CLIMATE:

Weather:
Refers to the state of the atmosphere at a local level, usually on a short time
scale; minutes to months. It takes in account sunshine, cloud, wind, rainfall and
temperature.

Climate:
Refers to the long-term behavior of the atmosphere in a specific area, it takes
into account temperature, pressure, wind, precipitation and humidity. Which are
used to calculate daily, monthly and yearly averages and to build up global
patterns.

Introduction:
Climate and weather are among the most important part in geography variation
in climate influences geomorphology, biogeography and human activity. For
example; soil type, agricultural systems and tourism. It involves a number of
elements such as the earth’s energy budget (heating, temperatures, wind systems
and rainfall patterns). There are contrast between developed and developing
countries and between global and local climate. Human impact activities having
an increasingly important impact such as global warming, urban climate and the
disruption of the ozone layer.
Geographers seek to understand and explain the part played by the atmosphere
as a component of the wider environment in which all activities take place.
 STRUCTURE AND COMPOSTION OF THE ATMOSPHERE:

The atmosphere is an envelope of transport, odorless gases held to the Earth by

gravitational attraction. The furthest limit of the atmosphere is said to be 1000
km, our climate and weather is concentrated within 16km of the Earth’s surface
at the equator and 8km at the poles.
The atmosphere can be divided into 4 basic layers according to temperature
according to temperature and pressure characteristics.

Layer 1: Troposphere:
The temperature here decreases by 6.5 degrees Celsius for every 1000m increase
in altitude. (every time i.e. Go up in the atmosphere; temp drops by 6.5 degrees
Celsius).
This layer forms the upper limit to the Earth’s climate and weather and is marked
by a layer where the temperature remains constant, despite any increase in
height. (tropopause)

Layer 2: Stratosphere:
This layer is characterized by a steady increase in temperature (temperature
inversion) caused by a concentration of ozone.
Winds are light in lower parts but increase with height. Pressure continues to fall
and the air is dry. This layer acts as a protective shield against meteorites, which
usually burn out as they enter the Earth’s gravitational field. This stratopause is
where temperature does not change with increasing height.
Layer 3: Mesosphere:
Here temperature falls rapidly as there is no water vapor, cloud, dust or ozone to
absorb incoming radiation. This layer experiences the atmosphere’s lowest
temperatures (-90 degrees Celsius) and strongest winds (300km per hour). The
mesopause shows no change in temperature.

Layer 4: Thermosphere:
In this layer, temperature rises rapidly with height reaching 1500 degrees Celsius.
This is due to an increasing proportion of atomic oxygen in the atmosphere which
absorbs incoming ultraviolet radiation. The atmosphere can also be structured on
the basis of its composition.
The basic structure of the atmosphere:
Pg. 207 textbook diagram on top of page.

There are 2 gases that make up the composition:

Layer 1: The Heterosphere:

It is the outermost part extending from about 80km. here gases are distributed in
distinct layers with the heaviest such as nitrogen and oxygen at the base and the
lightest such as helium and hydrogen at the outer margin.

Layer 2: The Homosphere:

Except for the ozone layer, gases are mixed.
Constant Gases:
Nitrogen: 78%
Oxygen: 20%
Argon: 0.9%
Other Gases:
The variable gases present in small amounts include;
Carbon Dioxide
Neon
Helium
Ozone
Krypton
Methane
Hydrogen
Water Vapor
 GLOBAL HEAT BUDGET

There are three processes by which the warm surface heats the atmosphere:

1. Radiation/Insolation:
The sun is the Earth's primary source of energy, a proportion of this energy
reaches the outer part of the Earth's atmosphere and then penetrates it to reach
the surface.
Solar energy travels on the form of radiant energy/radiation and/or insolation.
This can be distinguished by thief wavelength.
Wavelength depends on their temperature of the radiating body. The hotter the
body, the shorter the wavelength of its radiation. Therefore, the sun emits short
wave radiation. (600 degrees Celsius)
The sun's energy heats whatever surface it reaches such as land; sea, road and
forest, but does heat the atmosphere directly. It is the warm surface that heats
the air. Therefore, the atmosphere is heated from below.
The Earth's surface is much cooler (an average of 16 degrees Celsius). Therefore,
the wavelength of the Earth's radiation is much longer (long wave radiation).
Therefore, the outgoing terrestrial radiation is long wave / infrared radiation. This
cannot pass as easily through the atmosphere as short wave radiation.

2. Convection:
This is the vertical movement of a parcel/pocket of air which is at a different
temperature from its surroundings.
For example: Hot Air Balloons
Air in the balloon is heated, it becomes less dense and lighter than surrounding
air rises and lift the balloon with it.
Thermals:
These are naturally rising streams of warm air. These develop over patches of
ground which have absorbed more solar radiation and become warmer than the
surrounding land. In turn these warm patches raise the temperature of the air in
contact with them and causes it to rise.

30/1/2020

Conduction:
This refers to the transfer of energy by contact between the molecules or tiny
particles that make up the substance. When they receive energy and their
temperature rises individual molecules move more vigorously, whereby
increasing the number of contacts with their neighbors and transferring energy in
the process.

The amount of incoming radiation received by the Earth is determined by 4

astronomical factors:
1. The solar constant
2. The distance from the sun
3. The altitude of the sun in the sky
4. The length of night and day

The vast quantities of energy are produced by the sun at a somewhat constant
rate. The amount of energy received by an area of the Earth at right angles to the
sun's rays is known as the solar constant.
This varies according to sunspot activity but its relatively constant. (a sunspot
means some areas the sun is hotter than others but varies and/or changes.) It
affects long term climate rather than short term climate rather than short term
weather.

Distance from the sun:

The unconventional orbit of the earth around the sun (is an elliptical orbit.) can
cause a 6% difference in the solar constant. It places the Earth closer to the sun at
certain times of the year. For example; the orbit places the Earth closest to the
sun in the northern hemisphere's winter and furthest away in the summer.
Each radiation bundle has twice the area to heat up at 60 degrees north than at
the Equator. Therefore, the temperatures are lower nearer poles. Also, at the
Equator less heat is absorbed and/or reflected because there is less atmosphere
for the radiation to pass through.

LENGTH OF NIGHT AND DAY:

Due to the Earth being tilted at 23. 5 degrees there are several months with no
insolation poleward of 66. 5 degrees north and south of the Equator. Between
23.5 degrees and 66.5 degrees north and south there is one radiation maximum
and one radiation minimum.

After the radiation of the sun enters the atmosphere.

Three different processes take place:
1. Absorption:
This is mainly by ozone, water vapor. Carbon dioxide and particles of ice and
dust.
2. Reflection:
Clouds and the Earth's surface reflect considerable amounts of radiation back out
to space. The albedo which is the ratio between incoming radiation and the
amount reflected expressed as a percentage varies with cloud type, land surfaces.
SURFACE ALBEDO
Fresh Snow 0.75 – 0.9
Desert Sand 0.40
Grassland 0.25
Deciduous Forest 0.15 – 0.18
Tropical Evergreen Forest 0.13
The Ocean 0.07 – 0.10

Clouds have a higher albedo than land or water, but the actual amount depends
on a number of factors such as; height, size, the number and size of water
droplets and the color. Thin clouds 30 – 40%, thick clouds 70 – 50%, cumulo-
nimbus 90%.

3. Scattering:
This occurs when incoming radiation is diverted by particles of dust as from
volcanoes and deserts or by molecules of gas. It takes place in all directions and
some of the radiation will reach the Earth's surface as diffused radiation.

The Solar Energy Cascade:

As a result of absorption, reflection and scattering 24% of incoming radiation
reaches the Earth's surface and 21% diffuses. Incoming radiation is converted to
heat energy when it reaches the Earth's surface, as the ground warms, it radiates
energy back into the atmosphere. Where 94% is absorbed mainly by water vapor
and carbon dioxide and 6% lost to space.
 HEAT BUDGET:

There is a balance between incoming insolation and outgoing terrestrial

radiation as the Earth is neither warming up nor cooling down. There is a positive
heat balance within the tropics and a negative heat balance both at high latitudes
(poles) and high altitudes when the global energy budget is broken down into 10
degrees latitudinal strips a clear pattern is emerges. These between 0 degrees and
40 degrees gain more than they lose. While from 40 degrees to 90 degrees more
is lost than is gained. Since with time 0-40 degrees zones does not become hotter
and hotter at the 40 degrees - 90degrees zone does not become colder and
colder. A transfer mechanism must be at work to maintain the balance between
them.

There are two major transfers of heat that take place to prevent Tropical areas
from overheating.
A. Horizontal heat transfer: (PG228)
Heat is transferred away from the tropics and 2 major mechanisms responsible
for this energy are:
1. Winds 80%:
 General circulation transfers warm air towards the poles and cold air
towards the Equator.
 Secondly, large transfers are also achieved by weather systems (e.g.
Hurricanes, depressions, jet streams)

2. Ocean currents 20% (pg. 212):

 Ocean currents play a major role in moving energy stored in warm water
of currents pole wards [e.g. The gulf stream (part of the North Atlantic
Drift system)] moved energy to the North in the Northern Hemisphere.
 B. Vertical heat transfers:
Heat is also transferred vertically thus preventing the Earth's surface from
getting hotter and the atmosphere colder. The processes by which the heat is
transferred vertically are:
I) Radiation III) Conduction
II) Convection. IV) Latent heat

IV) Latent Heat:

The transfer when water changes from a solid-liquid state or liquid-gas.
Therefore, the amount of heat energy needed to change the state of a substance
without affecting its temperature.
Variations in the radiation balance occur at a number of spatial and temporal
scales. (space and time) regional, local, seasonal, diurnal, long term and short
term. Global long-term affect insolation (relatively constant at a given point)

Long Term Factors (PG 210):

 Height above sea level
 Altitude of the sun
 Land and sea
 Prevailing winds
 Ocean currents

Short Term Factors (PG 212):

 Seasonal changes
 Length of night and day

LOCAL INFLUENCES ON ISOLATION:

 In the Northern Hemisphere, North-facing slopes are in the shadow and are
called the ubac and the South facing slope. While the South-facing slope the adirt.
The South-facing slope being hotter and the North facing slope being cooler.

Cloud cover:
The presence of cloud reduces both incoming and outgoing radiation.

Urbanization:
Alters the albedo and creates 'heat islands'

Atmosphere Moisture:
 Water is a liquid compound which is converted into vapor and by cold into
a solid. Water serves 3 purposes;
 Maintain life on earth
 Water mainly as a gas absorbs, reflects and scatters insolation to keep our
planet at habitable temperature.
 Atmospheric moisture helps transfer surplus energy from Tropical areas to
colder altitudes.

Ocean and seas: 97.2%

Polar ice and snow: 2.1%
Fresh water lakes and rivers: 0.7%
Soil and groundwater: 0.6%
Atmosphere: 0.001%
The atmosphere holds about 10 days’ supply of rain. Therefore, it has to be a
constant recycling of water between the oceans, atmosphere and land. The
recycling is achieved through the hydrological cycle.

Humidity:
Is the measure of the water vapor content in the atmosphere.

Absolute Humidity:
In the mass of water vapor in a given volume of air measured in grams per cubic
meter g/m3

Specific Humidity:
Is similar to absolute humidity but is expressed in grams of water per kilogram of
air g/kg.

Relative Humidity:
The ratio of water vapor that is actually present in the air to the amount of
moisture that the air can hold when saturated.
Humidity depends upon the temperature of the air when the amount of moisture
that the air can hold is reached, the air is said to be saturated.
The amount of Precipitation from warm air is usually greater than of cold air. The
RH is at 100%.
Air is said to be saturated, 80-90%- moist weather is humid or clammy.

Dew Point:
This is the point at which the air becomes saturated and the temperature at
which water vapor condenses.
 CONDENSATION:
This is the process by which water vapor in the atmosphere is changed into a
liquid or, if temperature is below 0 degrees a solid. It occurs when air is cool until
it is saturated.

Cooling can be achieved by:

A. Horizontal cooling (1 and 2)
1. Radiation cooling/contact cooling:
This occurs on calm, clear evenings. Where the ground loses heat rapidly through
terrestrial radiation and the air in contact with it is then cooled by conduction.

2. Advection cooling:
This occurs from warm air moving over a cooler land/sea surface.

B. Vertical (3 and 4)
3. Orographic and frontal uplift:
Warm, moist air is forced to rise either as a cross a mountain barrier or when it
meets a colder, denser mass of air at a front. The rising air cools and usually
produces clouds.

4. Convective/Adiabatic Cooling:
This is when air is warm during the daytime and rises in pockets as the air
expands it uses energy and so loses heat and the temperature drops. Because air
is cooled by the reduction of pressure with height it is said to be adiabatically
cooled.
Sublimation:
Sublimation is when vapor condenses directly into ice crystals without passing
through the liquid state.

Hygroscopic Nuclei:
Hygroscopic nuclei are microscopic particles which attract water. For example;
volcanic dust, dust from soil, smoke, salt from sea spray.
Condensation does not occur readily in clean air. If air is absolutely pure, it can be
cooled below its dew point to become super saturated with and RH (relative
humidity) in excess of 100%.

LAPSE RATES:

(Pg. 216 in textbook)

The lapse rate is the date at which temperature increases with height.
1. The environmental lapse rate (ELR):
The ELR is the decrease in temperature usually expected with an increase in
height through the Troposphere and occurs in perfectly still air and is
approximately 6.5 degrees Celsius per 1000 m. It varies according to the humidity
of the air over different surfaces, between different air masses and according to
the time of day and the year.

2. Adiabatic Lapse Rate (ALR):

The adiabatic Lapse Rate or the ALR refers to a change in temperature that is
associated with a change in pressure and volume.
Convection currents result in rising air and an increase in volume as pressure
decreases and this leads to decreasing temperatures.
There are two types of adiabatic Lapse Rate:
a) Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate (DALR):
The DALR is the rate at which an unsaturated parcel of air cools as it rises or
warms as it descends. This takes place at a rate of (9.8 degrees Celsius per 1000
m.) without condensation taking place. Therefore, upward movement of air does
not lead to condensation.

2. Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate (SALR):

The SALR occurs after condensation takes place and the reduction in
temperature with height is partly compensated by the release of latent heat.
Saturated air therefore cools more slowly than unsaturated air (at an average of
5.4 degrees Celsius per 1000 m.)

Air stability and instability:

The type of weather that we get is dependent upon the relationship between
the ELR and the DALR/SALR. Rising air can only continue to do so if it is warmer
than the air surrounding it. If rising air becomes cooler and denser, than the
surrounding air, it will sink.
Stability:
The state of stability is when a rising parcel of unsaturated air cools more rapidly
than the air surrounding it. The rising air cools at a faster rate which is the DALR
at 9.8 degrees Celsius per 1000 m. Which is greater than the rate at which the
surrounding air cools which is the ELR at 6.5 degrees per 1000 m.

On the graph of stability, it will show the DALR plotted to the left of the ELR.
Because the air sinks back to the starting point as it becomes colder and denser
than the surrounding air, and there is nothing to force the parcel of air to rise, the
air is described as stable. Dew point may not have been reached, and the only
clouds which would have developed would be flat-topped cumulus clouds which
do not produce precipitation.
Stability is linked to anti-cyclones and dry and sunny conditions.

Pg. 217
Diagram 9.17

(A) Uplift air is therefore 3.8 degrees Celsius cooler than the surrounding air at
1000m and so it sinks the starting point.
Instability:
Instability occurs when rising air remains warmer and less dense than the
surrounding air. The rising air cools at the DALR which is less than the rate at
which the surrounding air cools. (ELR) the graph for instability therefore shows
the DALR plotted to the right of the ELR, where the dew point is achieved and
condensation occurs, latent heat is released, and the air now cools at the SALR.
This produces cumulo-nimbus cloud types and thunderstorms occur. These
conditions are also associated with cyclones in the Caribbean, these conditions
prevail during the second half of the year.

Conditional Instability:
Conditional instability occurs when the air at low levels is stable but at higher
levels, become unstable as latent heat is released upon cloud formation, allowing
the air to rise freely to very high levels.
*The DALR is therefore higher than the ELR which is itself higher than the SALR. *
Instability is conditional upon the rising air becoming saturated so that
condensation occurs and latent heat is released. Overcast conditions with
showers prevail under these conditions.

Pg. 217 in textbook figure 9.19

Temperature Inversion:
Temperature inversions occur where the temperature suddenly reverses it
trend from decreasing with altitude to increasing.
In the lower atmosphere it results from warm air overriding colder air and can
occur under the following conditions:
1. Warm and Cold Fronts
2. Advection of warm air over cold surfaces
3. Rapid radiation from the ground at night

Precipitation (PG. 219):

Rain drop formation occurs readily when hygroscopic nuclei are present. These
are microscopic particles that attract water molecules. They include; dust,
windblown soil and volcanic eruptions, salt from sea spray and pollutants from
human activity.
The tiny water droplets initially produce by condensation are less than 0.05 ml
in diameter and are too light to overcome the rising the air currents that created
them. These small water droplets or ice crystals must become sufficiently large so
that gravity can then pull them towards the ground.
A droplet falling through still air will reach a maximum downward velocity when
the resistance of the air just balances its weight.

There are currently two main theories which attempt to explain the growth of
water droplets and ice crystals:
FORMATION OF WATER DROPLETS:

1. Ice Crystal Mechanism/Berergon-Findeisen Mechanism:

- Condensation of cool vapor into nuclei
- Growth of super cool droplets
- Below 0 degrees Celsius ice crystals and super cool water droplets exist in clouds
- Super cooling occurs as water droplets exist between -5 and - 25 degrees
Celsius.
- Super cooling results from a lack of condensation nuclei
- Freezing of super cool droplets onto ice forming nuclei
- Growth of ice crystals at the expense of water droplets
- Edges of snowflakes can break off from freezing nuclei
- Snowflakes also grow due to collision and coalescence with other ice crystals
and super cool droplets
- Falling ice crystals may melt resulting in raindrops.

2. The Collision and Coalescence (Longmuir):

- Condensation of vapor into nuclei
- Growth of droplets from vapor
- Collision due to air currents in clouds
- Coalescence due to colliding rain drops
- Largest rain drops form on cumulo-nimbus clouds
- Droplets become large enough for gravity to overcome the updraft and they fall
to the ground.
DEFINITIONS:

Precipitation:
The term Precipitation is used to denote all forms of moisture in liquid or solid
form deposited directly onto the Earth's surface.

Types of Precipitation:
1. Rainfall:
There are three types of rainfall distinguished by the mechanisms which caused
the initial uplift of the air:
A) Convergent and cyclonic (frontal):
This results from the meeting of two airstreams in areas of low pressure.
B) Orographic or Relief:
This results when near-saturated warm maritime air is forced to rise where
confronted by a coastal mountain barrier.
C) Convectional:
This occurs when the ground surface is locally overheated and the adjacent air,
heated by conduction, expands and rises. During its advent, the air mass remains
warmer than the surrounding environmental air and is likely to become unstable.

CIRCILATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE OR ATMOSPHERIC MOTION

 The movement of air in the atmospheric system maybe vertical (rising or

subsiding) or horizontal.
 Wind is the movement of air horizontally; it is therefore air in motion.
 The pressure gradient force results in wind which flows from high pressure
to low pressure.
 Surface winds will be parallel to pressure gradient which could cause
movement in this direction.
 Moving air appears to be reflected to the right in the northern hemisphere
and to the left in the southern hemisphere.
 The greater the difference in pressure, the greater the force and the
stronger the wind.
 The pressure gradient force results in winds which flow from polar high
pressure to tropical low-pressure regions.
 In low pressure systems, winds blow to the center at an angle slightly
across the isobars and in an anti-clockwise direction which are usually
strong due to the steep pressure gradient.
 In a high-pressure system air flows in a clockwise direction with gentle out
blowing winds.
The pressure gradient force is not the only force that acts on moving air, there
are several other forms that act upon wind and objects in motion:

1. The Coriolis Force or Coriolis Effect:

- this term refers to the apparent deflection of winds, ocean currents and
other objects moving in a straight path relative to the earth's surface
- The effect's strength is proportional to the speed of the earth's rotation at
different latitudes.
- Wind are deflected to the right of their path in the northern hemisphere
and to the left in the southern hemisphere
- It is absent at the equator and increases towards the poll
- Wind do not flow across the pressure gradient, they follow a curved path
- The earth's rotation through 360° every 24hrs means that a wind blowing in
a northerly direction in the northern hemisphere appears to have been
diverted to the right on a curved trajectory by 15° of longitude by every hour
- In theory if the Coriolis force acted alone, the resulting wind would blow in
a circle, therefore the earth's rotation is the main force of the Coriolis effect.

2. Geostrophic Winds:
- Winds in the upper troposphere, unaffected by friction in the earth's
surface show that there is a balance between the forces exerted by the
pressure gradient and the Coriolis deflection
- This occurs when the air parcel begins to move, it is deflected by the
Coriolis force and the deflection increases as the wind increases in speed
- Eventually the Coriolis force is equal to the pressure gradient force and the
winds blow parallel to the isobars, the result is the Geostrophic wind
 3. Friction:
- Friction caused by the earth's surface upsets the balance between the
pressure gradient and the Coriolis force by reducing the effect of the latter,
because close to the earth, friction caused by contact with the earth's surface
slows winds and reduces the effect of the Coriolis force.
- This makes the pressure gradient force more dominant and the winds blow
across the isobars.

THE TRICELLUAR ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATION MODEL:

As we already know, there is a surplus of energy at the equator and the depicted
in the outer atmosphere and nearer to the poles.
Energy transfer is effected by 3 cells that are explained in the Tricellular
Atmospheric Circulation Model.
There are 3 main cells or cycles of air motions in both hemispheres.

1. Hadley Cell –
As the trade winds cross the warm tropical ocean, they pick up latent heat and
are forced to rise creating the equatorial low pressure belt. This is the rising
arm of the Hardley cell. These are the strong currents that provide energy for
the Atmospheric global circulation. The air cools as it rises, uplift ceases and
the air moves away from the equator. At about 30° north with cooling and
increasing density, the air sinks back to the surface as the descending limb of a
hadley cell. At the surface some of it is drawn back to the low pressure at the
equator as the trade winds. A path is diverted coldwards as the warm southern
westerlies. The meeting of the trade winds at the equator forms the inter
tropical conversion zone (ITCZ). At ground level the ITCZ experiences only very
gentle variable winds known as the Doldrums.
b. Ferrel Cell –
When these warm southern westerlies meet arctic air at about 60°N at the
polar front they rise to form the rising arm of the ferrel cell. An area of low
pressure associated with middle latitudes depressions is formed. This is
another means by which air is transferred. The sinking air at around 30° - 40°
latitude results in high pressure with winds blowing outwards towards the
poles as the westerlies. Some air flows back towards the tropics

c. Polar Cell –
The polar cell is the lowest, less than 10km and the weakest of the 3 cells. The
air has now lost its heat and descends to form another high pressure area.
Area flows out of the polar high pressure towards the polar front as the
variable polar easterlies

Notes missing

1. Polar Jet Stream (PJS):

- Develops between the ferrel and polar cells around 40° to 60° north and
south of the equator
- It is associated with depressions and anticyclones (rainy and sunny
weather) and marks the boundary between the warm tropical and cold polar
air masses

2. Subtropical Jet Stream (SJS):

- Occurs 25° to 30° north and south of the equator and marks the boundary
between the hadley and ferrel cells
- It meanders less and moves more slowly
3. Easterly Equatorial Jet Stream:
- Develops in equatorial areas and is seasonal

Blocking Anticyclones or Blocking Highs:

● Sometimes anticyclones divert the jet stream in their easterly progress to
divergent routes
● The jet stream may be diverted north or south of the anticyclone
● Thus anticyclones that interrupt the normal circulation are known as
blocking anticyclones or blocking highs
● It creates prolonged periods of unusually fair weather

Tropical Depression:
A tropical depression is a low pressure system with an organized system of
clouds and thunderstorms and sustained wind speeds of 38 - 62kmph. It does
not have a spiral shape and eye of a hurricane.
A tropical depression is designated when an area of low pressure has an
organized circulation in the center of a thunderstorm.
A tropical depression appears to have little organization, it looks like individual
thunderstorms that are grouped together.
Tropical depression are not name alphabetically but are numbered. It can take
as little as half a day or as much a d2 days to develop into a tropical storm or
may not infact develop further.

Tropical Storms:
 A tropical Storm is a low pressure system characterised by an organized
system of strong thunder storms and with surface circulation of 63 - 180kmph.
Even though there is no fully developed 'eye's, the spirit cyclonic shape typical
of a hurricane begins to develop and the system is given an alphabetical name.
Most problems from tropical storms are caused from heavy and consistent
rainfall whereby more than 375ml can occur in one day

Hurricane (tropical cyclones / typhoons / willy - Willie's):

Hurricanes are intense low pressure systems characterized by extremely high
winds with more than 119kmph and torrential rainfall.
They range from 100 - 1600km in diameter.
There are serval zones of hurricane belt's where hurricane occurs (e.g.
Cyclones in the Indian ocean, typhoons in the north specific ocean, willy
willie's in the south specific ocean, hurricanes in the Atlantic ocean, eastern
specific ocean and Caribbean sea).
Hurricanes form over warm tropical seas where temperatures exceed 26°C.
The Atlantic hurricane season lats from June to November.
Every 1 year there are an average of 10 tropical storms, approximately 6 of
which becomes hurricanes.
Hurricanes are most common during August and September where ocean
currents are warmest.
They occur in the trade wind belt between latidutes of 5° and 20° north and
south of the equator.
Near the equator the coriolis effect is too weak to cause sufficient rotation in
the atmosphere.