factors that contribute to boiler problems include interrupted
water supply, electrical failure, cold weather, and downstream process upsets. For example,
if a large steam user suddenly stops taking steam, steam header pressure can increase, caus-
ing abrupt pressure swings and instrument sensing problems faster than the boiler firing
controls can respond. Another factor is cold weather, which can cause water in the process
and utility lines to freeze and plug the line. Upsets in the upstream processing units can
cause off-spec fuel to be sent to the boiler.
startup and emergency procedures, including purging before light-off and after misfire or
loss of burner flame.
Personal Safety
Process technicians must always follow safe work practices and wear appropriate personal
protective equipment when working around boilers or performing process sampling, inspec-
tion, maintenance, or turnaround activities. Process technicians should also avoid skin con-
tact with boiler blowdown because it can contain hazardous chemicals.
Startup
1. Inform control room personnel that the boiler is going to be put into service.
2. Use the peepholes to inspect the inside of the boiler and verify that it is free of debris
(e.g., scaffold boards, rain suits, and tools) and that the refractory lining, tubes, and tube
supports are all intact.
3. Inspect the outside of the boiler for loose flanges around inlet and outlet piping. Ensure
that all blinds have been removed, valves are in their proper startup positions, and the
pressure relief valve is properly lined up.
4. Inspect the condition of the draft fan, the damper, and the fuel gas system to ensure all
are in satisfactory operating condition.
5. While in close communication with control room personnel, open the damper and start
up the draft fan per standard operating procedures.
6. Fill the boiler to its normal water level to satisfy the interlock (control safety systems
that have to be verified before boiler startup) for proper water level.
7. After the draft in the boiler is stable and has been purged for the required length of time,
open the fuel gas supply to the burner and the pilot gas block valves.
8. Inform control room personnel that the pilot is being ignited.
9. After all of the pilots are lit and burning (confirmed through visual observation), open
the primary and secondary air registers as required. Slowly open the main burner block
valves one at a time until all burners are burning.
10. Remain in the boiler area to inspect the flames for proper flame patterns and general
operation (e.g., draft fan and fuel supply).
11. Use the peepholes to inspect the inside of the boiler and look for uniform color of the
tubes.
Note: Many of these steps are included in a boiler automated control system.
Shutdown
With some exceptions, boiler shutdown is the reverse of the startup procedure.
The control room operator should monitor c onditions and inform the outside operator when
it is safe to block in all the burners, shut down the fan, and close the damper.
Emergency
In an emergency, one fuel gas block valve (often referred to as the fireman) usually is
designated as the main shutoff valve. Generally, the draft fan continues to run and the
damper remains open. The only thing the outside operator does is block in the burners, block
in the fuel, and stop all pumps.
Summary
Boilers convert water into steam, which is supplied to it enters the boiler. Makeup water is added to maintain proper
steam consumers throughout a process facility. The steam water levels in the system.
produced by boilers provides heat to other process equip- Proper boiler operation depends on controlling feedwa-
ment and supplies the steam energy to drive turbines and ter quality, maintaining a specific water level in the system,
compressors. controlling boiler temperatures and pressures, and maintain-
Boilers use a combination of radiant, conductive, and con- ing burner efficiency. Process technicians are responsible for
vective methods to transfer heat. These devices consist of a monitoring boiler system operation and performing preven-
number of tubes that carry the water-steam mixture through tive maintenance on boiler system equipment. Typical tasks
the boiler for maximum heat transfer. include checking the boiler stack for smoke; inspecting burn-
The process industries use three types of boilers: water ers and flame patterns; checking burner fuel pressure, tem-
tube, waste tube, and fire tube. Water tube boilers are the most perature, and air flow; and maintaining proper steam flows,
commonly used boilers in process operations. In water tube temperatures, and pressures.
boilers, the water is circulated through tubes that run between Problems associated with boiler operation include the
the upper steam drum and the lower water collection drum impingement of burner flames on the tubes, loss of boiler feed-
(mud drum). Water circulation is created using the principles water, inadequate treatment of feedwater, or a high water level
of differential density. The downcomer is the cooler water line in the steam drum. A change in the flow or composition of
that goes from the upper drum to the lower drum. The riser the fuel can increase soot deposits and cause excessively high
is the hotter water line that goes from the lower drum to the temperature on the tubes.
upper drum. Some problems are a consequence of equipment age
A fire tube boiler is similar to a shell and tube exchanger. and design. Other problems are the result of instrument
A combustion tube equipped with a burner transfers heat malfunctions, which can be caused by rain, dust, or moisture.
through the tubes and out of the boiler. The tubes in a fire Performing the required preventive maintenance, such as
tube boiler are submerged in water and designed to transfer making sure that the damper linkages are properly lubricated,
heat energy to the liquid through conduction and convec- can prevent many problem conditions.
tion. Sediment accumulated in the bottom of the mud drum Boiler safety is built into procedures for operation. As is
is removed by water blowdown. Steam from the upper drum the case with all furnaces or direct-fired heaters, there is always
can be superheated before entering the steam distribution the potential for fire or explosion in the boiler firebox. This is
system. Desuperheaters are used to lower the steam tem- of greatest concern during boiler startup. Because of this, the
perature for processes that cannot tolerate the higher steam boiler firebox must be purged of combustibles before light-off
temperatures. and in the event of misfire or loss of burner flame. Process tech-
Steam used in a process facility is usually condensed to nicians must always follow the specific startup and emergency
water. This condensate can be reused as boiler feedwater. procedures for the particular boiler in order to ensure personal
Oil- or gas-fired burners provide the boiler heat. A damper safety as well as the safety of peers, the site, and the community.
is used to regulate combustion air flow. Combustion gases exit Other potential hazards associated with boiler operation
the boiler stack as flue gas. include the potential for exposure to feedwater chemicals,
The boiler feedwater supply is a critical part of steam steam, hot water, radiant heat, and noise. Process technicians
generation. Feedwater is treated to remove contaminants that should wear appropriate personal protective gear and avoid
can damage system equipment or compromise its efficient skin contact with blowdown materials, which can contain haz-
operation. An economizer is used to preheat the feedwater as ardous chemicals.
Student Activities
1. Write a one-page paper about the three boiler types and class. Be sure to include drawings and explain how the
their functions. Include drawings of the boilers and label water treatment can enhance productivity for the pro-
their components. cess unit.
2. Research boiler accidents. Choose one and write a one- 4. With a partner, review the typical startup procedure
page paper about the causes of the accident and how mentioned in the chapter. After reviewing the pro-
this type of accident can be avoided in the future. cedure, decide what steps can be added to make the
procedure safer for the individual, the equipment, the
3. Within a group, select one type of water treatment production goals, and the environment. Be prepared to
method used in boiler feedwater. Research this treat- present your information to the class.
ment method and present what you learned to the