Summary

6. DC MACHINE .......................................................................................................................... 2
6.1 STRUCTURE ................................................................................................................................. 2
6.2 STEADY STATE MODEL AND BASIC EQUATIONS .......................................................................... 7
6.3 NO LOAD OPERATION .................................................................................................................. 8
6.4 FIELD-CIRCUIT CONNECTIONS OF A DC MACHINE .................................................................... 11
6.5 DC GENERATOR ........................................................................................................................ 12
6.5.1 Separately-excited ................................................................................................................ 13
6.5.2 Series connection .................................................................................................................. 14
6.5.3 Shunt connection................................................................................................................... 15
6.5.4 Compound connection .......................................................................................................... 18
6.5.5 Comparison .......................................................................................................................... 19
6.6 DC MOTOR ................................................................................................................................ 19
6.6.1 Separately excited ................................................................................................................. 19
6.6.2 Series connection .................................................................................................................. 22
6.7 PM DC MACHINE ...................................................................................................................... 24
6.8 SERIES UNIVERSAL MACHINE ................................................................................................... 25
6. DC Machine

6.1 Structure
Yoke (giogo)
ia
Brush (spazzola) va
ie
ve
Pole

Figure 6-1. Two poles, separately excited, DC machine cross-section

Structurally, a d.c. machine consists of:

 an external stator with salient poles which acts as an inducer
 an internal rotor which acts as an armature.
Around the polar body, it will have a coil into which a current is flowing; it is made by turns
connected in series, forming the excitation or "main" field winding.
ia
N S va
S N

N S
S N
ia/2 ia/2

S N
N S

S N
N S

Figure 6-2. Two poles PM DC machine cross-section

 Figure 6-3. Four poles, separately excited, DC machine cross-section
The armature (armatura) consists of a cylinder made of laminated ferromagnetic material with
distributed slots on the periphery. In these slots a closed coil is wound. On the rotor another device
is also mounted; it is called "commutator" (commutatore a lamelle).

brush ia
va
Armature
ia/2 ia /2
coils

ia/2 ia /2

i a/2 ia /2
ia/2 ia /2
copper
segment (lamella)

Figure 6-4. Commutator with 8 copper segments and 2 brushes

To understand the operation of the machine it should initially refer to a simplified armature winding
made by a single turn rotating on itself, surrounded by a uniform magnetic field.

m
B
α
A

e(t)

Figure 6-5. single turn armature winding

If we assume that the plane of the coil forms, at any given time, an angle α with the direction of the
vector B (flux density), we have that the magnetic flux linked with the coil is (A refers to the surface
of the coil itself):
  B  A  sin 
If we now assume that the coil rotates with constant speed Ωm, we have that, at its terminals, an
induced electromotive force (forza elettromotrice) is measurable; its value is equal to:
d d
e(t )   ( B  A  sin( m t ))   m  B  A  cos( m t )
dt dt
where α is replaced with Ωmt, being the angular speed constant.

e(t)

Figure 6-6. electromotive force waveform

If now we suppose to replace the terminals with two semi-rings and to include two electrical
contacts (brushes) properly fixed in space, it is easy to see that the two contacts collect a rectified
electromotive force consisting of two half sine wave.

m
B

e(t)

Figure 6-7. Semi-rings and brushes

 e(t)

Figure 6-8. electromotive force waveform (two semi-rings and two brushes)
By inserting an increasing number of turns, you get a rectification effect, more and more effective
so to reach a nearly constant value. At the same time the ring, consisting simply of two semi-rings,
has to be made, as the turns increase, by thicker and thicker segments. Their task is to give the
proper voltage of the coil on the electrical contacts (brushes). The set of segments that provides the
electromotive force to the brushes is the so-called commutator.

e(t) 4 turns

2 turns

1 turn

Figure 6-9. electromotive force waveform with two brushes and a commutator with: two semi-rings
(1 turn), 4 segments (2 turns), 8 segments (4 turns)
To summarize: the principle of operation of the machine is based on the following points:
 there is a winding (excitation), realized on the stator, that generates a constant excitation
magnetic field
 there is, also, a winding mounted on the rotor (armature), connected to a device with some
segments, called commutator, which, through the brushes mounted on the inter-polar axis,
realizes the rectification of ac electromotive forces into a rather constant voltage (dc voltage),
proportional to the mechanical speed and to the flux ψae, in some way linked with the armature
winding, but supported by the only excitation current ie.
Another way to find the expression of the total electromotive force may be the following one.
 v
ie
ve
α B
-π/2<α< π/2

B v

B
ie
ve v
α< -π/2 α>π/2
B v

Figure 6-10. Two poles, separately excited, DC machine cross-section

Consider the angle α equal to zero when the winding is horizontal. Due to the high value of the
permeability of the ferromagnetic material respect to the air, the flux density is orthogonal to the
surface of the rotor. In this condition, in the upper right side of the winding (L is its length) an
electromotive force is induced, in the direction which goes outside the plane. In the lower left side
of the winding the electromotive force goes inside the plane. In the winding, the total electromotive
force is the sum of the two contributes. This is true when the angle α is between -π/2 and π/2. For α
higher than π/2 or lower than -π/2, the electromotive forces change their sign. The linear speed v
may be considered constant while the flux density B is constant along the airgap (constant) and
lower outside.

B(α)

Figure 6-11: Flux density along the airgap due to the excitation current only
Constant linear speed means constant angular speed (v=ω r) and α=ω t.

E(t)
BvL=BωmrL=ψωm
t

Figure 6-12: Electromotive force along the airgap due to the excitation current only
By means of the semi-rings, it is possible to rectify the electromotive force. The following steps are
similar to the previous one.

6.2 Steady state model and basic equations

At steady state and with constant voltages, at its terminals the machine looks like an electromotive
force which is connected in series with a resistance that takes into account the power losses, by
Joule effect, in the armature conductors.
ia ie
va Ra Re
ve

Figure 6-13. Steady state equivalent circuit of a DC machine

The armature and excitation steady state equivalent circuits are shown in Figure 6-13. The steady
state equations are:
va  Ra  ia  E
ve  Re  ie
with the following flux/current relationship:
 a  La  ia
 e  f ( ie )  Le ( ie )  ie
 ae  g( ie )  Lae ( ie )  ie

The electromotive force E, as established above, is proportional to the flux ψae linked with the
armature windings, function of the excitation current ie, and to the rotation speed m of the
machine:
E  k e  ae   m
The torque expression may be obtained by an energy balance, at steady state. As regards to the
excitation circuit, you get:
 2
ve  ie  Re  ie
The term on the left is the electric power entering the system through the excitation terminals; at
steady state and with constant voltages, it is constant. The term on the right is equal to the Joule
losses.
As regards to the armature circuit, it is:
2
va  ia  Ra  ia  E  ia
The term on the left is the electric power entering the system through the armature terminals; at
steady state and with constant voltages, it is constant. The first term on the right is equal to the Joule
losses (in the armature resistance), while the second one represents the power transmitted between
stator and rotor.
Pe  E  ia  k e  ae   m  i a
Thanks to the principle of energy conservation and neglecting any friction, it can be said that the
transmitted electrical power coincides with the mechanical power and then you get:
Pm  Te   m  Pe  ke  ae   m  ia
The torque is:
Te  ke  ae  ia

6.3 No load operation

Without any connection (open circuits, i.e. no electrical load), the voltage E (back electromotive
force: bemf), measured at the armature terminals of a separately excited dc machine, has a non-
linear dependency on the excitation current ie.

E
saturation

ie

Figure 6-14: Electromotive force versus excitation current

This is due to the non-linear behaviour of the flux, given by the excitation current, and flowing
through a very low airgap.
 Ferromagnetic material
airgap (traferro) Copper

ie
ve

(MICAFIL INC.)

Figure 6-15: Flux lines due to the excitation current

ψae knee (ginocchio)

ψaen saturation

ien ie

Figure 6-16: Magnetization curve

As discussed in the previous paragraph, the electromotive force E is proportional to the flux linkage
ψae and the mechanical speed Ωm: E  k e  ae   m .
Another problem may arise. It is due to the armature reaction. The armature current produces a
magnetic flux: some of its lines (red ones) flow through the airgap and the excitation pole.
 ia
va

Figure 6-17:
Suppose to cut and stretch the machine (linearization).
The magnetomotive force (mmfa) due to the armature current has a triangular shape (distributed
windings along the airgap). The flux density is different due to the variable airgap

Stator

θm

Rotor
mmfa(θm)

Ba(θm) θm

Figure 6-18: Flux lines and Flux density along the airgap due to the armature current only
The magnetomotive force (mmfe) due to the excitation current has a square wave shape
(concentrated winding). The flux density is constant under the stator pole (constant airgap); outside
the pole, it decreases.
 Stator

θm

Be(θm) Rotor

θm

Figure 6-19: Flux lines and Flux density along the airgap due to the excitation current only
Therefore, along the air-gap, the flux density is given by the superposition of the effect of the
excitation current and the armature one.

Saturation problem
Btot(θm)

-π/2
3/2π
0 π/2 π θm

Commutation problem

Figure 6-20: Flux density along the air-gap due to both armature and excitation currents
Two problems may arise: the saturation of a portion of the stator pole reduces the excitation
magnetic flux given the same excitation current; secondly, a flux density different from zero in the
position of the brushes (commutation) may produce sparks and flashes.

6.4 Field-circuit connections of a DC machine

As regards the connection between the armature and excitation windings, you may have different
types of machines: separately-excited (or with separate excitation), series, shunt, compound (see
Figure 6-21).
 (a) Armature ia Armature ia (b)
ve ie
Field va va

Field
ve
ie
Armature
ia Armature ia
ve se ie se
Field rheostat va
Field rheostat va
ie Series Field
Field ve ie sh
ve sh
(c) Shunt Field
(d)

Figure 6-21: Field-circuit connections: (a) separately-excited, (b) series, (c) shunt, (d) compound
In a separately excited dc machine, the armature is fed by a different supply system from that of the
excitation winding.
In a series excitation dc machine, the armature winding is in series with the excitation winding (that
is ia=ie).
In a shunt connection dc machine, the armature winding is in parallel to the excitation winding (that
is va=ve).
The compound dc machine is a combination of a series and shunt connection.
The above-mentioned types of machine may operate both as generator and as a motor.

6.5 DC Generator
Suppose to consider a DC generator (the versus of the armature current changes). The steady-state
equivalent circuit of the armature winding is made by a DC ideal generator E (emf), in series with a
resistance (Ra, the resistance of the armature winding).
ia
ie
Ra va Re
ve

Figure 6-22: Steady-state equivalent circuit of the armature and field windings for a DC generator
The steady-state equations (generator) are:
va  E  Ra  ia
ve  Re  ie
The electromotive force E, as established above, is proportional to the flux ψae linked with the
armature winding, function of the excitation current ie, and to the rotation speed m of the machine:
E  k e  ae (ie )   m

6.5.1 Separately-excited
Consider a condition with constant excitation current ie and constant speed m. It means that E is
constant.
ia
(a) Armature ia=iout Re
Ra va
Field va=vout

ve ie E
ve
ie

Figure 6-23: Separately-excited DC generator

The relationship between the armature voltage va and the armature current ia is ideally linear:
va  E  Ra  ia . The same for the external characteristic: vout  E  Ra  iout The intersection of the
characteristic with the horizontal axis is called "short-circuit current" iout_sc. Usually, the voltage
drop on the armature resistance due the rated current is some percent of the rated voltage (2%-
10%). Therefore, the short-circuit current iout_sc is ten-fifty times the rated current ian.

vout
E
Raiout

iout_sc
Armature
reaction
(saturation)

iout

Figure 6-24: external (Volt-ampere) characteristic of a separately-excited generator

For high values of the armature current, however, the armature reaction saturates the excitation
pole. In this condition (saturation), with the same value of the excitation current, the magnetic flux
due to this current is lower than that of a non-saturated condition. So, the electromotive force E is
lower than before and consequently, the output voltage. The characteristics moves up with speed
or/and excitation current increasing (the excitation current is limited by saturation problem).
6.5.2 Series connection
Consider the operation with constant speed m.
ia iout
va Re
Armature ia iout ie vout
Ra
ve i e
vout
va
ve
Field
E

Figure 6-25: Series connection DC generator

The excitation current ie is equal to the armature current ia (due to the series connection).
If you suppose a linear relationship between the magnetic flux and the excitation current (ψae=Lae ie
when ie<ien), the expression of E becomes:
E  k e  Lae  ie   m  k e  Lae  ia   m  K 2  ia   m
but
va  E  Ra  ia
so
va  K2  ia  m  Ra  ia  ( K 2  m  Ra )  ia
The output voltage is vout  va  ve  ( K 2  m  Ra )  ia  Re  ie  ( K 2  m  Ra  Re )  iout .
The relationship between the output voltage vout and the output current iout is linear, starting from
zero (the slope depends on the mechanical speed m).

vout

Excitation
Saturation and
Armature reaction

tg(α)=f(Ωm)
α
iout

Figure 6-26: external characteristic of a series dc generator

With the increase of the excitation current, the ferromagnetic material goes towards the saturation
condition. The magnetic flux may be considered constant and equal to ψae_sat.
Now
 E  ke  ae _ sat  m  K 3  m
and
va  K 3   m  Ra  ia
The output voltage is vout  va  ve  K3  m  Ra  ia  Re  ie  K3  m  ( Ra  Re )  iout .
which represents a characteristic similar to the separately-excited one.

6.5.3 Shunt connection

Consider a condition with constant speed m and no-load (iout=0)
The equivalent circuit is shown in the Figure 6-27
iout=0
Armature iout Rext ia
Ra va=vout
ia
vout
Field rheostat va Re
ve
ie E
ve ie
Field

Figure 6-27: equivalent circuit of a shunt DC generator with no-load

Consider Rext=0.
Due to the series connection between Ra and Re, it is:
E
ia 
Ra  Re
but
E  k e  ae (ie )   m
where the relationship between flux and excitation current is non-linear.
If there is a residual flux density (the characteristic of E does not start from 0 with a mechanical
speed different from zero and an initial current equal to 0), there is a point (operation point) in
which the Volt-ampere characteristic of the armature (va=E-Raia) matches the Volt-ampere
characteristic of the excitation resistance Re. This is true for the non-linear waveform of E
(otherwise, no matching point could exist).
 v

vout no-load v=E-Rai

v=Rei iout=0
va=ve=vout
ia=ie=i

ia no-load ia =ie

Figure 6-28: matching between the Volt-ampere characteristics of the armature and excitation
windings
You may change the output voltage by means of a variable resistance (Field Rheostat in Figure
6-21) put in series to the excitation resistance.

v
v=(Re+Rext)i v=Rei
vout no-load

v=E-Rai
iout=0
v=Rei
va=ve=vout
ia=ie=i

ia no-load ia =ie

Figure 6-29: change of the operation point by means of an external resistance in series with the
excitation winding
Consider, now, a load connected to the machine (represented by an ideal current generator Iload)
(Retot=Re+Rext).
iout
ie ia
Ra va=vout
Iload
Retot

Figure 6-30: equivalent circuit of a shunt dc machine connected to a load

The output voltage is the voltage on the three branches of the circuit (Gx are the
conductances=1/Rx):
 E  Ga  I load
vout 
Ga  Getot
As the machine is working in saturation condition, consider the following approximation (see
Figure 6-31):
E  E o  K  ie

E
E=Knosatie
E=Eo+Kie
Eo
Kie

ie

Figure 6-31: simplified external characteristic of the armature winding

So
( Eo  Kie )  Ga  I load
vout 
Ga  Getot
but
ie  vout  Getot
and
( Eo  Kvout  Getot )  Ga  I load
vout 
Ga  Getot
and (collecting vout)
Eo  Ga  I load
vout 
Ga  Getot  KGetot Ga
In the real condition, with the increasing of the output current, the output voltage decreases, with
the excitation current, going outside the saturation (in the linear part).
The output voltage decreases more than in the saturation condition.
 vout
vout no-load

iout

Figure 6-32: external characteristic of a shunt dc machine

6.5.4 Compound connection

A dc generator with a compound connection has an external characteristic given by the combination
of the two previous types of machine (series and shunt).

vout

vout no-load

iout

Figure 6-33: external characteristic of a compound dc machine

6.5.5 Comparison

vout separately excited

shunt
vn
compound

series

in iout

Figure 6-34: Volt-ampere (external) characteristics of dc generators (in and vn are the rated value of
the output current and voltage)

6.6 DC Motor
Suppose to consider a DC motor. The steady-state equivalent circuit of the armature winding is
made by a DC ideal generator E (emf) in series with a resistance (Ra, the resistance of the armature
winding).
ia
ie
Ra va Re
ve

Figure 6-35: Steady-state equivalent circuit of the armature and field windings for a DC motor
The steady-state equations (motor operation) are:
va  E  Ra  ia
ve  Re  ie

The electromotive force E is the same as the previous of a DC generator:

E  k e  ae (ie )   m

The expression of the electromagnetic torque Te is:

Te  k e  ae (ie )  ia

6.6.1 Separately excited

The armature current is given by:
 va  E
ia 
Ra
but
E  k e  ae (ie )   m
so
v a  k e  ae (ie )   m
ia 
Ra
and the torque
v a  k e  ae (ie )   m
Te  k e  ae (ie )  ia  k e  ae (ie )
Ra
Consider a condition with constant excitation current ie and constant speed Ωm.
The relationship between the electromagnetic torque Te and the mechanical speed Ωm is linear.

Te
Te_st
Torque/speed characteristic
of the DC machine

Torque/speed
characteristic of the
mechanical load

operation point

Ωo Ωm

Figure 6-36: Torque-speed characteristic (caratteristica meccanica) of a separately excited DC machine

The torque at zero speed is called Starting Torque or Locked Rotor Torque Te_st:
va
Te _ st  k e  ae (ie )
Ra
Usually its value is very high due to the low value of the armature resistance. It is proportional both
to the armature voltage and to the flux linkage ψae (function of the excitation current ie).
The speed at zero torque (no mechanical load) is called No-Load speed Ωo:
va
o 
k e  ae (ie )
It is proportional to the armature voltage and inverse proportional to the field flux ψae (function of
the excitation current ie).
The intersection between the Torque/speed characteristic of the machine and of the mechanical load
defines the operation point (in the figure the mechanical load is represented by a fan).
The most common used strategy is to maintain constant the excitation current (in order to make a
good use of the ferromagnetic materials) and to control the torque by means of the armature current
(and consequently of the armature voltage), until the maximum armature voltage is reached.

Te

Te max

va1 va2 va3 va4 va5

va max
increasing va

Ωm max Ωm

Figure 6-37: Torque-speed characteristic when armature voltage increases

Given a value of the excitation current, the torque is proportional to the armature current, limited by
thermal problem. So the torque is limited too.
In order to go over the maximum speed reached in this condition (also called base speed Ωb), you
may decrease the field flux ψae. The starting torque deceases, but the no-load speed increases.

Te va=va_max

ψae decreasing

ψae1
ψae n ψae3 ψae2
ψae5 ψae4
Ωb Ωm

Figure 6-38: Torque-speed characteristic when flux decreases

This mode of operation is called "field weakening".
Another way to control the torque is to add an external resistance in series to the armature winding
(like in old fashion tram/train application).
Consider a constant armature voltage and a constant excitation current.
 Rext
ia
ie
Ra va Re
ve

Figure 6-39: Equivalent circuit with an external resistance in series with the armature winding
va
Te _ st  k e  ae (ie )
Ra  Rext
Supposing you have a finite number of steps, you can start with a high value of resistance (limited
starting torque and limited armature current, same no-load speed) and, during the acceleration, you
can decrease the resistance towards the zero value. The no-load speed does not change but the
armature current (and the electromagnetic torque is limited). This strategy was used before the
advent of static power converter and its drawback is mainly the presence of losses in the external
resistance.

Te Rext1> Rext2> Rext3> Rext4=0

Te_st2

Rext2 Rext3
Te_st1
Rext=0

Rext1

Ωo Ωm

6.6.2 Series connection

Suppose to approximate the non-linear relationship, between flux linkage ψae and excitation current
ie, to a piecewise linear waveform
 ψae approximate curve
ψae_sat

real curve

ie* ie

Figure 6-40: Approximate relationship between flux linkage and excitation current
At high current (excitation and armature currents are equal each other), the operation point is into
the saturation condition (constant flux linkage), for low current into the non-saturated one (flux
linkage is proportional to the excitation current: ψae=Lae ie).
So, for current (i=ia=ie) less or equal to ie*:
E  ke  ae (ie )  m  ke  Lae  ie  m  ke  Lae  ia  m  K2  ia  m
va  E  Ra  ia  K 2  ia  m  Ra  ia
va
ia 
K 2   m  Ra
This means that high speed corresponds to low current (the speed is at the denominator).
The speed at the knee (ia=ie*) may be called m*
*
* v  Raie
m  a *
K 2ie
Again (for low current)
2
2 2  va 
Te  ke  ae (ie )  ia  ke  Lae  ia  K 2  ia  K 2   
 K 2   m  Ra 
The torque decreases with the mechanical speed as 1/m2
On the other hand, for high current (and, consequently, low speed):
va  K3  m
Te  ke  ae (ie )  ia  ke  ae _ sat  ia  K3  ia  K3 
Ra
in a similar way to the separately excited machine (the torque depends linearly on the mechanical
speed)
 Te
Te_st

i>ie* i<ie*

Ωm* Ωm

Figure 6-41: Torque-speed characteristic of a series DC machine

6.7 PM DC machine
Main feature of this machine is the presence of permanent magnets on the stator that creates a
constant flux density B and, accordingly, a constant excitation flux and a constant flux linked with
the armature windings (Ψapm instead of ψae). The mechanical torque is thus a function of the only
armature current. You can write:
Te  k e  apm  ia  K ePM  ia
Similarly, the electromotive force is a function of speed only:
E  k e  apm   m  K ePM   m
From these equations, we can easily obtain the torque versus mechanical speed characteristics (in
steady state condition) for this type of machine.
Starting from the electrical relationship:
v a  E  Ra  i a
va  E
ia 
Ra
we have:
va  E v  K ePM  m
Te  K ePM   K ePM  a
Ra Ra
This equation shows that the relationship between torque and speed is linear (with a constant value
of the armature voltage), so you can get a family of curves, of equal slope, as a function of the
supply voltage va. The slope of these curves, because of the typical values of the variables involved
(the value of the armature resistance Ra is usually low), is very high.
 Te

Te max

va1 va2 va3 va4 va5

va max
increasing va

Ωm max Ωm

Figure 6-42: Torque/speed characteristics as a function of the armature voltage for a PM DC

machine
In the case of a permanent magnet machine, then, the maximum speed corresponds to the no load
speed (zero load torque), obtained at the maximum value of the supply voltage. There is no way to
decrease the flux linkage.

6.8 Series Universal Machine

The series DC machine may be fed by an AC supply system. This machine is called "Universal
machine" and is often used for appliances applications (vacuum cleaner, washing machine,...). In an
AC supply system, the voltage is sinusoidal. At steady state, the currents are sinusoidal. A series
connection assures that the excitation current is equal to the armature current. Suppose a current
i=Imsin(ωt+φ). The flux linkage ψae will be sinusoidal, as well.
Te  k e  ae (ie )  ia  k e  mae sin(t   ) I m sin(t   )  k e  mae I m sin(t   ) 2 
1  cos(2t  2 ) k e  mae I m k e  mae I m cos(2t  2 )
 k e  mae I m  
2 2 2
Therefore, the electromagnetic torque is sinusoidal but with an average value different from zero,
which is able to start the machine and maintain it in rotation.