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Sujith K,HSST History ,GHSS Chayoth,Kasargod
Why and when

did Al-Biruni
came to India?
What was Al-Biruni’s
objective to come
India?
 (1) To help those who wanted to discuss religious questions.

 (2) As a repertory of information to those who wanted to
associate.
 1. It is written in Arabic.
 2. Its language is simple and lucid.
 3. It is written on the subject such as regional,
philosophy, astronomy, social life, laws etc.
 4. It is divided into 80 chapters.
 5. Each chapter begins with a question and then
description have been given based on Sanskrit
traditions.
 6. It describe about the Varna system also.
•Alberuni was aware of the problems in
understanding an alien world
Problems • He discussed several barriers that
faced by obstructed the understanding of Indian
Al Biruni in society.
writing an
account of
India
Alberuni depended
mainly on the works of
Brahmanas.
The vedas, the Puranas,

the Bhagavat Gita, the
works of Patanjali, the
Manusmriti, etc
Four social categories in Persia.
1.Knights and Princes

•2.Monks,Fire-priests and Lawyers
•3.Physicians,Astronomers and other scientists
•4.Peasants and Artisans.
Al-Biruni’S views on caste
system in India
He remarked that everything which falls into a state of impurity strives

and succeeds in regaining its original condition of purity.
 The sun cleanses the air.

 The salt in the sea prevents
the water from becoming
polluted.
 He says that the notion of
social pollution was against
the laws of nature.
Al-Biruni’S views on caste
system in India
 Al-Beruni’s description of the caste system was

deeply influenced by his study of Sanskrit texts.
 These texts laid down the rules governing the
caste system from the point of view of the
Brahmanas.
 In real life the caste system was not rigid.
 Categories like antyaja (born outside the
system) were expected to provide labour to
peasants and zamindars.They were subjected to
social oppression and included in economic
activities
An Early Globe-trotter
 He was ordered by Muhammed bin Tughalq in
1342 to proceed to China as the sultan’s envoy
to the Mongol rulers.
 He went to the Malabar coast through central
India
 Then to the Maldives(stayed there for 18
months)
 Then he went to Srilanka and back to Malabar
and Maldives.
 Then he resumed his mission to China.
 He returned to home in 1347.
 His accounts are compared to that of Marcopolo
(who has also visited China and India
 He has recorded his observation of people,
culture, beliefs and values
 He also noted that travelling from one place to
the other took a long time and was insecure
 He spent Several years travelling through north
Africa, west Africa, west Asia and Central Asia,
India and china
 His stories were recorded
Coconut –He wrote that the nuts of
coconut resemble a man’s head.
Paan – He wrote about Paan that the

betel has no fruit and is grown only
for the sake of its leaves...
Ibn Battuta’s description on
life in Indian cities
Postal System
Uluq- Dawa-
The horse Post The foot post
 Marked by detailed observations, critical insights and reflection
 Trying to place the history of the Mughals within a universal framework
Compared Mughal India to that of Europe
Representation India
India
of India based appeared to
presented as
on the model of be inferior to
the universe
binary western
of Europe
opposition world
Bernier’s description on land ownership in Mughal India
Fundamental difference between Mughal India and Europe-
 lack of private property in land in Mughal India
Firm believer in the virtues of private property
crown ownership of land -harmful for both the state and its people
Mughal Empire the emperor owned all the land and distributed it
among his nobles, and nobles to the peasants.
Due to crown ownership of land , landholders could not pass on
their land to their children
So they were averse to any long-term investment in the sustenance
and expansion of production.
 (1)Absence of ownership of land, landholders could not pass
on their land to their children.
 Thus they didn’t take any interest in increasing production.
 (2) It prevented the emergence of the “improving” landlords.
 (3) It led to the ruination of agriculture.
 (4) It brought a continuous decline in the living standard of all
sections of society.
 (5) It led to the excessive oppression of the peasantry.
Indian society
Rich ruling class
Poor people
No Middle class
Bernier’s description on land
ownership in Mughal India
None of the Mughal official

documents state that the
king was the sole owner of
the land
Abul Fazl has stated that land revenue
demand was imposed not as rent but as
payment for the protection the king
provided lo his subjects(remunerations
of sovereignty
Bernier described Mughal Empire as
Bernier’s
description of
landownership
Montesquieu Karl Marx
Oriental Asiatic Mode

Despotism of Production
Asiatic
Oriental
mode of
Despotism
Production
 French philosopher Montesquieu  Karl Marx further developed the idea of

used Bernier’s account and Oriental despotism as Asiatic mode of
developed the idea of Oriental production.
despotism.  Before colonialism , surplus production
was appropriated by the state.
 In Asia (the Orient or the East) the  This led to the emergence of a society
kings enjoyed absolute authority that was composed of a large number of
over his subjects and owned all autonomous and egalitarian village
lands. communities.
 There was no private property.  The imperial court respected these
villages as long as the flow of surplus
 All people except King and nobles was continued.
struggled for survival  Marx regarded this as a stagnant
system
Big Zamindars
Big Peasants
Untouchable
Landless Labourers
What was the more
complex social reality
which Bernier notice in
the Mughal
Empire ?
Artisans had no incentive to improve Vast quantities of the world’s

the quality of their manufacturers. precious metals (gold & silver)
profits were appropriated by the state. flowed into India in exporting
production was on the verge of decline. manufactures
Mughal Cities
15 percent of the population lived in
towns
Bernier described Mughal cities as “camp

towns”
All kinds of towns: manufacturing towns,

trading towns, port-towns, sacred centres,
pilgrimage towns etc.
Their existence indicates the prosperity of

merchant communities
Merchants- strong community organized into

caste –cum- occupational groups.
Urban professional classes
Evidence for slavery provided by Ibn-Battuta
 1. Slaves like any other commodity,
were openly sold in the markets.
 2. They were also regularly exchanged
as gifts.
 3. When Ibn-Battuta reached Sindh, he
purchased horses, camels and slaves.
He wanted to offer them as gifts to
sultan Muhammad Bin Tuglaq.
 4. When he reached to Multan, he
presented salves and horses with
almonds and raisins to the Governor of
Multan.
 5. Ibna-batuta says that Muhammad bin
Tughlaq was so happy with the sermon
of a preacher named Nasiruddin that
he gave him” a hundred thousand
tankas and two hundred slaves.
Evidence for slavery provided by Ibn-Battuta
 6. The sultan employed female

slaves in his service and also to
keep a watch on his nobles.
 7. The slaves were also engaged for
domestic work. But they were given
low wages.
 8. Ibn-Battuta found their services
particularly indispensable for
carrying women and men on
palanquins or dola.
The Practice of Sati
 Bernier has provided a detailed

description of sati in his account.
 He mentioned that while some

women seemed to embrace death
cheerfully, others were forced to
death.
 He also noticed the child satin which

a twelve year old young widow
sacrificed
Women Labourers
 Women labour was crucial in both
agricultural and non-agricultural
production.
 Women from merchant families

participated in commercial activities.
 Therefore it seems unlikely that

women were confined to the private
spaces of their homes
Thank
You…
Sujith .K
GHSS Chayoth
Kasargod

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Sujith K,HSST History ,GHSS Chayoth,Kasargod

Why and when

 (1) To help those who wanted to discuss religious questions.

The vedas, the Puranas,

1.Knights and Princes

He remarked that everything which falls into a state of impurity strives

 The sun cleanses the air.

 Al-Beruni’s description of the caste system was

Paan – He wrote about Paan that the

Firm believer in the virtues of private property

Rich ruling class

None of the Mughal official

Montesquieu Karl Marx

Oriental Asiatic Mode

 French philosopher Montesquieu  Karl Marx further developed the idea of

Artisans had no incentive to improve Vast quantities of the world’s

Bernier described Mughal cities as “camp

All kinds of towns: manufacturing towns,

Their existence indicates the prosperity of

Merchants- strong community organized into

 6. The sultan employed female

 Bernier has provided a detailed

 He mentioned that while some

 He also noticed the child satin which

 Women from merchant families

 Therefore it seems unlikely that

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