The Earth’s Heat Balance

The energy that drives the climate system comes from the Sun. When the Sun's
energy reaches the Earth it is partially absorbed in different parts of the climate system.
The absorbed energy is converted back to heat, which causes the Earth to warm up
and makes it habitable.

The Sun is the star located at the center of our planetary system. It is
composed mainly of hydrogen and helium. In the Sun's interior, a thermonuclear
fusion reaction converts the hydrogen into helium releasing huge amounts of
energy. The energy created by the fusion reaction is converted into thermal
energy (heat) and raises the temperature of the Sun to levels that are about
twenty times larger that of the Earth's surface. All heated objects must emit
electromagnetic radiation, particularly so if they are surrounded by empty
space. Hence, the solar energy transmitted through space as Electromagnetic
radiation (EMR). The amount of solar energy that reaches the outer limits of the
Earth’s upper atmosphere is enormous; if all of this penetrated to Earth’s surface
and were retained, the very high temperature would have prevented the
development of any life on the earth or it would cause the vaporization of the
planet. Fortunately, as solar radiations travel through the atmosphere,
interactions with the gases and particulates prevent approximately half of it from
penetrating to the earth’s surface.

The surface temperature of the earth is determined primarily by the solar flux
incident upon it. The energy from sun reaching to the earth’s surface is 19.2
Kcal/minute for a square meter of area perpendicular to the line of solar flux,
which is equal to 1368 W/m2 (at the top of the atmosphere). The rate at which
sun’s energy reaching to the earth’s atmosphere is known as “solar constant”.
There are complex factors which are involved in maintaining the EHB. The great
changes of climate which resulted in ice age were caused due to increase by few
degrees in average temperature. The mechanisms by which earth’s average
temperature has been retained so long within the narrow range are very
complex. The average surface temperature of the earth is 288 0K (15 0C).

The 69% of solar energy (solar flux) that eventually reaches the earth
includes the entire visible region of spectrum together with smaller portion of the
adjacent UV and IR regions. This incoming radiation is largely absorbed by the
surface and is then reradiated back to space. Outgoing radiation from the earth is
in the longer wavelength.

Approximately 31% of the solar flux is reflected back into space and is
referred as earth’s albedo and is expressed as a fraction. The albedo of the
Earth depends on the geographical location, surface properties, and the weather.
Many factors like clouds, dust, smoke and volcanic ash, cause albedo. On the
average however, the Earth's albedo is about 0.3. This fraction of incoming
radiation is reflected back into space. The other 0.7 part of the incoming solar
radiation is absorbed by our planet. The most obvious aspect of is the
brightness of the Earth's cloud cover. A significant part of the Earth's
reflectivity can be attributed to clouds (this is but one reason why they are so
important in the Earth's climate).

Surface type Average albedo

Forest land 10-20%
Agriculture land 10-20%
Deserts 25-40%
Snow cover (>600 latitude) 60-80%
Ocean (700 latitude) 15-20%
Clouds 35-40%
Overall average 31%

Of the 69% of the solar flux that is absorbed, 23% is absorbed by water
droplets in the clouds and other gaseous molecules like ozone in the
atmosphere. The remaining 46 % is absorbed by the earth’s surface and is used
as an energy source of biomass growth and for thermal warming of the earth’s
surface. The energy must be reradiated back to the space in one form or other to
maintain EHB. It is important to note that small amount of energy generated from
radioactive process in the earth must also be lost. There are three possible
mechanisms for transfer of energy:

A) Radiation

It occurs through EMR in the IR region of spectrum (IR, Visible and UV). This is
the only way in which energy is transmitted through a vacuum. The EMR that
carries energy away from the earth is of a much longer wavelength than the
sunlight that brings energy to the earth. This is a crucial factor in maintaining
EHB and one susceptible to upset by human activities. The maximum intensity of
incoming radiation occurs at 0.5 micrometers (500 nanometers). This
encompasses the whole visible region and small part of IR and UV. Outgoing
radiation is in the IR region, with maximum intensity at about 10 micometer,
primarily between 2-10 micrometer. Thus the earth loses energy by EMR of a
much longer wavelength (lower energy per photon) than the radiation by which it
receives energy.
B) Conduction
It is through the interaction of adjacent atoms or molecules without the bulk
movement of the matter.
C) Convection
It involves the movement of whole masses of air, which may be either
relatively warm or cold. It carries latent heat in the form of water vapor, which
releases heat as it condenses. The energy is stored in the form of kinetic
energy. An appreciable fraction of heat is transported to clouds in the
atmosphere by conduction and convection before being lost ultimately by
radiation.

All of the energy that the earth absorbs from the sun eventually lost as EMR.
The average surface temperature of the earth is 288 0K (15 0C). The incoming
radiations must be balanced with the radiations emitted to calculate an
equilibrium temperature for earth:

Ein = Fs(1-A)( π−¿ r2)

En = Total amount of energy absorbed by the earth, A = albedo, Fs = Solar flux

It is to note that calculations allows us to predict to predict an average

global surface temperature of -19 0C. The average measured temperature of the
earth is 15 0C (2880 K) and this temperature is 34 0C higher than calculated. So,
this calculation assumes that all the radiation leave the earth and lost into space.
If some of the radiation is absorbed by the gases in the atmosphere and is not
lost, then the planet temperature will be expected to be higher.
It is to note that although there is heat balance for the planet as whole, all
parts of the earth and its atmosphere do not maintain strict balance between
incoming solar radiation and outgoing terrestrial radiations. The heat balance
varies greatly from one region of the earth to another. This serves an important
purpose. The imbalances between the heat surplus areas at low latitudes and the
heat deficiency at the polar latitude cause the atmospheric and oceanic
circulations to occur. This in turn, controls the climatic and weather patterns.
It is feared that human activities are likely to disturb the delicate heat
balance of the earth. The heating and cooling effects of pollutants are not exactly
balanced. At present, the warming effect of greenhouse gases predominates
over the cooling effect of suspended matter. The global warming, now-a-days, is
one of the symptom of disturbances in the natural heat balance.
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Books consulted:
1. J.E. Girard, “Principles of Environment Chemistry”.
2. Staneley E. Manahan, “Environment Chemistry”.
3. H. Kour, “Environment Chemistry”.
4. G.S. Sodhi, “Fundamental Concept of Environment Chemistry”.