CHAPTER

SOLAR RADIATION, HEAT BALANCE

AND TEMPERATURE

D
o you feel air around you? Do you The solar output received at the top of the
know that we live at the bottom of a atmosphere varies slightly in a year due to the
huge pile of air? We inhale and exhale variations in the distance between the earth and
but we feel the air when it is in motion. It means the sun. During its revolution around the sun,
air in motion is wind. You have already learnt the earth is farthest from the sun (152 million
about the fact that earth is surrounded by air km) on 4th July. This position of the earth is
all around. This envelop of air is atmosphere called aphelion. On 3rd January, the earth is
which is composed of numerous gases. These the nearest to the sun (147 million km). This
gases support life over the earth’s surface. position is called perihelion. Therefore, the
The earth receives almost all of its energy annual insolation received by the earth on 3rd
from the sun. The earth in turn radiates back January is slightly more than the amount
to space the energy received from the sun. As received on 4th July. However, the effect of this
a result, the earth neither warms up nor does variation in the solar output is masked by
it get cooled over a period of time. Thus, the other factors like the distribution of land and
amount of heat received by different parts of sea and the atmospheric circulation. Hence, this
the earth is not the same. This variation causes variation in the solar output does not have
pressure differences in the atmosphere. This great effect on daily weather changes on the
leads to transfer of heat from one region to the surface of the earth.
other by winds. This chapter explains the
Variability of Insolation at
process of heating and cooling of the
the Surface of the Earth
atmosphere and the resultant temperature
distribution over the earth’s surface. The amount and the intensity of insolation vary
during a day, in a season and in a year. The factors
SOLAR RADIATION that cause these variations in insolation are : (i)
the rotation of earth on its axis; (ii) the angle of
The earth’s surface receives most of its energy inclination of the sun’s rays; (iii) the length of the
in short wavelengths. The energy received by day; (iv) the transparency of the atmosphere; (v)
the earth is known as incoming solar radiation the configuration of land in terms of its aspect.
which in short is termed as insolation. The last two however, have less influence.
As the earth is a geoid resembling a sphere, The fact that the earth’s axis makes an angle
the sun’s rays fall obliquely at the top of the of 66½ with the plane of its orbit round the
atmosphere and the earth intercepts a very sun has a greater influence on the amount of
small portion of the sun’s energy. On an insolation received at different latitudes.
average the earth receives 1.94 calories per sq. The second factor that determines the
cm per minute at the top of its atmosphere. amount of insolation received is the angle of

2021-22
76 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

inclination of the rays. This depends on the insolation is received over the subtropical
latitude of a place. The higher the latitude deserts, where the cloudiness is the least.
the less is the angle they make with the surface Equator receives comparatively less insolation
of the earth resulting in slant sun rays. The than the tropics. Generally, at the same
area covered by vertical rays is always less latitude the insolation is more over the
than the slant rays. If more area is covered, continent than over the oceans. In winter, the
the energy gets distributed and the net energy middle and higher latitudes receive less
received per unit area decreases. Moreover, radiation than in summer.
the slant rays are required to pass through
greater depth of the atmosphere resulting in HEATING AND COOLING OF ATMOSPHERE
more absorption, scattering and diffusion.
There are different ways of heating and
cooling of the atmosphere.
The earth after being heated by insolation
transmits the heat to the atmospheric layers near
to the earth in long wave form. The air in contact
with the land gets heated slowly and the upper
layers in contact with the lower layers also get
heated. This process is called conduction.
Conduction takes place when two bodies of
unequal temperature are in contact with one
another, there is a flow of energy from the warmer
to cooler body. The transfer of heat continues
until both the bodies attain the same
Figure 9.1 : Summer Solstice temperature or the contact is broken. Conduction
is important in heating the lower layers of the
The Passage of Solar Radiation atmosphere.
through the Atmosphere The air in contact with the earth rises
The atmosphere is largely transparent to short vertically on heating in the form of currents
wave solar radiation. The incoming solar and further transmits the heat of the
radiation passes through the atmosphere atmsphere. This process of vertical heating
before striking the earth’s surface. Within the of the atmosphere is known as convection.
troposphere water vapour, ozone and other The convective transfer of energy is confined
gases absorb much of the near infrared only to the troposphere.
radiation. The transfer of heat through horizontal
Very small-suspended particles in the movement of air is called advection. Horizontal
troposphere scatter visible spectrum both to movement of the air is relatively more
the space and towards the earth surface. This important than the vertical movement. In
process adds colour to the sky. The red colour middle latitudes, most of dirunal (day and
of the rising and the setting sun and the blue night) variation in daily weather are caused
colour of the sky are the result of scattering by advection alone. In tropical regions
of light within the atmosphere. particularly in northern India during summer
season local winds called ‘loo’ is the outcome
Spatial Distribution of Insolation of advection process.
at the Earth’s Surface
Terrestrial Radiation
The insolation received at the surface varies
from about 320 Watt/m2 in the tropics to The insolation received by the earth is in short
about 70 Watt/m2 in the poles. Maximum waves forms and heats up its surface. The

2021-22
SOLAR RADIATION, HEAT BALANCE AND TEMPERATURE 77

earth after being heated itself becomes a the earth surface. Roughly 35 units are
radiating body and it radiates energy to the reflected back to space even before reaching
atmosphere in long wave form. This energy the earth’s surface. Of these, 27 units are
heats up the atmosphere from below. This reflected back from the top of the clouds and
process is known as terrestrial radiation. 2 units from the snow and ice-covered areas
The long wave radiation is absorbed by of the earth. The reflected amount of radiation
the atmospheric gases particularly by carbon is called the albedo of the earth.
dioxide and the other green house gases. Thus, The remaining 65 units are absorbed,
the atmosphere is indirectly heated by the 14 units within the atmosphere and 51 units
earth’s radiation. by the earth’s surface. The earth radiates
The atmosphere in turn radiates and back 51 units in the form of terrestrial
transmits heat to the space. Finally the amount radiation. Of these, 17 units are radiated
of heat received from the sun is returned to to space directly and the remaining 34 units
space, thereby maintaining constant temperature are absorbed by the atmosphere (6 units
at the earth’s surface and in the atmosphere. absorbed directly by the atmosphere, 9 units
Heat Budget of the Planet Earth through convection and turbulence and 19
units through latent heat of condensation).
Figure 9.2 depicts the heat budget of the 48 units absorbed by the atmosphere
planet earth. The earth as a whole does not (14 units from insolation +34 units from
accumulate or loose heat. It maintains its terrestrial radiation) are also radiated back
temperature. This can happen only if the into space. Thus, the total radiation
amount of heat received in the form of returning from the earth and the atmosphere
insolation equals the amount lost by the earth respectively is 17+48=65 units which
through terrestrial radiation. balance the total of 65 units received from
Consider that the insolation received at the sun. This is termed the heat budget or
the top of the atmosphere is 100 per cent. heat balance of the earth.
While passing through the atmosphere some This explains, why the earth neither warms
amount of energy is reflected, scattered and up nor cools down despite the huge transfer of
absorbed. Only the remaining part reaches heat that takes place.

Figure 9.2 : Heat budget of the earth

2021-22
78 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

Variation in the Net Heat Budget at the Earth’s the sea, the air-mass circulation; (iv) the
Surface presence of warm and cold ocean currents;
(v) local aspects.
As explained earlier, there are variations in
the amount of radiation received at the earth’s The latitude : The temperature of a place
surface. Some part of the earth has surplus depends on the insolation received. It has been
radiation balance while the other part has explained earlier that the insolation varies
deficit. according to the latitude hence the
Figure 9.3 depicts the latitudinal variation temperature also varies accordingly.
in the net radiation balance of the earth —
the atmosphere system. The figure shows that The altitude : The atmosphere is indirectly
there is a surplus of net radiation balance heated by terrestrial radiation from below.
between 40 degrees north and south and the Therefore, the places near the sea-level record
regions near the poles have a deficit. The higher temperature than the places situated
surplus heat energy from the tropics is at higher elevations. In other words, the
redistributed pole wards and as a result the temperature generally decreases with
tropics do not get progressively heated up increasing height. The rate of decrease of
due to the accumulation of excess heat or temperature with height is termed as the
the high latitudes get permanently frozen due normal lapse rate. It is 6.5°C per 1,000 m.
to excess deficit.
Distance from the sea : Another factor that
influences the temperature is the location of a
place with respect to the sea. Compared to
land, the sea gets heated slowly and loses heat
slowly. Land heats up and cools down quickly.
Therefore, the variation in temperature over the
sea is less compared to land. The places
situated near the sea come under the
moderating influence of the sea and land
breezes which moderate the temperature.

Figure 9.3 : Latitudinal variation in net Air-mass and Ocean currents : Like the land
radiation balance and sea breezes, the passage of air masses
also affects the temperature. The places,
Temperature which come under the influence of warm air-
The interaction of insolation with the masses experience higher temperature and
atmosphere and the earth’s surface creates the places that come under the influence of
heat which is measured in terms of cold air-masses experience low temperature.
temperature. While heat represents the Similarly, the places located on the coast where
molecular movement of particles comprising the warm ocean currents flow record higher
a substance, the temperature is the temperature than the places located on the
measurement in degrees of how hot (or cold) coast where the cold currents flow.
a thing (or a place) is.
Distribution of Temperature
Factors Controlling Temperature Distribution
The global distribution of temperature can
The temperature of air at any place is well be understood by studying the
influenced by (i) the latitude of the place; temperature distribution in January and July.
(ii) the altitude of the place; (iii) distance from The temperature distribution is generally

2021-22
SOLAR RADIATION, HEAT BALANCE AND TEMPERATURE 79

shown on the map with the help of isotherms. bend towards the north. Over the land the
The Isotherms are lines joining places having temperature decreases sharply and the
equal temperature. Figure 9.4 (a) and (b) isotherms bend towards south in Europe.
show the distribution of surface air It is much pronounced in the Siberian
temperature in the month of January and plain. The mean January temperature along
July. 60° E longitude is minus 20° C both at 80° N
In general the effect of the latitude on and 50° N latitudes. The mean monthly
temperature is well pronounced on the map, temperature for January is over 27° C, in
as the isotherms are generally parallel to the equatorial oceans over 24° C in the tropics
latitude. The deviation from this general trend and 2° C - 0° C in the middle latitudes
is more pronounced in January than in July, and –18° C to –48° C in the Eurasian
especially in the northern hemisphere. In the continental interior.
northern hemisphere the land surface area is The effect of the ocean is well pronounced
much larger than in the southern hemisphere. in the southern hemisphere. Here the isotherms
Hence, the effects of land mass and the ocean are more or less parallel to the latitudes and
currents are well pronounced. In January the the variation in temperature is more gradual
isotherms deviate to the north over the ocean than in the northern hemisphere. The isotherm
and to the south over the continent. This can of 20° C, 10° C, and 0° C runs parallel to 35°
be seen on the North Atlantic Ocean. The S, 45° S and 60° S latitudes respectively.
presence of warm ocean currents, Gulf Stream In July the isotherms generally run
and North Atlantic drift, make the Northern parallel to the latitude. The equatorial oceans
Atlantic Ocean warmer and the isotherms record warmer temperature, more than 27°C.

Figure 9.4 (a) : The distribution of surface air temperature in the month of January

2021-22
80 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

Figure 9.4 (b) : The distribution of surface air temperature in the month of July

Figure 9.5 : The range of temperature between January and July

2021-22
SOLAR RADIATION, HEAT BALANCE AND TEMPERATURE 81

Over the land more than 30°C is noticed in Surface inversion promotes stability in the
the subtropical continental region of Asia, lower layers of the atmosphere. Smoke and
along the 30° N latitude. Along the 40° N dust particles get collected beneath the
runs the isotherm of 10° C and along the inversion layer and spread horizontally to fill
40° S the temperature is 10° C. the lower strata of the atmosphere. Dense fogs
Figure 9.5 shows the range of in mornings are common occurrences
temperature between January and July. The especially during winter season. This inversion
highest range of temperature is more than 60° commonly lasts for few hours until the sun
C over the north-eastern part of Eurasian comes up and beings to warm the earth.
continent. This is due to continentality. The The inversion takes place in hills and
least range of temperature, 3°C, is found mountains due to air drainage. Cold air at the
between 20° S and 15° N. hills and mountains, produced during night,
flows under the influence of gravity. Being
INVERSION OF TEMPERATURE heavy and dense, the cold air acts almost like
Normally, temperature decreases with increase water and moves down the slope to pile up
in elevation. It is called normal lapse rate. At deeply in pockets and valley bottoms with warm
times, the situations is reversed and the air above. This is called air drainage. It protects
normal lapse rate is inverted. It is called plants from frost damages.
Inversion of temperature. Inversion is usually
of short duration but quite common
nonetheless. A long winter night with clear l Plank’s law states that hotter a body,
skies and still air is ideal situation for the more energy it will radiate and
inversion. The heat of the day is radiated off shorter the wavelength of that
during the night, and by early morning hours, radiation.
the earth is cooler than the air above. Over l Specific heat is the energy needed
polar areas, temperature inversion is normal to raise the temperature of one gram
throughout the year. of substance by one Celsius.

EXERCISES

1. Multiple choice questions.

(i) The sun is directly overhead at noon on 21st June at:
(a) The equator (c) 23.5° N
(b) 23.5° S (d) 66.5° N
(ii) In which one of the following cities, are the days the longest?
(a) Tiruvanantpuram (c) Hyderabad
(b) Chandigarh (d) Nagpur
(iii) The atmosphere is mainly heated by the:
(a) Short wave solar radiation (c) Long wave terrestrial radiation
(b) Reflected solar radiation (d) Scattered solar radiation

2021-22
82 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

(iv) Make correct pairs from the following two columns.

(i) Insolation (a) The dif ference betwe en the mean
temperature of the warmest and the coldest
months
(ii) Albedo (b) The lines joining the places of equal
temperature
(iii) Isotherm (c) The incoming solar radiation
(iv) Annual range (d) The percentage of visible light reflected by
an object

(v) The main reason that the earth experiences highest temperatures in the
subtropics in the northern hemisphere rather than at the equator is :
(a) Subtropical areas tend to have less cloud cover than equatorial areas.
(b) Subtropical areas have longer day hours in the summer than the
equatorial.
(c) Subtropical areas have an enhanced “green house effect” compared
to equatorial areas.
(d) Subtropical areas are nearer to the oceanic areas than the equatorial
locations.

2. Answer the following questions in about 30 words.

(i) How does the unequal distribution of heat over the planet earth in space
and time cause variations in weather and climate?
(ii) What are the factors that control temperature distribution on the surface
of the earth?
(iii) In India, why is the day temperature maximum in May and why not after
the summer solstice?
(iv) Why is the annual range of temperature high in the Siberian plains?

3. Answer the following questions in about 150 words.

(i) How do the latitude and the tilt in the axis of rotation of the earth affect
the amount of radiation received at the earth’s surface?
(ii) Discuss the processes through which the earth-atmosphere system
maintains heat balance.
(iii) Compare the global distribution of temperature in January over the
northern and the southern hemisphere of the earth.

Project Work
Select a meteorological observatory located in your city or near your town. Tabulate
the temperature data as given in the climatological table of observatories :
(i) Note the altitude, latitude of the observatory and the period for which the
mean is calculated.
(ii) Define the terms related to temperature as given in the table.
(iii) Calculate the daily mean monthly temperature.

2021-22
SOLAR RADIATION, HEAT BALANCE AND TEMPERATURE 83

(iv) Draw a graph to show the daily mean maximum, the daily mean minimum and the mean
temperature.
(v) Calculate the annual range of temperature.
(vi) Find out in which months the daily range of temperature is the highest and the lowest.
(vii) List out the factors that determine the temperature of the place and explain the possible
causes for temperature variation in the months of January, May, July and October.
Example
Observatory : New Delhi (Safdarjung)
Latitude : 28°35°’ N
Based on observations : 1951 - 1980
Altitude above mean sea level : 216 m

Month Mean of Mean of Highest Lowest

Daily Daily Recorded Recorded
Max.(°C) Min.(°C) (°C) (°C)
January 21.1 7.3 29.3 0.6
May 39.6 25.9 47.2 17.5

Daily mean monthly temperature

21.1+7.3
January = 14.2OC
2

39.6+25.9
May = 32.75OC
2
A nnual range of temperature
Mean Max. Temperature in May - Mean Temperature in January
A nnual range of temperature = 32.75°C – 14.2°C = 18.55°C

2021-22