Module 2:

Hydrological
Fluvial
Coastal
Limestone Environments

The Hydrological Cycle: -

Hydrology
River Basin
Flows
Storm Hydrograph
Water Budgets
Drainage Density (Stream Ordering)

Fluvial:
Rivers

Coastal:
The hydrological cycle:
This refers to the movement of water in its various phases in the atmosphere and
over and beneath the surface of the Earth. On the planet as a whole, the
hydrological cycle operates as a closed system because there is no exchange of
energy and materials with other planets. However, on a smaller scale, the
hydrological cycle in particular regions, countries or drainage basins operates as
an open system because there are gains and losses.
Water exists in various physical states as water vapor (gas), as a liquid and as
solid ice which includes forms such as snow and hail. About 70% of the planet is
occupied by water which is stored mainly in the oceans and seas. Water is also
stored in the ice sheets, glaciers and as sub surface water beneath the land.

LOCATION VOLUME OF WATER %

OCEANS 99.7
ICE CAPS AND GLACIERS 1.9
GROUNDWATER 0.5
SOIL MOISTURE 0.01
LAKES / RIVERS 0.009
ATMOSPHERE 0.0001

DRAW A DIAGRAM OF A WATER CYCLE

The hydrological cycle

(FIG 3.1 IN TEXTBOOK TO DRAW)
Places where water is its solid form frozen into ice or snow. The hydrological cycle
is seen as a model which describes the movement of water through the
atmosphere, the Cryosphere and the Hydrosphere and the earth’s surface. It is a
closed system in which water circulates continuously without gains or losses. The
amount of water is fixed.

Cryosphere:
Places where water is in its solid form frozen in either ice or snow.

Hydrosphere:
The total amount of water on, under and above the surface of the Earth.
The Water Cycle

Precipitation:
Precipitation may take the form of rain, snow, sleet and hail with the type
depending on the geographic location and the season. It provides the moisture
which flows into streams and rivers and infiltrates into the ground. This forms the
major input into the system.

Evapotranspiration:
The two components of evapotranspiration contribute to form an output from
the system. Evaporation is the physical process by which moisture is lost directly
into the atmosphere from water surfaces including vegetation and soil.
Transpiration is a biological process by which water is lost from a plant through
stomata.
Evaporation rates are affected by; temperature, wind speed, humidity, hours of
sunshine and other climatic factors. Whereas transpiration rates depend on the
time of the year. The type and the amount of vegetation, the availability of
moisture and the length of the growing season.

Condensation:
This is the process by which water vapor in the atmosphere is changed into a
liquid or if the temperature is below 0 degrees Celsius, a solid. It is the reverse of
evaporation, it occurs when warm air rises and cools as a result of convection,
convergence, frontal and orographic uplift.

Interception:
Interception storage is where the first raindrops of a rainfall event fall on
vegetation which shelters the underlying ground.
Throughfall:
Throughfall or dropping of the leaves is where water from the leaves fall to the
ground.

Stemflow:
This is when water runs down the trunk of the tree.

Surface Runoff:
Surface runoff or overland flow is the movement of water on the surface of the
land.

Infiltration:
This is the passage of water into the soil or the process by which water enters the
ground surface. The maximum rate that water can pass through the soil is called
is infiltration capacity and is expressed in mm/hr.
The rate of infiltration depends upon the amount of water already in the soil
(antecedent precipitation), the porosity and structure of the soil and the nature of
the soil surface (e.g. crusted, cracked, ploughed), and the type, amount and
seasonal changes in vegetation cover. During drier periods, some water may be
drawn up towards the surface by capillary action.
Some of the water will flow laterally as throughflow.

Throughflow:
Throughflow is the movement of water in the soil.
Percolation:
As water reaches the underlying soil or rock, which tends to be more compact its
progress is slowed. This constant movement is called percolation and creates
groundwater storage. The upper surface the groundwater stores is the water
table. Rocks which store water are called aquifers.
Some geological series may create artesian basins where water in wells drilled
will rise to the surface under its own pressure called artesian wells. The
underground areas can be divided into a non-saturated zone (vadose) or a
saturated zone (phreatic). Water may flow laterally to streams or rivers as
groundwater or baseflow.

Channel flow:
Some rainwater falls directly into the channel of a river and I called channel
precipitation. Most of the water reaches it by a combination of three transfer
processes: surface runoff (overland flow), throughflow, or groundwater flow
(baseflow). Once in the river as channel storage, water flows towards the sea and
is lost from the drainage basin system.
The Drainage Basin
A drainage basin is an area of land drained by a river and its tributaries. Its
boundary is marked by a ridge of high land beyond which any precipitation will
drain into adjacent basins. This boundary is called a water shed.
A drainage basin may be described as an open system and it forms part of the
hydrological cycle. it therefore has inputs such as precipitation and outputs where
water is lost from the system through rivers and evapotranspiration. Within this
system, some of the water is stored and some passes through a series of transfers
or flows.

Source:
The beginning of the river (a river may have multiple sources)

Mouth:
The end of the river. Rivers may end at a sea or a lake.

Tributary:
A small river that flows into a larger river.

Confluence:
This is where two rivers meet.

Water Shed:
The border between two drainage basins.
Channel:
The physical confines of a river encompassing two banks and a bed.
The Water Balance

The Water Balance or Water Budget is the relationship or state of equilibrium

between inputs and outputs within the drainage basin, that is
precipitation = runoff + evapotranspiration +/- any changes in storage
Storage:
(interception, surface storage, soil water storage, ground water storage,
vegetation storage and channel storage)
This is represented by the equation:
P = Q+E +/- Change in storage s
Where P – precipitation
Q – runoff
E – evapotranspiration
s – changes in storage

DRAW FIG 3.3

1. When Precipitation input exceeds evapotranspiration loss, there is a

positive water balance or a positive water budget.
2. When evapotranspiration exceeds precipitation, there is a negative water
balance.
3. Changes in storage affects the soil moisture balance that is, the amount of
moisture present in the soil over a period of time.
4. In winter, precipitation exceeds evaporation. Soil moisture surplus which
leads to surface runoff and arrives in river levels. In autumn, precipitation
exceeds evapotranspiration and it is the first surplus water which is used to
recharge the soil until it reaches field capacity. In summer,
 evapotranspiration exceeds precipitation. Plants and humans have to utilize
water from the soil leaving it depleted and causing river levels to fall.
5. In different climates, the pattern will vary. For example; hot dry climates,
there will be regular deficit.
Soil moisture utilization refers to seasonal variation in rainfall may be able to use
existing soil moisture to make up the deficit.
Soil moisture recharge: this is where there is a replacement with the first rains.
River regime: this is variation in the flow of a river usually over a year.
The Storm Hydrograph

DRAW FIG 3.5

A storm hydrograph is a means of showing the discharge of a river at a given point

over a short period of time. Discharge is the amount of water originating as
precipitation which reaches the channel by surface runoff throughflow and
baseflow.
Discharge is the velocity of the river measured in meters per second multiplied by
the cross-sectional area of the river in m2. This gives the volume in m3/s or
cumecs.
Q=AxV
Where:
Q= discharge
A = cross-sectional area
V = velocity

The storm hydrograph is important because it can be used in predicting the flood
risk and in making the necessary precautions to avoid damage to property and the
loss of life.
The Storm Hydrograph

The Approach Segment: Shows the discharge of a river before the storm (it
is also called the antecedent flow rate)

The Rising Limb: When surface runoff and throughflow reaches the river,
there is a rapid increase in discharge as indicated by the rising limb. The
steeper the rising limb, the faster the response to rainfall that is the water
reaches the rise more quickly.

Peak Discharge/Peak Flow: Occurs when the river reaches its highest level
possible.

Lag Time: The period between maximum precipitation and peak discharge.
Rivers with a short lag time are more prone to flooding, because they
experience higher peak discharge than rivers with a long lag time.

Falling/Receding Limb: The segment of the graph where discharge is

decreasing and river levels are falling. It is usually less steep because
throughflow is being released relatively slowly into the channel.

Storm Flow: The discharge of both surface and sub-surface flow attributed
to a single storm.

Base Flow: It is very slow to respond to a storm but by continually releasing

groundwater, it maintains the river’s flow during a period of low
precipitation.

Bankfull Discharge: Occurs when a river’s water level reaches the top of its
channel. Any further increase in discharge will result in flooding of the
surrounding land.
Controls in the Drainage Basin and on the Storm Hydrograph

In some drainage basins, river discharge increases very quickly after a storm and
may give rise to frequent, and occasionally catastrophic, flooding. Following a
storm, the levels of such rivers fall almost as rapidly and, after dry spells, can
become very low. Rivers in other basins seem neither to flood nor to fall to very
low levels. There are several factors which contribute to regulating the ways in
which a river responds to precipitation:

1) Basin Size, Shape and Relief:

Size – in a small basin, rainfall will reach the main channel more rapidly than in a
larger basin where the water has much further travel. Lag time will therefore be
shorter in the smaller basin.

Shape – it has long been accepted that a circular basin is more likely to have a
shorter lag time and a higher peak flow than an elongated basin. However,
Newson (1994) has pointed out that studies made in many regions of the world
have shown that basin shape is less reliable as a flood indicator than basin size
and slope.

Relief – the slope of the basin and its valley sides also affect the hydrograph. In
steep-sided upland valleys, water is likely to reach the river more quickly than in
gently sloping lowland areas.
 2) Types of Precipitation:
Prolonged Rainfall – flooding most frequently occurs after a long period of heavy
rainfall, when the ground has become saturated and infiltration has been
replaced by surface runoff (overland flow).
(when the ground can’t hold any more water, it floods the surface of the soil and
flows to the nearest river or stream)

Intense Rainfall – (e.g., convectional thunderstorms) When heavy rain occurs, the
rainfall intensity may be greater than the infiltration capacity of the soil (e.g., in
summer in Britain, when the ground may be harder). The resulting surface runoff
is likely to produce a rapid rise in river levels (flash floods).
(basically, the same as prolonged rainfall except more intense rain)

Snowfall – heavy snowfall means that water is held in surface storage and river
levels drop. When temperatures rise rapidly, melt water soon reaches the main
river. It is possible that the ground will remain frozen for some time, in which case
infiltration will be impeded.

3) Temperature:
Extremes of temperature can restrict infiltration (very cold in winter, very hot
and dry in summer) and so increase surface runoff. If evapotranspiration rates are
high, then there will be less water available to flow into the main river.

4) Land Use:
Vegetation- may help to prevent flooding by intercepting rainfall (storing
moisture on its leaves before it evaporates back into the atmosphere). Estimates
suggest that tropical rainforests intercept up to 80% of rainfall whereas arable
land may intercept only 10%. Interception is less during the winter in Britain when
deciduous trees have shed their leaves and crops have been harvested to expose
bare earth. Plant roots, especially in those of trees, reduce throughflow by taking
up water from the soil.
Stream Ordering:

Stream ordering defines the arrangement of a river and its tributaries. It is a

technique of numbering streams so that the hierarchy of streams and the
complexity of the drainage network can be determined. This technique assists in
describing the spatial arrangement of river channels and determines the
sequence by which flood waters from various parts of the basin join the main
channel.

This technique most commonly used was derived by A.N. Strahler (1952) who
based his method on the number of tributaries flowing into a main stream.
All the initial unbranched source tributaries he called first order streams. When
two first order streams join, they form a second order. When two second order
streams join, they form a third order and so on. Until all the streams in the basin
are numbered. If a stream of one order joins one of a higher order, then the
following stream retains that higher order.
For example; When a third order stream joins a fourth order stream, the
following stream remains fourth order. Most drainage basins reach only the
fourth order; however, the Mississippi river drainage basin is a tenth order basin.
And the Amazon river drainage basin is a twelfth order drainage basin. Therefore,
a basin may be described in terms of the highest order streams.

Several generalizations can be made about stream orders:

- There is a negative correlation between the order of the highest order
stream and the number of streams in a drainage basin. That is, there are
fewer streams of a higher order than those of a lower order in a drainage
basin.
- There is a positive correlation between stream length and stream order.
That is, as the total length of a stream increases, the stream order
increases.
- There is a negative correlation between stream order and the average
gradient of streams. That is, as the order of a stream increases, the average
gradient decreases.
- There is a positive correlation between stream order and the area of a
drainage basin. That is, as the order of the highest-order stream increases,
so too does the area of the drainage basin.

The Effect of Increasing Stream Order on Drainage Basins.

As Stream Order Increases

Number of Streams Decreases
Average Length Increases
Total Length Increases
Average Gradient Decreases
Average Catchment Area Increases
COMPARING DRAINAGE BASINS

Drainage basins can be compared in several ways including:

1) Bifurcation Ratio: This is the relationship between the number of streams
of 1 order and those of the next highest order. It is obtained by dividing the
number of streams in one order in the number of the next higher order.

Drainage Basin A
N 1( no . of first order streams) 26
¿ =4 ⋅33
N 2(no . of second order streams) 6
N 3 ∕ N 4=2 ∕ 1=2

4.33+ 3+2=9.33 ∕ 3=3.11

Drainage Basin B

10
N 1 ∕ N 2= =2.5
4

N 2 ∕ N 3=4 ∕ 2=2

N 3 ∕ N 4=2 ∕ 1=2

2.5+2+2=6 ⋅5 ∕ 3=2.17
DRAINAGE DENSITY

Drainage density refers to the average length of streams per unit area. It is found
by dividing the total length (l) of all streams by the area which is a of the drainage
basin.
L=( total stream length∈km)
A (area∈km2)

Drainage density reflects the speed with which a hill slope can be drained, the
properties of the slope materials and the processes occur there. There are many
factors that influence drainage density and these include climate, relief, soils and
geology, vegetation and time. Generally, drainage density is highest in areas with
heavy rainfall, steep slopes, impermeable rocks and little or no vegetation.

a. Geology and Soils:

Impermeable soils and rocks promote greater surface runoff than permeable
rocks, which promote infiltration. For example; clay soils are impermeable and
promote high drainage densities.

b. Land Use /Vegetation

The drainage density, especially of first order streams, it is much greater in areas
with little vegetation cover. Lack of vegetation promotes surface runoff instead of
infiltration.
 c. Time
As a river pattern develops over a period of time, the number of tributaries will
decrease, as will the drainage density.

d. Precipitation
Densities are usually highest in areas where rainfall totals and intensity are also
high.

e. Relief
Density is usually greater on steeper slopes than on more gentle slopes.
DRAINAGE PATTERN

Drainage refers to the flow of water and it can occur both above the surface and
beneath the surface of the earth. Where rocks are impermeable, drainage will
flow above the surface. And where the rocks are permeable, water can flow
beneath the surface. Both igneous and metamorphic are impermeable and result
in much surface drainage.
Many of the Eastern Caribbean islands that are volcanic in nature have a high
density of surface flow, as does the Northern Range of Trinidad where
metamorphic rocks are predominant in most places. Most sedimentary rocks such
as sandstone, limestone and chalk have high permeability and as a result sub-
surface drainage is predominant. Over Barbados, Anguilla and the cockpit country
Jamaica, there is much sub-surface drainage.

A drainage pattern is the way in which a river and its tributaries arrange
themselves within their drainage basin.
A drainage pattern is a spatial arrangement of streams and rivers and the ways in
which they join each other as they flow the surface of the earth. Drainage
patterns are strongly influenced by the geology and the topography of the land.

Drainage patterns may be classified as:

- Accordant: that is influenced by the relief and geology of the areas over
which they flow.
- Discordant: patterns related to local relief and geology. It is independent of
rock structure.
Accordant Patterns:
1. Dendritic drainage pattern –
These are common where the river is flowing over a homogenous surface with
little structural variation. These rocks all offer similar resistance to erosion and
have a uniform structure. Therefore, under such conditions, there is no control
over the direction taken by the streams. The tributaries join the main stream
in irregular patterns and an acute angle, resembling the branches of a tree
joining the trunk. Many rivers in the Caribbean show this pattern.

2. Trellis drainage pattern–

Occurs when the stream joins each other at right angles. This is the result of
structural control on the rates of river erosion. Softer rock interbedded with
more resistant rocks display differential erosion where the streams on softer
rocks erode more quickly and may in fact the headwaters of the more slowly
eroding stream on harder rock. This stream is said to be beheaded. Trellis
drainage may develop in folded topography where the main stream follows
the syncline and the tributaries run down the anticline to join the main
channel.
 3. Radial-
Radial drainage is identified when the river of each basin drains outwards
away from a central rise. This pattern is common over the volcanoes of the
Eastern Caribbean Islands. Where water runs off the central volcanic domes.

4. Centripetal –
This is the opposite of the radial drainage in which streams flow towards a
central depression.
 5. Angular drainage pattern-
Angular drainage occurs where the river conforms to some structural weakness
and forms a concentric ringed shaped pattern. The flow is along the rings with
tributaries joining them. This pattern is commonly found over volcanic domes
where a river may flow around part of the rim of the volcanic crater. The river
may eventually find an opening in the rim through which it can then flow
downslope towards the sea.

6. Parallel drainage pattern –

With parallel drainage, river simply flow parallel to each other. It occurs on
geologically young rocks where the slopes are very steep.
 7. Rectangular drainage pattern –
This pattern looks similar to trellis drainage with streams meeting each other at
right angles, however the structural control is different. The river tends to flow
along lines of weakness such as tectonic faults and rock joints to form this
rectangle pattern.

8. Deranged drainage pattern –

Deranged is where rivers flow in an erratic manner with no clearly recognizable
pattern. It is a disordered and chaotic pattern characterized by numerous short
streams and depression with internal drainage occupied by lakes and marshes.
Discordant Patterns:
1. Superimposed –
River patterns are sometimes seen as contrary to the structures over which they
flow. The pattern reflects an older structure to which the river no longer
conforms. The pattern conformed to original layers which have been eroded
leaving the river pattern discordant to the present surface.

2. Antecedent –
The river pattern overrides the structural surface. Even as the land rises, the river
is able to maintain its pattern and vertical erosion. It is discordant to the surface
over which it currently flows.
RIVER CAPTURE/ STREAM PIRACY

River capture/ Stream piracy, the process whereby a more dominant stream with
a larger discharge, captures the headwaters of a less dominant stream with a
smaller discharge.
Where two consequent streams flow parallel to each other, a subsequent
tributary of the more vigorous river can extend its length by headward erosion
along softer rocks until it reaches the second stream. The subsequent tributary
deepens its channel by vertical downcutting making it possible for the water to be
diverted at a sharp angle (elbow of capture). This creates a wind gap where the
former valley has no stream. The amount of water remaining downstream in the
second consequent stream is now much smaller than would be expected for its
valley and can be described as an underfit or a misfit stream.

Consequent River:
The Main river, called a consequent river because it is a conseqt1ence of the
initial uplift or slope (compare parallel drainage), flows in the same direction as
the dip of the rocks.

Subsequent River:
A tributary to a consequent stream that develops sometime after the main
stream. It may join the consequent stream at an acute angle in homogenous rocks
or perpendicular in heterogenous rocks. In the latter case, it may flow along
bands of less resistant rocks.

Obsequent streams:
These are short streams that flow in the opposite direction to the consequent
stream. It is initiated down a backward facing slope.
FLUVIAL PROCESSES AND LAND FORMS:

- Are those processes associated with the action of rivers.

- The flow never remains the same

Velocity – is the speed at which a river flow.

The flow fluctuates continuously as the amount of water entering the system and
flowing into the channel changes. The flow or discharge varies during the course
of the year, and long-term climatic changes also affect river flow.
A river flows because of the downward component of the pull of gravity. It seeks
the path of least resistance. A river possesses potential energy and follows a route
that will maximize the rate of flow and minimize the loss of this energy caused by
friction. Most of the friction occurs along the banks and bed of the river.

Types of Flow Within the River Channel:

Three types of flows:

- Laminar Flow
- Turbulent Flow
- Helicoidal Flow

Laminar Flow:
A smooth even flow of water. /Horizontal movement of water. This type of flow
travels over the river bed without disturbing any sediments.
(input drawing of it)
Turbulent Flow:
Consists of a series of erratic eddies both vertical and horizontal in a downstream
direction.
High velocity stream flow in which streamlines are either parallel nor straight, but
curled into small, tight eddies. (being rough and have a lot of current)

Helicoidal Flows:
A kind of corkscrew spiraling motion in the current of a river that tends to
transport material from its concave banks downstream to where it is deposited in
its inner convex bank.

Factors Influencing Velocity of a River:

- Channel Shape in Cross-Section:

Hydraulic Radius – the ratio between the area of the cross-section of a river
channel and the length of its wetted perimeter.

R=CROSS SECTIONAL AREA ( A)

WETTED PERIMETER (℘)

The cross-section area is obtained by measuring the width and the mean depth of
the channel.

LxWxW
A larger hydraulic radius means a smaller amount of water in contact with the
wetted perimeter. There is less friction. It reduces energy loss and allows greater
velocity.

The smaller the hydraulic radius the larger amount of water is in contact with the
wetted perimeter. There is greater friction, more energy loss and reduced
velocity.

- Roughness of Channel Bed and Banks:

A river flowing between banks composed of coarse material with numerous

protrusions and over a bed of large, angular rocks meets with more resistance
than a river with cohesive clays and silts forming its bed and banks.
As bank and bed roughness increase, so does turbulence. Therefore, a mountain
stream is likely to pick up loose material and carry it downstream.
Roughness is difficult to measure, but Manning an engineer, calculated a
roughness coefficient by which he interrelated the three factors affecting the
velocity of a river. In his formula known as “Manning’s N”:
R 0.67 S0 ⋅ 5
v=
n

Where:
V = mean velocity of flow
R = hydraulic radius
S = channel slope
n = boundary roughness
 - Channel Slope
As more tributaries and water from surface runoff, throughflow and groundwater
flow join the main river, the discharge, the channel- cross section area and the
hydraulic radius will all increase. At the same time, less energy will be lost through
friction and the erosive power of bedload material will decrease. As a result, the
river flows over a gradually decreasing gradient- the characteristic concave long
profile (thalweg).

In summarizing this section, it should be noted that:

 A river in a deep, broad channel, often with a gentle gradient and a small
bedload, will have a greater velocity than a river in a shallow, narrow, rock-
filled channel- even if the gradient of the latter is steeper.

 The velocity of a river increases as it nears the sea- unless, like the Colorado
and the Nile, it flows through deserts where water is lost through
evaporation or by human extraction for water supply.

 The velocity increases, so does turbulence and the ability of the river to
pick up and transport sediment.

 As roughness increases, so too does turbulence and the ability of the river
to pick up and transport sediment.
THE HJULSTROM GRAPH

The Hjulstrom Graph shows you the relationship between velocity and particle
size.

1. Competence:
Maximum size of material which a river is capable of transporting.

2. Capacity:
The total load actually transported.

3. Mean or Critical Erosion Velocity Curve:

It gives the approximate velocity needed to pick up and transport in suspension.

4. Mean Fall or Settling Velocity:

The velocity at which particles of a given size becomes too heavy to be deposited
and so will fall out of suspension and be deposited.
FLUVIAL LANDFORMS
COASTS

What Is the Coast/Coastline?

A line that forms a boundary between the land or the ocean or a lake.
OR
A coast is part of the land adjoining or near the sea.
OR
The coast is the point where the sea meets the land and they overlap and
interact.

WAVES:
Waves are undulations in the surface of the water.
They are usually formed by the disturbance of the surface by the wind.

Exceptions:
- Tsunamis
- The result of earthquakes or volcanic activity

Difference between Sea Waves and Swells:

Waves that result from local winds and travel only short distances are known as
sea.
Waves formed by distant storms and travelling large distances are referred to as
swell.
Structure of the Wave:
- The highest point of a wave is called the crest.
- The lowest point of a wave is called a trough.
- The distance from one wave crests to the successive wave crest is called
the wave length.
- The perpendicular distance from two successive wave crests and the trough
between them is called the wave height.
- Fetch:
The stretch of open water over which the wind blows constantly is the fetch. A
long fetch creates high energy waves of great height. For example, in the
Caribbean, the Atlantic east coast of Caribbean islands, the fetch of the waves can
be as much as 3,000 kilometers while those on the Caribbean Sea have a fetch of
less than 1,000 kilometers.
The prevailing North-East Tradewinds and the tropical storms also approach from
the East, resulting in rough seas on the Caribbean East coast compared to the
calmer waters of the west coast.

- Wave period/Frequency is the time taken for successive waves to pass a

point.
Or
Time taken for a wave to travel through one wave length.

- Wave velocity is the speed of movement of a crest in a given period of time.

HEIGHT (H )
- Wave steepness: LENGTH ( L)

Ratio of the wave height to the wave length. This cannot exceed 1:7 because the
wave will break at this point.
Coastal Processes and Landforms:

1. Swell and Sea Waves

2. Breakers: spilling and plunging
3. Constructive and Destructive Waves

PG 144 WAUGH
FIG 6.7
WAVE FORMATION STRUCUTRE AND TYPE

- How waves are formed

- Structure of Waves:
Height (H)
Length (L)
Period/Frequency
Wave Velocity (C)
Wave Steepness (H/L cannot exceed 1:7 because the wave will break at this point)

Types of Waves:
There are 2 groups:
1. Waves of Oscillation
Waves of oscillation are those in which the water particles move in a circular
orbit. But without horizontal motion. These occur in deep water.

2. Waves of Translation
Waves of Translation have forward motion as in breakers on the shore.
 1. Swells
Swell are waves (usually with smooth tops) that have moved beyond the area
where they were generated

2. Sea Waves
They have the opposite characteristics of swells. They are waves travelling shorter
distances and having greater height. Sea waves are higher energy waves.

Breakers:
1. Spilling-
When waves approach shallow water (depths less than half the wave length)
friction on the sea bed slows the base of the wave until the wave crest moves
past the base and breaks on the shore. On gentle beaches waves may spill. When
the gradient of the sea shore is steep or there is a sudden change in depth, and
where there is little or an offshore wind, steep wave crest will plunge to shore.

2. Plunging-

Effect on The Coast:

These waves may be classified by their resultant effects on the coast.

1. Constructive Waves-
 This is a flat wave.
 They are created in calm weather and are less powerful than destructive
waves.
 They break on the shore and deposit material, building up beaches.
 They have a swash that is stronger than the backwash.
  They have a long wavelength, and are low in height.

2. Destructive Waves-
 Destructive waves are created in storm conditions.
 They are created from big, strong waves when the wind is powerful and has
been blowing for a long time.
 They occur when wave energy is high and the wave has travelled over a
long fetch.
 They tend to erode the coast.
 They have a stronger backwash than swash.
 They have a short wave length and are high and steep.
 This is a tall wave
 They approach the shore at a rate of 12 to 14 per min
TIDES

Tides are the coastal fluctuations in the level of the water. The coastline can be
set to be seawards and landwards twice daily, as high tide the greater portion of
land is under water than low tide where more land is exposed. So, the result is
that the area of actual land and sea contact and wave action varies twice daily
about 12 hours and 25 mins apart.
These changes are caused by gravitational effect of the moon and sun on the
surface of the water.

Tidal Range:
This is the difference height between the high tide and low tide.

Mean Sea Level:

The average level between high and low tides.

Spring Tides:
- Very high tides
- Occurs where there is a full moon and new moon

Neap Tides:
- Lower Tides
 - Occurs during the quarter moons
In the Caribbean, the tidal range is relatively small. Unusual conditions can push
the water out a level below that of low tide. For example, during a Tsunami. Or
above high tide during storm surges or during a tsunami.

FLOWS:

Seawater is always in motion. Movement may occur on the surface within the
body of water and along the sea floor.
Flows are currents and they include:
- Wave Refraction
- Longshore Drift Currents

Which are important processes in beach transportation. They are affected by tidal
fluctuations and are an important mechanism by which seawater fashions and
shapes the coastline.

CURRENTS:

Currents are horizontal flows of water at or below the surface of the water.
Existing at different scales. Small regular currents close to the shore recreate
small ripples on sandy sea floor.
A strong backwash may occasionally create and undertow current moving away
from the beach. On a local scale irregular offshore profiles may result in small
currents such as rip currents.
WAVE REFRACTION

Wave refraction refers to the bending or changes in the direction of waves along
irregular shaped coastlines. The waves bend under the influence of the shape of
the coastline and in so doing tends to be parallel to the coastline.
Wave crest quickly in deeper water as waves approach headlands projecting into
the sea. In bays the waves in the shallow experience friction with the sea bed
which forces the waves to bend around deeper water towards the headlands.
Wave energy is therefore concentrated at the headlands and dispersed in the
bays. This results in material eroded at the headlands eventually being
transported by longshore currents towards the bays where deposition takes
place.

Pg. 143 fig 6.5 shows wave refraction at a headland.

EROSION OF THE COASTLINE

Erosional processes found along the coast:

- Hydraulic action/ Quarrying:
This is the process by which rock particles are loosened and separated from
the main mass by air compressed into cracks and crevices by the force of the
water.
- Abrasion/Corrasion:
This is the mechanical or physical action of waves carrying sand and rock
fragments, which are hurled against the base of cliffs.
- Attrition:
This is the process by which rock fragments along the coast are broken up by
impact with each other.
- Solution
- Wave Pounding:
Steep waves have considerable energy. When they break as they hit the foot of
cliffs or sea walls, they may generate shockwaves of up 30 tons per m2.

NOTE: Sometimes in corrosion and solution, evaporation of salts to produce

crystals which expand as they form and cause the rock to disintegrate. Salt from
sea water or spray is capable of corroding several rock types.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF EROSION:

1. Breaking Point of the Wave:

A wave that breaks as it hits the foot of a cliff releases most energy and causes
maximum erosion. If the wave hits the cliff before it breaks, then much less
energy is transmitted, whereas a wave breaking further offshore will have had its
energy dissipated as it travelled across the beach.

2. Wave Steepness:
Highest energy waves, associated with longer fetch distances, have a high, steep
appearance. They have greater erosive power than low-energy waves, which are
generated where the fetch is shorter and have a lower and flatter form.

3. Depth of the Sea, Length and Direction of Fetch, Configuration of Coastline:

A steeply shelving beach creates higher and steeper waves than one with a
gentler gradient. The longer the fetch, the greater the time available for waves to
collect energy from the wind. The existence of headlands with vertical cliffs tends
to concentrate energy by wave refraction.

4. Supply of Beach Material:

Beaches, by absorbing wave energy, provide a major protection against coastal
erosion.

5. Beach Morphology:

6. Rock Resistance, Structure and Dip:

 7. Human Activity:
This plays a part in which the rate of erosion takes place.
Examples are: Sand quarrying,
TRANSPORT PROCESSES OF WAVES
Pg. 153

Longshore drift:
Draw fig something.22 in text and get note

Coastal Deposition:
Deposition occurs when wave energy is low and waves can no longer carry the
materials being transported.
They are also present when the wave backwash is weak, allowing materials
carried by the swash to accumulate on the shore.
The presence of large rivers along the coast can accelerate wave deposition as
they empty their heavy loads of alluvium into the sea.
LANDFORMS DUE TO COASTAL EROSION:

- Headlands (hard rock and erosion doesn’t take place)

- Bays (rocks is soft and erosion takes place)
- Cliffs
- Wave cut platforms
- Arches
- Caves
- Blowholes
- Stacks
- Sea Cliffs

Look at PG. 151 for more info

Manzanilla Point
Manzanilla Bay
Guacos Point
LANDFORMS DUE TO DEPOSITION
GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND COASTLINES
The types and structures of rocks play an important part in the shapes of coastal
landforms. Harder, more resistant igneous and metamorphic rocks tend to be
eroded more slowly than softer sedimentary rocks and therefore protrude into
the sea, forming headlands and cliffs while softer rocks form bays.

The term structure refers to whether the rocks have joints and faults and to the
thickness and dip (slope) of the various rock layers. Homogenous rocks may have
zones of weakness such as joints and faults that allow waves to erode at an
accelerated rate, creating sea inlets and bays.

Where rock layers dip towards the sea, rock fragments can easily become
dislodged and then slide downwards along bedding planes under the influence of
gravity. As a result, such slopes are less steep, when compared to slopes with rock
layers that dip landwards. Rocks with thick beds are more resistant than thinly
bedded rocks of the same type.

Where coastal rocks are made of soluble carbonates, they dissolve quite easily in
water and coastal landforms develop over a short geological time frame. Clays
and mudstone are susceptible to slumping and the eroded materials are
transported at a rapid rate where sea currents are strong.

Volcanicity also contributes to coastal landforms. Volcanic flows carry large

quantities of material over great distances where the material may be deposited
along coastlines. The material often protrudes to form headlands perpendicular
to the coastline. Discordant coastlines can be seen along the southeast coast of
Grenada, where volcanic cones along the coast have been affected by a lateral
blast. Sea water may enter the caldera and form large circular bays.
HUMAN FACTORS AFFECTING THE COAST
INFLUENCES OF SEA LEVEL ON COAST

There are 2 types of sea level change:

- Isostatic:
Isostatic changes are localized. It refers to a relative change in sea level caused by
the loading and unloading of ice. Therefore changes in the level of the land itself.

- Eustatic:
Eustatic changes are global and there are several causes.