CLIMATOLOGY

Composition of Earth’s atmosphere

Atmosphere is an important part of the earth & composed of gases, water vapour & aerosols.
Composition: Nitrogen
Oxygen
Argon
Carbon dioxide
Neon
Helium
Krypto
Xenon
Hydrogen

→ Minor gases – CO2, H2 and O3 --- are controlled by reactions in stratosphere (by UV radiation)
→ Atmosphere plays a vital role in supporting life on earth.
Nitrogen & hydrogen – 99%
Gases
Carbon dioxide – important gas, largely responsible for greenhouse effect.
Ozone – vital component, acts as filter & absorber of UV rays.
Water vapour – tropical regions -4% , cold & dry regions – 1% or less
– Plays a vital role in stabilizing & destabilizing the air.

Small solid particles present in atmosphere

Dust Particles
More abundant in subtropical and temperate region, less in equatorial &
polar region.
Particles act as nuclei for water vapor condensation, resulting in cloud
Formation.
Factors controlling horizontal & vertical distribution of temperature
Latitude
Altitude
Distance from sea
Air mass
Ocean currents
Distribution of temperature

Isotherms: lines connecting areas with the same temperature.

January → isotherms deviate north over oceans and south over continents
July → isotherms follow latitude lines more closely

Heat equator: Also called as thermal

Insolation: Incoming solar radiation, short wave radiation equator.
It circumscribes the earth & connects all
points of high mean annual temperature
Factors influencing variations of insolation:
Rotation of the earth
Angle of inclination
Length of day
Land configuration
Transparency of land
Atmosphere heating & cooling
(i) Radiation
(ii) Conduction
(iii) Convection
(iv) Advection
Terrestrial radiation
Insolation is radiated back in the form of long wave.
Most of this radiation is absorbed by ozone → heating of atmosphere and sustains life of
earth.
Heat budget: Explained in class
Temperature Inversion

Normal lapse rate

Temperature decreases
as moving upwards.

Air mass on ground

raises, expands and
cools

Inverse of normal lapse rate ie., as height increases,

Temperature
temperature also increases.
inversion
Warm layer above cold layer.

Long cold nights

Windless condition Conditions required for temperature inversion
Cloudless
Rainless condition

Types of temperature inversion: (i) Radiation inversion

(ii) Atmospheric inversion
(iii) Frontal inversion
(iv) Valley inversion
(v) Surface inversion

Impacts: Atmospheric stability

Aridity
Fog
Chemical and mechanical geomorphic features
Agricultural activities
r

Navigation
Smog
Health

Atmospheric circulations:

Movement of air within earth’s atmosphere.

Movement is driven by temperature and pressure.
Circular patterns : Hadley cell, ferrel cell,polar cell, walker cell.
Jet streams are also part of this.
Responsible for weather patterns.
Types of atmospheric circulations:
1. Primary circulations
2. Secondary circulations
3. Tertiary circulations

Wind system
shifting of pressure belts
Jet streams → IN CLASS

Cyclones
Low pressure, rotating system
Phases Origin
Spread
Death
Types of cyclones: (i) Tropical cyclone (ii) Extra tropical cyclones
Formed due to thermal contrast

Tropical cyclone Occurs only on seas

Very high wind speeds, rainfall & destruction.
Spread over comparatively less area.
Bomb cyclone
Move from west to east.
Reasons for high
Formed due to frontogenesis frequency of cyclone in
Extra tropical cyclone BOB
Occurs on both land & sea.
Less destructive Recurving cyclone

Spread over large area Climate change

Move from west to east. Air masses → Explained

in class
Pre-requisites for cyclone formation (i) Low pressure
(ii) Sea surface temperature > 27⁰C
(iii) Coriolis force
(iv) Moisture source

Coriolis Force General Cyclones Oceanic Currents

Northern hemisphere Right Anti clock wise Clock wise
Southern hemisphere Left Clock wise Anti clock wise
 OCEANOGRAPHY

→ Oceanography→ about water substances (majorly w.r.t oceans)

→ Oceans contain saline water and covers 71% of the earth’s surface & about 97% of earth’s
water.
→ Water body has specific characteristic features viz., salinity, temperature, density.
→ Water sources Fresh (3%)
Marine (97%)
Water has high specific heat
→ Insolation determines temperature profile of an oceanic body.
→ Evaporation takes places when the water body is subjected to temperature.
Thermocline A point at which
Depth V/s temperature
there is a sudden
↑↑ dip in the tempe-
rature of the water (T↑)T1
body.

(T↓) T2
Dark & Cold

→ Density – Depends on the composition of water

Low density
Halocline ↓ salinity

More depth High density

↑ salinity
Depth V/s salinity

Sudden raise in the salinity

of the water body.

→ with depth ------ (increasing): Salinity ↑, temperature ↓, density ↑

→ S T D relation → Densiity constatnt ═> T↑, S↑
Salinity constatant ═> T↑, D↓
Temperature constant ═> D↑, S↑
→ Sources of water

Oceans

Ice Caps and Glaciers

Groundwater

Lakes IG LiKES SAS Bahu

Soil Moisture

Atmosphere

Streams and Rivers

Biosphere

→ Water Cycle The continuous circulation of water in the Earth – atmosphere system
Processes: Evaporation, transpiration, condensation, precipitation, and runoff
→ Oceanic Relief: it means kinds of landforms / topography in Ocean

Transitionary
region
Less gradient
Less slopy

Oozes: Regions
where pelagic &
Steep slope
terragenous
deposits present. Most of the
oceanic landforms
Pelagic : Bony structure (organic) are found
Extension of (valleys, trenches)
Terragenous: Muddy Deposits continental rise

Significance of continental shelf:

Rich fishing ground.
Presence of minerals & oils.
It supports marine ecosystem.
Helps shipping.
Tourism and marine culture.
Safeguards from natural calamities like cyclone (by growth of mangroves).
Deep sea plain / Abyssal plain:
Starts beyond C.rise
Formed by accumulation of sediments on seafloor.
Many features like seamounts, guyots, atolls, sills and trenches are superimposed.
Minor Oceanic Relief features:
1. Mid Oceanic ridges : found along diverging plate boundaries
Composed of two chains of mountains separated by a large
depression
Mountains ranges have peaks as high as 2500m & even reach
above surface.
2. Mountain structures : (i) Sea mount (ii) Guyots flat topped seamounts.
Formed by the gradual sinking of
Undersea mountains sea floor
Pointed tips
Formed by volcanic activity
3. Trenches : long, narrow, and deep depressions of the sea floor, with steep sides
Deepest parts of the oceans.
Associated with active volcanoes and earthquakes.
Bank, shoal, reef ----
4. Atolls: Ring-shaped coral reef, island, or series of islets --- explained in
class
Surrounds a body of water called a lagoon.
Atolls develop with underwater volcanoes, called seamounts.

Bays, gulfs, straits,

5. Submarine canyons: Deep valleys beginning at edge of C.shelf Isthmus -------
Largest canyon in world – Bering sea of Alaska. explained in class
Vertical & Horizontal distribution of temperature & salinity:
Diurnal range of ocean temperatures is small because the process of heating & cooling of oceanic
water is slower than land.
Insolation
Factors affecting
temperature: Heat loss due to reflections, scattering, evaporation & radiation.
Albedo.
Physical characteristic features of sea.
Presence of submarine ridges.
Shape of ocean.
Enclosed sea in lower latitudes – high temperature than open seas & vice
versa for higher latitudes.
Lower weather conditions.
Unequal distribution of land & water.
On shore & off shore winds
Ocean currents
 Depends on evaporation & precipitation. Salinity of Arabian sea > Bay of

Influenced by fresh water flow from rivers. Bengal

Factors affecting
Ocean salinity: Baltic sea- lower salinity
Winds
Mediterranean sea – high salinity
Ocean currents.
Black sea – very low salinity
Land locked sea – high salinity
Concept of ocean Hot regions – high salinity
currents ---
explained in class Pacific ocean- larger area- ↑ salinity
Atlantic ocean – Max. salinity
(gradually decreases towards north)

Tides: Periodic raise & fall of seal level once (or) twice a day.
Due to gravitational pull of sun & moon.
Occurs due to balance of forces like centrifugal & gravitational.
Tidal Bulge: Elongation of earth’s oceans by gravitational force of moon.

Factors Movement of the moon

controlling tides: Position change in sun & moon
Uneven distribution of water.
Irregularities in configuration of oceans.
Shape of the bays & estuaries along coast line.

Types of tides

Based on sun, moon Based on frequency

& earth’s position

Semi Diurnal Diurnal tide Mixed tide

Spring tides Neap tides tide

Characteristics of tides: Tidal bulges – wide on C.shelf have greater height.

Tidal currents in open oceans – weak.
Shape of bay & estuary – magnify intensity of tides.
Funnel shaped bays – change tidal magnitudes.
Tidal patterns vary – across different oceans & locations.
Tidal bore – the steep nosed tide crest looks like a vertical wall of
water rushing upstream ( kind of tidal current).
 Characteristics of tidal bore: less predictable & dangerous.
Affect shipping & navigation.
Disrupt fishing zones.

Importance of tides: High tides- favourable for navigation.

Higher tides- enables bigger catch.
Desilts the sediments & removes polluted water.
Enables renewable form of energy.
 GEOMORPHOLOGY

Internal Structure of Earth: Crust, Mantle & Core, Discontinuities

➔ Structure of Earth is divided into four major components: Crust Each has a
Mantle unique chemical
Large size, non-uniform structure, high density and Outer core composition,
temperature make Earth’s structure very complex. Inner Core physical state

Layers of Earth:-
76
67

Crust outermost solid part

01

Brittle
03

OC is thicker than CC
70

Mantle Extends from moho’s discontinuity Lithosphere: Upper

Previously divided as upper & lower mantle. But now portion of mantel, also
called as asthenosphere,
on the basis of discovery by International Union of
which is partially molten
Geodesy and Geophysics, Mantle is divided into three zones:
• Zone 1: Moho’s discontinuity to 200km depth
• Zone 2 : 200-700 km
• Zone 3: 700-2900km
Velocity of seismic waves relatively slows down in the uppermost zone of upper mantle
“zone of low velocity”.

Lower mantle extends beyond asthenosphere & is in solid state.

Core Outer core is in liquid state while inner core is in solid state.
S-Waves disappear in outer core.
Made up of very heavy material (nickel and iron) – nife layer.
Core is responsible for generation of Earth’s magnetic field.
Contains information regarding earliest history of accretion of planet.

Discontinuity within earth

• Unique layers within the Earth are separated from each other through a transition zone. These
transition zones are called discontinuities.
• They are marked by variations in density of material, velocity of seismic waves, temperature and
pressure conditions.

• There are five discontinuities inside the earth:

(i) Conrad Discontinuity: Between SIAL and SIMA.

(ii) Mohorovic Discontinuity: Between the Crust and Mantle. CMRGL
(iii) Repiti Discontinuity: Between Outer mantle and Inner mantle.
(iv) Gutenberg Discontinuity: Between Mantle and Core.
(v) Lehman Discontinuity: Between Outer core and Inner core.
 Sources of Information About Earth’s Interior
mining
Meteoroids Explained
Direct volcanic eruption

Indirect Change in pressure & temperature Meteors in class

Seismic waves meteorites
Meteorites
Gravitation
Magnetic field

Theories explaining distribution of Oceans and Continents

1. Continental Drift Theory Alfred Wegner in 1912

Also called as ‘displacement hypothesis’
Believed in three-layer system – outer, intermediate, lower.
All continents formed a single continental mass (PANGEA)
& mega ocean (PANTHALASSA) surrounded the same.
Pangaea first broke into two large continental masses as
Laurasia & Gondwanaland.
Laurasia and Gondwanaland continued to break into
various smaller continents that exist today.
Force for Drifting is responsible for the drifting of the
continents, was caused by pole-fleeing force and tidal force

Related to rotation of the Force due to

earth. attraction of moon
and sun.

Evidence
• Rocks of Same Age Across the Oceans
• Gondwana system of sediments from India is known to have its counterparts
• Placer Deposits
• Placer Deposits
• Carboniferous glaciation
• Seafloor spreading & Plate tectonic theory

Paleomagnetic
studies Explained
Seafloor in class
spreading
Polar wandering
2. Sea floor spreading theory Prof Harry Hess.
Mid oceanic ridges are situated on the rising thermal convection
currents coming up from the mantle.
Constant eruptions cause the rupture of the oceanic crust and the
new lava wedges into it, pushing the oceanic crust on either side.
The ocean floor, thus spreads.
Molten lava cools down and solidifies
Spreading of one ocean does not cause the shrinking of the other
because of the consumption of the Oceanic crust at the oceanic
trenches.

Evidence
• Molten material
• Seafloor drill
• Radiometric age dating and fossil ages
• Magnetic stripes
• Very thin sediments on ocean floor

3. Plate tectonic theory by McKenzie and Parker in 1967 and outlined by Morgan in 1968.
Tectonic plate is a massive, irregularly shaped slab of solid rock,
composed of both continental and oceanic lithosphere.
Plates move horizontally
Forces responsible-- heat beneath the earth is generated because of
(i) Radioactive decay (ii) Residual heat.
Three types pf plate boundaries--
(i) Divergent (ii) Convergent (iii) Transform
76

Evidence
67
01

• Distribution of fossils
03

• Occurrence of Earthquakes
70

• Location of continental and ocean floor features

Plate Tectonics & Earth Surface: Movement of Indian plate, East African Rift Valley &
Earthquakes in India
1. Movement of Indian Plate:
• Subduction zone along Himalayas forms northern plate boundary in the form of continent—
continent convergence.
• East, it extends through Arakan yoma Mountains
• Western margin follows Kirthar Mountain, Western margin follows Kirthar Mountain and joins
the Red Sea rift south eastward along the Chagos Archipelago.
• Boundary between Indo-Australian and Antarctic plate is marked by oceanic ridge (divergent
boundary)
• The Tethys Sea separated India from the Eursian continent.
• India started her northward journey & at the time when Pangaea broke. Tibetan block was
closer to the Asiatic landmass.
• India collided with Eurasia about 40-50 Mn years ago causing rapid uplift of the Himalayas
(Still rising).

2. Plate tectonics and East African rift valley:

• East-African Rift Valley (EAR) is a developing divergent plate boundary

• Eastern portion of Africa, Somalian plate, is pulling away from rest of continent, which
comprises Nubian plate
• Numalian plates are also separating from Arabian plate in thus creating a ‘Y’ shaped rifting
system.

3. Plate tectonics & earthquakes:

• Major tectonic events associated with plate boundaries are ruptures and faults, faulting and
folding & transform faults
• At divergent boundaries, moderate earthquakes occur because the rate of rupture of the
crust and upwelling of lavas due to fissure is also slow.
• At convergent boundaries, earthquakes of high magnitude and deep foci occur because of
deeper subduction of one plate. mountain building, faulting and violent volcanic eruptions cause
disastrous earthquake.
Distribution of Earthquakes

World India

Circum-pacific belt Divided into zones

Mid-Atlantic belt very high risk, high risk,

r

Mid- continental belt moderate risk, low risk

Reasons for high seismicity in Himalayas
Active C-C convergence zone
Double layering’ effect produces shallow foci earthquakes
Region of young, folded mountains with sedimentary rock formations have weaker zones and
numerous faults.
Stress been accumulated for over thousands of years
Steep slopes lead to frequent landslides in turn leading to earthquakes.
Anthropogenic activities.

Earthquake & Shadow zones

Earthquake waves or seismic waves are vibrations generated by an earthquake, explosion, or
similar energetic source and propagated within Earth or along its surface.
Types of waves: (i) Body waves (ii) Surface waves
(i) Body waves
Travel in all directions within the body
Velocity as well as direction of waves changes as they travel through materials.
Two types : P & S waves.

P- waves (primary waves) S-waves (secondary waves)

Move faster and arrives first at Arrive at the surface with some
the surface. time lag
Travels through all mediums. Travels only through solid
medium
Vibrates Similar to longitudinal Vibrates Similar to transverse
waves. (parallel to direction of waves. (perpendicular to
wave) direction of wave)
Also called as ‘compressional Also called as ‘distortional
wves’ waves’

(ii) Surface Waves

Body waves when interact with the surface rocks, they generate new waves called as
surface waves.
Also called as long period waves.
Last to report on seismograph, but they cover longest distance.
More destructive.

Concept of Shadow zones

Shadow zone: Areas where the seismographs do not record any earthquake waves.

< 105 degrees = No shadow zone for P as well as S waves (Both the waves are
recorded by seismograph)
105-145 degree = Shadow zones for both (Both P & S waves are not recorded)
> 145 degrees = Shadow zone for S waves (P waves recorded)
 How Seismic waves help to know about Earth's interior?

(i) Non-linear travel path → Earth’s structure in not homogeneous

(ii) Curved path → shows increase in density as one moves deeper
(iii) change of velocity → help us to infer that there are three zones/layers of varying densities inside
the Earth
(iv) Bouncing back of waves → help to determine the depth of the discontinuities and thickness of
various layers.
(v) Absence of S-waves in the core → confirms the presence of liquid core
(vi) velocity decreases in upper part of the upper mantle → confirms the presence of lighter material
in between.

Forces acting on Earth

Movements of earth

Endogenic Exogenic

Diastrophism Sudden movements Weathering Erosion

Earthquakes Physical Ice

Volcanoes Chemical River water
Epeirogenic Orogenic
Biological Sea
Upward Tension Wind
Downward Compression Underground
water

Endogenic Forces:
Land building forces.
lead to vertical and horizontal movements →result in subsidence, land upliftment, volcanism,
faulting, folding, earthquakes, etc.
r

These forces are created by Primordial heat, radioactivity, tidal and rotational friction from the earth.
Epeirogenic → vertical forces, responsible for mountain building, can lead to submergence as well
as divergence.
Orogenic → horizontal forces, responsible for mountain building
Catastrophic forces/ sudden movements → fast movements.
Exogenic forces:
Land modifying forces.
Cause land to wear down → land wearing forces/denudational forces.
Performed by geomorphic agents (wind, water, waves etc).
Source of power → solar energy.
Volcanism
• volcano is a vent or fissure in the crust through which lava, ash, rock and gases erupt.
• Sometimes, steam and gas emit before the emission.
• Volcano erupts→Magma moves upward→vent or conduit→flows out from crater.
• Erupted material forms as a volcanic mountain.
Consist of layers of solidified lava (lava flows)
Includes fragments thrown from the volcano. Difference between lava
and magma → → → →
Causes of volcanism:
The buoyancy of the magma.
Will be explained in class
Pressure from the exsolved gases in the magma.
Increase in pressure on the chamber lid.
Types of Volcanoes:
(i) Shield volcanoes
(ii) Cinder cone volcanoes
(iii) Composite volcanoes
(iv) Caldera.
Not very steep but far and wider.
Extend to great height and distance.
Largest of all volcanoes  lava flows far distance.
Low slopes, mostly frozen lava.
Made up of basalt → less viscous
Low explosive (turns explosive when water gets
into vent.
Develops cinder cone.

Cinder – extrusive igneous rocks

Small volcanoes.
Contains loose, grainy cinder and almost no lava.
Very steep sides, small craters on top.
Moderate steep sides, small craters.

Called as strato volcano → it consists of layers of

solid lava mixed with sand or gravel.
Erupts cooler and viscous lava.
Explosive eruptions.
 Most explosive.
Collapse themselves and collapsed depressions are
called as calderas.
Large magma chamber, close vicinity → explosive
nature.

Volcanic Landforms: (i) Extrusive (ii) Intrusive also called as plutonic igneous rocks
called as volcanic Cools in the crust.
Igneous rocks Ex. Granite, gabbro, diorite
Cools at surface
Ex. Basalt, Andesite.

Distribution of volcanoes:

• Circum-pacific belt.
• Mid-world mountain belt.
• African rift valley belt.

Volcanoes—folding & faulting

region.
Occur along coastal mountain
ranges, island and mid oceans
Most of the active volcanoes
found—pacific region (pacific ring of
fire)
Hot water springs in India

• Also called as thermal springs.

• Formed by the geothermally heated water emerging through cracks.
• Heated water – less dense → rise upwards.
• Useful for both recreational and therapeutic.
Ex. Manikaran , HP, Vashisht, HP, Surya kund, Uttarakahand, Gaurikund, Uttarakhand Tataoani,
Chhattishgarh, Unnao, UP.

Why there are no volcanoes in Himalayas?

(a) Less rise in temperature as subduction angle is not much  C-C type convergence.
(b) No oceanic plate → not heated water to form vapours.
(c) Increase in crustal thickness due to double layering → not allow magma to outpour.

Effect of volcanism on climate:

Cooling effect
Warming effect
Ozone layer depletion → → → → → How?
Will be explained in the class.
 INDIAN PHYSIOGRAPHY
Physiography deals with physical features of the earth’s surface.
The physiography of India is divided into 05 major feature:
(i) The Himalayan mountains
(ii) The Northern plains
(iii) The Peninsular plateau
(iv) The Indian Desert
(v) The Coastal plains
(vi) The Islands
Formation of Himalayas:
The Gondwana land consists of – India, Australia, S.Africa, S.America & Antarctica
Indo-Australian plate started drifting towards north because of conventional currents.
This drifting led to collision with much larger plate i.e., Eurasian plate.
This collision led to accumulation of sedimentary rocks in geosyncline known as Tethys, this
resulted in folding, to form the mountain system of western Asia and Himalaya.

Formation of Northern Plains:

Upliftment of Himalaya out of Tethys sea + subsidence of Northern flank = large basin formed
This depression filled with deposition of sediments by rivers.
A flat based region of widespread alluvial accumulations prompted the creation of Northern plains.
Greater Himalayas
Lesser Himalayas
Tibetan Plateau Peninsular Plateau

Shiwaliks Indo-Gangetic Plain

Formation of Peninsular region:

Formed due to breaking & drifting of Gondwana land.
Tectonically stable
Mix of Gondwana, Archean, cuddapah and Dharwar rocks
Made of series of patland plateaus ( Hazaribagh, Palamu, Ranchi, Malwa, Coimbatore, Karnataka)
Composed of igneous and metamorphic rocks
Gentle rising hills & wide valleys.
 From N-W to S-E.
The Himalayas
Approx. length (central axial range) is 2500 km (E-W)
Divided into 03 mains mountain ranges:
(i) Greater Himalayas/Himadri
(ii) Lesser Himalayas/ Himachal
(iii) Outer Himalayas / Shiwaliks

1. Greater Himalayas: Most continuous range

Consists of loftiest peaks & all prominent Himalayan peaks.
Steeper slope towards south & gentle slope towards north.
Snowline height is more in west than in east.

Important peaks in Himalayas:

Mount Everest – highest, also known as Sagarmatha
Kanchenjunga Makalu Dhaulagiri Nanga parbhat Annapurna
Nanda devi Badrinath kedarnath

2. Lesser Himalayas: Range ie. South of Himadri

Most rugged mountain range
Composed of highly compressed and altered rocks.
Altitude – 3700-4500 mts

Important ranges:
Pir Panjal – Longest & most important Dhaula dhar Mahabharat ranges
Important valleys:
Kashmir valley Kangra valley Kullu valley
 3. Outer Himalayas: Composed of unconsolidated sediments by rivers
Valleys are covered with thick gravel & alluvium
Extends from potwar basin to kosi river (W-E)

Duns: longitudinal valley lying between lesser Himalaya and the Shiwaliks
Dehra dun Kotli dun Patli dun
Duars: Terai areas in West Bengal (only nitrate rich plain in India)
Western Duar – Bengal Duar Eastern Duar- Assam Duar

Formed due to 03 rivers (The Indus, The Ganga, The Bhramaputra)

Northern Plains
Alluvium lying at the foothills of Himalayas formed this fertile land.
Densely populated
Bhabar
More agricultural productivity
Terai
BHABAR Bhangar
Khadar
BHANGAR
Will be explained in class

TERAI
RIVER VALLEY
KHADAR

Other Plains of India:

 A Triangular region characterised with east ward gentle slope because
Peninsular India of east ward movement of the peninsular rivers.
Oldest landform.
Large mineral depositions
Constitutes several smaller plateaus & hills.

Various hills of peninsula region:

Aravalli mountain range

Vindhyachal mountain range

Western ghats Eastern Ghats

Satpura range

Passes in western Ghats (north – south):

Thal Ghat
Bhor Ghat
Pal Ghat
Senkotta pass

Desert is an arid & semi-arid region.

Indian Desert The great Indian desert – The Thar Desert (N-W of Aravali hills)
Semi-arid region of the Thar desert – Bagar
Covered by sand plains consists of sand dunes.
Sand dunes & mushroom rocks are geomorphological features.
Formation of Indian Desert:
Initially it’s a rock structure of peninsular plateau.
r

Due to extreme climatic condition, it turned into desert.

Conditions for
deserts formation:
Off shore winds
Rain shadow region
Sub-tropical regions
Continentality
Cold ocean currents
 Divided as western & Eastern coastal plain.
Coastal plains Fertile soils.
Known for ports
Mineral oil deposits
Monazite deposits
Fishing and salt production
(i) Eastern Coastal Plain: Between eastern ghats & Bay of Bengal
Godavari, krishna, Mahanadi kaveri deltas are found.
Chilika & pullicat lake are important.
Called as Uthkal coast, coromandel coast, northern circars.
Emergent coast – upliftment of land due to depositional activity.
Extensive plains.
(ii) Western Coastal Plain: From Gulf of Camba to Cape Camron
Divided into konkan coast, Karnataka coast, kerala coast.
Known for coves (very small bays)
Vembanad lake – largest lake
Submergent coast – faulting
Narrow

Major island of India are Andaman & Nicobar in BOB, Lakshadweep in

Indian Islands
Arabiab sea.

(i) Andaman & Nicobar : Formed due to collision of Indian plate & Burma minor plate.
Southward extension of Arakanyoma ranges.
Duncan Passage separates little Andaman & South Andaman.
10⁰ channel separates Andaman & Nicobar.

(ii) Lakshadweep: Formed due to deposition of corals.

8⁰ channel separates islands of Minicoy & Maldives.
These are 03 types viz., Amidndivi islands, Laccadive islands,
Minicoy islands. (Minicoy – largest)
 INDIAN DRAINAGE SYSTEM

→ Drainage -- flow of water through a fixed channel.

→ Drainage system – gives an account of origin and evolution of rivers & their tributaries.
→ Drainage Pattern – tells about arrangement/shape which river & tributaries make.

Streams

Sequent Insequent
(determined by slope& structure)

Consequent Subsequent Antecedent Superimposed

→ Parameters that determine the stream: Slope

Geological structure
Source
Time of origin
Nature of landform
(i) Consequent stream : stream follow slope of land over which it is formed.
Also called as Dip streams.
Ex. Godavari & krishna

(ii) Subsequent stream: streams originated after consequent stream and follows the geological
structure.
Ex. Chambal, ken, betwa

(iii) Antecedent stream: originated before the upliftment of the land surface.
Maintains its original course & pattern.
Ex. Himalayan rivers

(iv) Superimposed stream: A river inherited its previous form of geological structure though its
flowing on a newly formed geological structure.
Ex. Damodar, Banad, Subarnarekha

Drainage patterns:
(i) Dendritic / Pinnate pattern: Appears like irregular tree branch
Develops in region with uniform lithology & insignificant
faulting process.
Ex. Indus, Godavari, ganga
(ii) Trellis Pattern : short subsequent stream meet master stream at right angle.
Ex. Chotanagpur plateau region

(iii) Radial pattern: Tributaries move along the slopes of the structure and drain in all
direction.
Ex. Streams of Saurashtra region, narmada, son, jhojila

(iv) Parallel pattern: tributaries move in parallel direction in a uniform slopy region.
Ex. Rivers draining into Arabian sea.

(v) Centripetal pattern: streams converge from all directions in low laying basin.
Ex. Streams of Ladakh, Tibet.

Obsequent stream: streams where tributaries join the aster stream in

opposite direction.

Peninsular river Himalayan river

Perennial in nature Seasonal in nature

Long length of river Shorter length of river

River basin size is large River basin size is shorter

River regimes – two maxima River regimes – one maxima

High erosion → deeper valleys Lesser erosion → shallow valleys

High meandering paths Straight courses

Forms large deltas

 LANDFORMS AND AGENTS

River Wind Sea-waves Glaciers

Potholes Ripple marks Cliffs Cirque / corris

waterfalls Sand dunes Sea caves Hanging valleys

Meanders Barchans Sea arches & stacks Horns & aretes

Ox-bow lakes Loess Wave cut platforms Moraines

V shaped valley Pediplains Beaches Eskers

Alluvial fans Deflation hollows Spits & Tombolos Drumlins

Flood plain Zeugen Barrier islands

Leeves Yardangs Deltas

Braided channels Demoiselles Estuaries

Deltas Inselbergs Lagoons

Mushroom tables fjords

 INDIAN CLIMATE
Factors influencing Indian Climate:
→ Tropical as well as subtropical. Latitudinal location Distance from sea
The Himalayans Physiography
→ Tropic of Cancer passes through 08 states
Monsoonal winds Jet Streams
→ Also called as Monsoonal climate. Tropical cyclones & western disturbances
El-Nino, La-Nina, ENSO
→ It is seasonal in nature.

Factors responsible for Indian

Monsoons

Causative Modifying
(origin) (Deviation)

ITCZ Jet El- MJO

streams Nino
Himalayan
IOD El-Nino
system
La- Modoki
Nina

Indian Monsoon Onset

Draw diagram below
Break →→
during explanation
Retreating monsoon
Factors responsible for South-west Monsoon:
ITCZ Western
Disturbances → →
Permanent high-pressure cell in South Indian Ocean. → will be explained
in the class
Tibetan plateau intense heating.
Himalayas as topographical barrier.
Sub-tropical westerly & tropical easterly jet streams.
 WORLD CLIMATE

→ Soil: Composition of organic & inorganic particles.

→ Formation: Physical factors (climatic conditions)

Geological factors (Parent rock)
Biological factors (Plants/animals/micro-organisms)
Mechanical factors (thawing)

Major types of soils:

(i) Alluvial soils: Constitutes 46% of the area.

Silt deposits found in Indo-gangetic-Brahamaputra region
Immature & weak profile
Porus in nature – loamy structure
Less nitrogen
Adequate potash & phosphorus acid
r

Suitable for agriculture.

(ii) Black soils: Volcanic in origin

Constitutes 16% of total area
Present even in Tamil Nadu
Highly argillaceous (clayey)
High moisture retention
Self-fertilising & self-ploughing in nature
Low Phosphates, nitrogen & humus.
 (iii) Red soils: Derived from metamorphic & crystalline
Constitutes 10% of area.
Mainly acidic in nature
Rich in potassium & poor in nitrogen & humus
Mostly loamy, retain water like black soils

(iv) Laterite soils: End products of weathering

Found in high temperature & high rainfall regions
Rainfall promotes leaching of silica
Rich in bauxite / ferric oxides
High phosphate content in form of iron phosphates
Know for plantation crops
Provide valuable building material.

TYPES OF WORLD CLIMATE

Tropical evergreen climate (or) Rainforest Climate: Less annual range of temperatures
No seasonal demarcation
Heavy precipitation, thunderstorms with
afternoon rainfall.
Highly dense
Also called as Selvas.
Presence of epiphytic structures.
Less undergrowth
Shifting cultivation is highly practised
Acidic soils (leaching process)
Mostly found in basins of
Amazon, Congo, Indo-Malasia

Seasonal reversal of winds

Monsoon climate
r

Clear demarcation of seasons

Found between 5⁰-30⁰ N & S
Differential heating & concentrated heavy
rainfall
known for tropical deciduous forests
High population density
Known for plantation crops
 Less annual rainfall
Savanna Climate
No distinct rainy season
Rains in summer
Also called as Sudan type
Known with extreme diurnal ranges
Tall grass & short tress
Known for Big game hunting
Not suitable for Ranching activity
Called as Llanos & Campos in S.America

Steepe Climate (or) Temperate grasslands Lies in the interior of the continent
Extreme conditions in Northern
hemisphere
Chinook is present
Shorter grass & tress less
Known for ranching activity
Called as the Granaries of the world

Also called as Western Margin climate

Mediterranean climate
Wet winters & Dry summers (shifting of
pressure belts)
Tress with small broad leaves
Absence of shade
Contain evergreen coniferous tress
Known as Orchids of the world & Wine
yards of the world.
Sirocco & Mistral are present.
 Warm moist summers & cool dry winters
China type climate (or) temperature
monsoon climate Gulf type of climate & natal type of climate are
similar

Absent in Southern hemisphere

Laurentian Climate
Feature of both maritime & continental climate
Intermediate between British type & Taiga type
Cold dry winters & wet warm winters
Cool temperate forests
Known for large scale fishing

Low mean annual temperature

Tundra Climate
Snow & sleet form of precipitation
Found in North Arctic circle & south of Antarctic
circle
No tress
Known for rhododendrons, mosses, lichens
 NATURAL VEGETATION OF INDIA

Tropical Tropical Tropical

Evergreen Montane Mangrove
Deciduous Thorn forests
forests forests forests
forests & scrubs

Tropical Evergreen forests:

• > 200 cm rainfall with short dry season.

• 18-30⁰ C
• Height of tress is upto 60 mtrs
• Epiphytic structures
• Minimal undergrowth
• Found at Western ghats, Lakshadweep, Andaman & Nicobar & Tamil Nadu coast
• Flora: Ebony, mahogany, rosewood, rubber and cinchona.
• Fauna: Elephant, monkey, lemur and deer. One horned rhinoceros in Assam & West Bengal
Tropical Deciduous Forest:

• 70-200 cm rainfall
• Also called as Monsoon Forest
• Moist Deciduous – 100-200cm rainfall
• Dry deciduous – 70-100 cm rainfall
• Found in eastern part of the country, N-E states, foothills of Himalayas, Jharkhand.
Chattisgarh, slopes of Western ghats.
• Shed leaves early summers & springs (Moist)
• Flora: Teak, Bamboos, sal, Khair, Kusum, Arjun, Mulberry
• Fauna: Lion, tiger, pig, deer and elephant

Thron forests & Scrubs:

• <70cm rainfall
• 25⁰-30⁰ C temperature
• Scattered and long rooted trees
• Succulent stems
• Thick leaves
• Found in N-W part of country (Rajasthan, Gujarat, MP, Chhattisgarh, UP, Haryana)
• Flora: Acacias, palms, euphorbias and cacti
• Fauna: rats, mice, rabbits, fox, wolf, tiger, lion, wild ass, horses and camels.

Montane Forests:

• Wet temperate: 1000-2000 mtrs height, broad-leaf tress (Oaks, chestnuts)

• Temperate: 1500-3000 mtrs height, coniferous tress (pine, deodar, cedar, spruce)
• Flora: Mosses, Lichens
• Fauna: Kashmir stag, spotted dear, wild sheep, jack rabbit, Tibetan antelope, snow leopard

Mangrove Forests:

• 100-300 cm Rainfall
• 26⁰-35⁰ C temperature
• Mangroves are salt tolerant plants
• Adapted to harsh coastal conditions
• Found at Deltas of ganga, Mahanadi, Krishna, Godavari, Kaveri.
• Flora: Palm, coconut, keora, agar
• Fauna: Royal Bengal tiger, turtles, crocodiles, gharials, snakes.
Mains Master Program 2024
Handout#08
ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY

INDUSTRY: organisation involved in production & supply of goods & services.

Classifies as Primary, secondary, tertiary.
➔ Primary sector: goods produced using natural resources.
Acts as base of all other sectors
Ex. Agriculture, Dairy etc.

➔ Secondary Sector: Natural produced turned into other forms by manufacturing

Also called as Industrial sector
Ex. Making sugar from sugarcane

➔ Tertiary sector: Does not produce any goods & services.

Provide services to other sectors.
Ex. Banking, transportation etc.
Factors affecting location for Industries:
(i) Availability of raw material
(ii) Nature of industry
(iii) Transportation facility
(iv) Skilled and cheap labour availability
(v) Capital, entrepreneurship
(vi) Electricity & fuel availability
(vii) Market

Mineral resources: Naturally occurring substance, chemical formula, solid & inorganic & has crystal
structure.

Minerals

Metallic Non-metallic

Ferrous Non-Ferrous Fuel Mineral Other non-metallics

Five major mineral belts in India: -

Northern belt
Central belt
Southern-Eastern belt
South-Western belt
North-Western belt
Iron & Steel Industries
➔ Important raw materials – Iron, dolomite, limestone, coking coal
➔ The highest producer is the Odisha Jharkhand belt, Durg Bastar Chandrapur belt, Bellary-
Chitradurga-Chikmagalur-Tumkur belt, and the Maharashtra Goa belt
➔ About 95% of total reserves of iron ore is found in the States of Odisha, Jharkhand,
Chhattisgarh, Karnataka, Goa, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu.

Issue/ challenges:
➔ Lack of mechanization
➔ Metallurgical coal shortage
➔ Less imports cost due to dumping by countries like China
➔ Erratic power supply
Aluminium Industry
➔ Raw materials are Bauxite, caustic soda, aluminium fluoride
Issues/challenges:
➔ Concentration of production in few units.
➔ Over reliance on imports.
➔ Administrative delays, complex laws.
➔ Domestic production cost rise due to increase in energy cost

Automobile Industry:

Issues/challenges by Automobile industry in India:

➔ Droop in household request due to Covid actuated lockdown.
➔ Digitized transportation.
➔ Inclination towards electric & hybrid vehicles.
➔ Domestic production cost rise due to increase in energy cost

Semi-conductor manufacturing Industry:

➔ Semiconductors- building blocks of today’s technology.
➔ Smartphone assembly industry→ numerous employment opportunities
➔ Attract local taxes and improve export potential
➔ Self-sufficiency will decrease reliance on imports
➔ Locally made chips are considered as trusted sources
India’s stand on Semi-Conductor Manufacturing
➔ Well Design & verification for semiconductor.
➔ SITAR, DRDO—building silicon chips for strategic purposes like defense & space
Issues/Challenges:
➔ High cost of establishment
➔ Ease of doing business is low
➔ Technological constraint
➔ Structural constraint
➔ Unstable power supply

Initiatives promoting indigenous capacity:

1. National policy on electronic 2019
2. Scheme for promotion of manufacturing of electronic
components and semiconductors (SPECS)
3. Modified electronics manufacturing clusters (EMC 2.0)
Scheme
4. PLIs
5. Foreign Direct Investment

Fertiliser Industry:

Issues/Challenges:
➔ Limited domestic production rock phosphates→ dependence on imports increased
➔ Overuse of urea by farmers
➔ Environmental impact Initiatives/policies
Cooperatives such as IFFCO &
KRIBHCO—> for development of industry

Petrochemical industries & oil refining

 ➔ Petrochemical industry uses raw material from petroleum refineries.
➔ Mainly Naptha, petrol, gas and various polymers

Oil refining
➔ Located mostly on the coast.
➔ Refineries might be useless when the field is exhausted.
➔ Distant from petroleum products markets.
Pharmaceutical Industries
➔ Can be prone to relocation.
➔ Land, labour, capital are spatially fixed.
Issues/Challenges:
➔ Issues in patent regime
➔ Dependence on other countries for active pharmaceutical ingredients
➔ Pirated version of medicines, black marketing
➔ Lack of R&D

Textiles industry & Technical textile

➔ Textile industry – cotton,jute ,silk, wool
➔ Industry is going rapidly at the rate of 12% CAGR

Issues/Challenges:
➔ Competition from international players
➔ Obsolete automation & machinery
➔ Unorganized in nature
➔ Increased cost of raw material

Technical textiles
➔ Engineered products with a defined function.
➔ Natural as well as man-made Ex. Nomex, Kevlar, Spandex. Twaron
➔ High tenacity
➔ Excellent insulation
➔ Improved thermal resistance
Food Processing Industry
➔ Located mostly in the regions of agricultural dominance

Issues/Challenges:
➔ HYV seed reduces diversity of crops
➔ Climate change & drought
➔ Land acquisition challenges
➔ Erratic power supply
➔ Lack of integrated agriculture marketing and corporate farming.
Paper & pulp industry
➔ Pulp making → raw material oriented
➔ Paper making → market oriented
➔ Huge amount of fresh water is required.
➔ Vast power supply is essential
➔ Highly mechanized & little labour is required
➔ Highly capital intensive.
➔ Suited for thinly populates, forest areas with low amount of industrialization.
Cotton Industry

➔ 04 types: American cotton, Asian

cotton, Egyptian cotton, African
cotton
➔ Power to drive the looms, labour,
capita are factors determining the
location of the industry.
Jute Industry
➔ Known as golden Fiber
➔ Renewable & biodegradable Fiber
➔ Mostly located – Brahmaputra valley, west Bengal
terai region, east coast regions.
➔ Abundant water & coal – sources of energy
Mains Master Program 2024
Handout#09
RESOURCES

MINING
➔ Exhausts the ores thus it is considered as robber industry.
➔ Cannot be restored once the mine is exploited.
➔ Minerals are formed by geological process over a long period of time.
Factors affecting exploitation of minerals:
o Distribution
o Value of mineral & metal
o Mining cost
o Grade of ore
o Size of the deposit
o Transport cost
o Labour
Impact of mining:
o Employment
o Transportation development
o Migration of population for employment
o Huge earnings from exports
o Excess usage leads to exhaust of mines
o Decrease water table & pollutes environment
In India, Major producing states
IRON
are Orissa, Jharkhand,
➔ Constitutes 5% of earth’s crust Chhattisgarh, Karnataka, Goa,
➔ Widely distributed Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
➔ Can be recycled to produce stell (decentralized iron industry) Rich Hematite in Singhbhum
region with support industries in
Damodar basin.
Types of iron ore:
Magnetite, hematite, limonite, siderite
COAL: Coal types & features →
➔ India faces severe coal shortage. taught in class
➔ Formed by compressed vegetative matter
➔ Indian is world’s 2nd largest producer & consumer of coal
➔ The India Energy Outlook 2021 report of the International Energy Agency (IEA) said energy use in
India has doubled since 2000, with 80% of demand still being met by coal, oil and solid biomass.
➔ According to the IEA’s Coal Report 2021, India’s coal consumption will increase at an average
annual rate of 3.9%.

Issues/challenges:

➔ High reliance on coal for energy production.

➔ Rise of energy demands in India.
➔ Cheaper & abundant availability
➔ Availability of other renewable resources.
➔ High economic cost.

PETROLEUM Pipelines for transporting oil

➔ Derived from decaying marine organic matter Transported to refineries or coastal

➔ Found in sedimentary rocks of various ages. shipping terminals

Medium of transporting: Fixed route

➢ Road – oil trucks Most economical way of transporting

➢ Rails – tank wagons Problems:
➢ Sea – oil tankers
➢ Aircraft – military / emergency purpose Continuous maintenance
Corrosive in nature
Leakage may exist
Political turmoil
URANIUM
Ores: Uranyl, pitch blende
Major deposits in India: Jaduguda, Tumalapalle, Bhatin, Narwapahar, Turamdih

ELECTRICITY
The principal source of energy.
It is inexhaustible
Cleaner energy
Highly adaptable
Easily transferred but for short distances
Important for industries
Cannot be stored
 Solar potential of India
Himalayan region has very high potential of developing solar energy.

Advantages Disadvantages

New and Renewable Fluctuating wind speeds alter the

resource production projections.

No GHG emissions, water

Threats to avian fauna.
pollution.

Cheapest among all

Create noise pollution
renewable resource

Very easy to install and get Land use competition (Agriculture,

started Housing)

Often built on remote locations.

Wind energy of India

India's wind power potential at 120 meters height is estimated to be 695
GW. Current, installed wind power in India is 38 GW.

Advantages Disadvantages

New and Renewable Fluctuating wind speeds alter the production

resource projections.

No greenhouse gas
Threats to avian fauna.
emissions

Cheapest among all

Create noise pollution
renewable resource

Land use competition (Agriculture, Housing)

Often built on remote locations.

Nuclear Plant
India stands at 7th position in terms of the number of nuclear reactors, with over 23 nuclear
reactors in 7 power plants across the country.

Located in isolated areas Initial cost is high

Low running cost, low cost of fuel transportation,
more efficient than steam power plant, requires highly skilled labour, less standby losses.
COPPER
Brown in colour
Found in igneous & metamorphic rocks
Found in metal state
Major producers of India: Singbhum, Hazaribagh, Khetri, Arguncha-rampura in Bhilwara

LEAD & ZINC

Soft & malleable

One of the earliest metals use by humans
Lead → glass making, medicine, sheets & pipes
Zinc → Coating, galvanizing iron, alloys
Major producers in India: Rajasthan, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh

GOLD & SILVER

Gold is Corrosion free.
Gold is used as Bullion, currency, jewellery
Silver tarnishes due to contact with sulphur
Resistant to Acetic acid
Ore: Argentite
Major producers of gold in India: Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, MP, Tamil Nadu
Major Producers of silver in India: Zawar mines, leads smelters, kolar, Hutti

OIL SEEDS
India is one of the major oilseeds grower and importer of edible oils.
The self-sufficiency in oilseeds attained in India through “Yellow Revolution” during early 1990s
India accounts for about 15-20 per cent of global oilseeds area.
Major producers in India are Rajasthan, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh, Haryana,
Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh.

Growing condition
for oilseeds:
20-30 degree Celsius
50-75 cm rainfall
Sandy loams, red,
yellow or black soil
Susceptible to frost &
drought, rain
MILLETS
Growing condition
2018 observed as the ‘National Year of Millets”
26-29 degree Celsius
Millets are also known as nutria-cereals.
450-650 cm rainfall
o Sorghum (Jowar) (Sorghum)
o Pearl Millet (Bajra)
50-60cm (kodo millet)
o Finger Millet (Ragi)
40—45 cm (finger
With stand high temperature and drought millet)
Can be grown in poor soils and difficult terrains
Sandy loams, alluvial,
Anti acidic, gluten free loamy soil
Helps prevent type 2 diabetes Susceptible to frost &
Bioethanol can be created drought, rain
United Nations has declared the year 2023 as the International Year of Millets
Major producers in India : Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu,
Maharashtra, Gujarat, U.P and Haryana.

Initiatives by Govt.:
Integrated cereals
development programs
Nutritional security
through intensive millet
promotion (Rastriya
Krishi Vikas Yojana)
Rainfed area
development program

RICE
One of the very few crops which can sustain excess of heat as long as there is sufficient water
Machines should be robust enough to work in flooded fields.
r

Major producers in Inida: UP, West Bengal, AP, TN, PJ, OD

Growing condition
20-27 degree Celsius
200-250 cm rainfall
Heavy clayey, loamy
soil
COFFEE
Growing condition
Expensive than tea
Not <11 degree
Contains caffeine Celsius
Three major species : Arabica, Robusta, Liberica 100-200 cm rainfall
Major producers in Inida: Karnataka, Kerala, TN, AP,Od, Well drained volcanic
Tripura, Nagaland, soil

FISHING
Fish concentration depends on Temperature, depth of water, ocean currents, salinity which
determines the amount of fish food or planktons.
Overfishing and wasteful fishing needs to be checked.
Fish is Source of essential minerals
Oceans jurisdiction →
India has rich inland water resources explained in class
Major fishing ground across world: NW pacific region
NE Atlantic waters
NW Atlantic region
NE Pacific
SE pacific
West central Pacific

LIVESTOCK

Forest resources &

Issues in tropics: Climate & vegetation
lumbering → explained
Cattle breed in class
Diseases
Traditional practices
Capital intensive

GROUND WATER IN INDIA

The water that seeps

through rocks and soil and
is stored below the ground