Adultery

Adultery (from Latin adulterium) is

extramarital sex that is considered
objectionable on social, religious, moral,
or
legal grounds. Though what sexual
activities constitute adultery varies, as well
as the social, religious, and legal
consequences, the concept exists in many
cultures and is similar in Christianity,
Islam, and Judaism.[1] A single act of
sexual intercourse is generally sufficient
to constitute adultery, and a more longterm
sexual relationship is sometimes
referred to as an affair.
Historically, many cultures have
considered adultery to be a very serious
crime. Adultery often incurred severe
punishment, usually for the woman and
sometimes for the man, with penalties
including capital punishment, mutilation,
or torture.[2] Such punishments have
gradually fallen into disfavor, especially in
Western countries from the 19th century.
In most Western countries, adultery itself
is no longer a criminal offense, but may
still have legal consequences, particularly
in divorce cases. For example, in
faultbased
family law jurisdictions, adultery
almost always constitutes a ground for
divorce and may be a factor in property
settlement, the custody of children, the
denial of alimony, etc. Adultery is not a
ground for divorce in jurisdictions which
have adopted a no-fault divorce model. In
some societies and among certain
religious adherents, adultery may affect
the social status of those involved, and
may result in social ostracism.
In countries where adultery is a criminal
offense, punishments range from fines to
caning[3] and even capital punishment.
Since the 20th century, criminal laws
against adultery have become
controversial, with international
organizations calling for their abolition,
especially in the light of several
highprofile
stoning cases that have occurred in
some countries. The head of the United
Nations expert body charged with
identifying ways to eliminate laws that
discriminate against women or are
discriminatory to them in terms of
implementation or impact, Kamala
Chandrakirana, has stated that: "Adultery
must not be classified as a criminal
offence at all".[4] A joint statement by the
United Nations Working Group on
discrimination against women in law and
in practice states that: "Adultery as a
criminal offence violates women’s human
rights".[5]
In Muslim countries that follow Sharia law
for criminal justice, the punishment for
adultery may be stoning.[6] There are
fifteen[7] countries in which stoning is
authorized as lawful punishment, though
in recent times it has been legally carried
out only in Iran and Somalia.[8] Most
countries that criminalize adultery are
those where the dominant religion is
Islam, and several Sub-Saharan African
Christian-majority countries, but there are
some notable exceptions to this rule,
namely Philippines, Taiwan, and several
U.S. states. In some jurisdictions, having
sexual relations with the king's wife or the
wife of his eldest son constitutes
treason.[9] By analogy, in cultures which
value and normally practice exclusive
interpersonal relationships, sexual
relations with a person outside the
relationship may also be described as
infidelity or cheating, and is subject to
sanction.
Overview
The term adultery refers to sexual acts
between a married person and someone
who is not that person's spouse.[10][11][12] It
may arise in criminal law or in family law.
Public punishment of adulterers in Venice, 17th
century
Susannah accused of adultery, by Antoine
Coypel
For instance, in the United Kingdom,
adultery is not a criminal offense, but is a
ground for divorce,[13] with the legal
definition of adultery being "physical
contact with an alien and unlawful
organ".[14] Extramarital sexual acts not
fitting this definition are not "adultery"
though they may constitute "unreasonable
behavior", also a ground of divorce.
The application of the term to the act
appears to arise from the idea that
"criminal intercourse with a married
woman ... tended to adulterate the issue
[children] of an innocent husband ... and to
expose him to support and provide for
another man's [children]".[15] Thus, the
"purity" of the children of a marriage is
corrupted, and the inheritance is altered.
Some adultery laws differentiate based on
the sex of the participants, and as a result
such laws are often seen as
discriminatory, and in some jurisdictions
they have been struck down by courts,
usually on the basis that they
discriminated against women.[16][17]
The term adultery, rather than
extramarital
sex, implies a moral condemnation of the
act; as such it is usually not a neutral term
because it carries an implied judgment
that the act is wrong.[18]
Adultery refers to sexual relations which
are not officially legitimized; for example
it
does not refer to having sexual intercourse
with multiple partners in the case of
polygamy (when a man is married to more
than one wife at a time, called polygyny;
or
when a woman is married to more than
one husband at a time, called polyandry).
Definitions and legal
constructs
In the traditional English common law,
Anne Boleyn was found guilty of adultery and
treason
and executed in 1536. There is controversy
among
historians as to whether she had actually
committed
adultery.[19]
Le supplice des adultères, by Jules Arsène
Garnier,
showing two adulterers being punished
adultery was a felony. Although the legal
definition of adultery differs in nearly
every
legal system, the common theme is sexual
relations outside of marriage, in one form
or another.
Traditionally, many cultures, particularly
Latin American ones, had strong double
standards regarding male and female
adultery, with the latter being seen as a
much more serious violation.[20][21][22][23]
Adultery involving a married woman and a
man other than her husband was
considered a very serious crime. In 1707,
English Lord Chief Justice John Holt
stated that a man having sexual relations
with another man's wife was "the highest
invasion of property" and claimed, in
regard to the aggrieved husband, that "a
man cannot receive a higher provocation"
(in a case of murder or manslaughter).[24]
The Encyclopedia of Diderot &
d'Alembert,
Vol. 1 (1751), also equated adultery to
theft writing that, "adultery is, after
homicide, the most punishable of all
crimes, because it is the most cruel of all
thefts, and an outrage capable of inciting
murders and the most deplorable
excesses."[25]
Legal definitions of adultery vary. For
example, New York defines an adulterer as
a person who "engages in sexual
intercourse with another person at a time
when he has a living spouse, or the other
person has a living spouse."[26] North
Carolina defines adultery as occurring
when any man and woman "lewdly and
lasciviously associate, bed, and cohabit
together."[27] Minnesota law provides:
"when a married woman has sexual
intercourse with a man other than her
husband, whether married or not, both are
guilty of adultery."[28] In the 2003 New
Hampshire Supreme Court case
Blanchflower v. Blanchflower, it was held
that female same-sex sexual relations did
not constitute sexual intercourse, based
on a 1961 definition from Webster's
Third
New International Dictionary; and
thereby
an accused wife in a divorce case was
found not guilty of adultery. In 2001,
Virginia prosecuted an attorney, John R.
Bushey, for adultery, a case that ended in a
guilty plea and a $125 fine.[29][30] Adultery
is against the governing law of the U.S.
military.[31]
In common-law countries, adultery was
also known as criminal conversation.
This
became the name of the civil tort arising
from adultery, being based upon
compensation for the other spouse's
injury.[32] Criminal conversation was
usually referred to by lawyers as crim.
con., and was abolished in England in
1857, and the Republic of Ireland in 1976.
Another tort, alienation of affection, arises
when one spouse deserts the other for a
third person.[33] This act was also known
as desertion, which was often a crime as
well.[34] A small number of jurisdictions
still allow suits for criminal conversation
and/or alienation of affection.[35] In the
United States, six states still maintain this
tort.[36][37]
A marriage in which both spouses agree
ahead of time to accept sexual relations
by either partner with others is sometimes
referred to as an open marriage or the
swinging lifestyle. Polyamory, meaning
the
practice, desire, or acceptance of intimate
relationships that are not exclusive with
respect to other sexual or intimate
relationships, with knowledge and consent
of everyone involved, sometimes involves
such marriages. Swinging and open
marriages are both a form of
nonmonogamy,
and the spouses would not
view the sexual relations as objectionable.
However, irrespective of the stated views
of the partners, extra-marital relations
could still be considered a crime in some
legal jurisdictions which criminalize
adultery.
In Canada, though the written definition in
the Divorce Act refers to extramarital
relations with someone of the opposite
sex, a British Columbia judge used the
Civil
Marriage Act in a 2005 case to grant a
woman a divorce from her husband who
had cheated on her with another man,
which the judge felt was equal reasoning
to dissolve the union.
In the United Kingdom, case law restricts
the definition of adultery to penetrative
sexual intercourse between a man and a
woman, no matter the gender of the
spouses in the marriage, although
infidelity with a person of the same gender
can be grounds for a divorce as
unreasonable behavior; this situation was
discussed at length during debates on the
Marriage (Same-Sex Couples) Bill.[38]
In India, adultery is the sexual intercourse
of a man with a married woman without
the consent of her husband when such
sexual intercourse does not amount to
rape. It is a non-cognizable, non-bailable
criminal offence. A police officer cannot
arrest a person without a warrant in a case
of adultery as adultery is a non-cognizable
offence.[39]
Punishments for adultery vary from place
to place. Where adultery is illegal, the
punishment varies from fines (for example
in the US state of Rhode Island[40]) to
caning in parts of Asia.[41][42] There are
fifteen[43] countries in which stoning is
authorized as lawful punishment, although
in recent times it has been legally enforced
only in Iran and Somalia.[44] Most stoning
cases are the result of mob violence, and
while technically illegal, no action is
usually taken against perpetrators.
Punishment
Sometimes such stonings are ordered by
informal village leaders who have de
facto
power in the community.[45] Adultery may
have consequences under civil law even in
countries where it is not outlawed by the
criminal law. For instance it may
constitute fault in countries where the
divorce law is fault based or it may be a
ground for tort.
In some societies the law punishes the
"intruder", rather than the adulterous
spouse. For instance art 266 of the Penal
Code of South Sudan reads: "Whoever, has
consensual sexual intercourse with a man
or woman who is and whom he or she has
reason to believe to be the spouse of
another person, commits the offence of
adultery [...]".[46] Similarly, under the
adultery law in India (Section 497 of the
Indian Penal Code) it is a criminal offense
for a man to have consensual sexual
intercourse with a married woman, without
the consent of her husband (no party is
criminally punished in case of adultery
between a married man and an unmarried
woman).
Legal issues regarding
paternity
Historically, paternity of children born out
of adultery has been seen as a major
issue. Modern advances such as reliable
contraception and paternity testing have
changed the situation (in Western
countries). Most countries nevertheless
have a legal presumption that a woman's
husband is the father of her children who
Joan II of Navarre – her paternity and
succession
rights were disputed her whole life because her
mother Margaret of Burgundy was claimed to
have
committed adultery.
were born during that marriage. Although
this is often merely a rebuttable
presumption, many jurisdictions have laws
which restrict the possibility of legal
rebuttal (for instance by creating a legal
time limit during which paternity may be
challenged – such as a certain number of
years from the birth of the child).[47]
Establishing correct paternity may have
major legal implications, for instance in
regard to inheritance.
Children born out of adultery suffered,
until
recently, adverse legal and social
consequences. In France, for instance, a
law that stated that the inheritance rights
of a child born under such circumstances
were, on the part of the married parent,
half of what they would have been under
ordinary circumstances, remained in force
until 2001, when France was forced to
change it by a ruling of the European
Court
of Human Rights (ECtHR) (and in 2013,
the
ECtHR also ruled that the new 2001
regulations must be also applied to
children born before 2001).[48]
There has been, in recent years, a trend of
legally favoring the right to a relation
between the child and its biological father,
rather than preserving the appearances of
the 'social' family. In 2010, the ECtHR
ruled
in favor of a German man who had
fathered twins with a married woman,
granting him right of contact with the
twins, despite the fact that the mother and
her husband had forbidden him from
seeing the children.[49]
Durex's Global Sex Survey found that
worldwide 22% of people surveyed
admitted to have had extramarital
sex.[50][51]
In the United States Alfred Kinsey found
in
his studies that 50% of males and 26% of
females had extramarital sex at least once
Prevalence
during their lifetime.[52] Depending on
studies, it was estimated that 26–50% of
men and 21–38% of women,[53] or 22.7%
of men and 11.6% of women, had
extramarital sex.[54] Other authors say that
between 20% and 25% of Americans had
sex with someone other than their
spouse.[55]
Three 1990s studies in the United States,
using nationally representative samples,
have found that about 10–15% of women
and 20–25% of men admitted to having
engaged in extramarital sex.[54][56][57]
The Standard Cross-Cultural Sample
described the occurrence of extramarital
sex by gender in over 50 pre-industrial
cultures. The occurrence of extramarital
sex by men is described as "universal" in 6
cultures, "moderate" in 29 cultures,
"occasional" in 6 cultures, and
"uncommon" in 10 cultures. The
occurrence of extramarital sex by women
is described as "universal" in 6 cultures,
"moderate" in 23 cultures, "occasional" in
9
cultures, and "uncommon" in 15
cultures.[58][59]
Cultural and religious
traditions
Greco-Roman world
In the Greco-Roman world, there were
stringent laws against adultery, but these
applied to sexual intercourse with a
married woman. In the early Roman Law,
the jus tori belonged to the husband. It
was therefore not a crime against the wife
for a husband to have sex with a slave or
an unmarried woman.[60][61]
Man and woman undergoing public exposure for
adultery in Japan, around 1860
The Roman husband often took advantage
of his legal immunity. Thus we are told by
the historian Spartianus that Verus, the
imperial colleague of Marcus Aurelius, did
not hesitate to declare to his reproaching
wife: "Uxor enim dignitatis nomen est, non
voluptatis." ('Wife' connotes rank, not
sexual pleasure, or more literally "Wife
is
the name of dignity, not bliss") (Verus, V).
Later in Roman history, as William E.H.
Lecky has shown, the idea that the
husband owed a fidelity similar to that
demanded of the wife must have gained
ground, at least in theory. Lecky gathers
from the legal maxim of Ulpian: "It seems
most unfair for a man to require from a
wife the chastity he does not himself
practice".[62]
According to Plutarch, the lending of
wives
practiced among some people was also
encouraged by Lycurgus, though from a
motive other than that which actuated the
practice (Plutarch, Lycurgus, XXIX). The
recognized license of the Greek husband
may be seen in the following passage of
the pseudo-Demosthenic Oration Against
Neaera:
We keep mistresses for our pleasures,
concubines for constant attendance,
and
wives to bear us legitimate children
and
to be our faithful housekeepers. Yet,
because of the wrong done to the
husband only, the Athenian lawgiver
Solon allowed any man to kill an
adulterer whom he had taken in the
act.
(Plutarch, Solon)
The Roman Lex Julia, Lex Iulia de
Adulteriis Coercendis (17 BC), punished
adultery with banishment.[63] The two
guilty parties were sent to different islands
("dummodo in diversas insulas
relegentur"), and part of their property was
confiscated.[63] Fathers were permitted to
kill daughters and their partners in
adultery. Husbands could kill the partners
under certain circumstances and were
required to divorce adulterous wives.
Abrahamic religions
Christianity
'Thou shalt not commit adultery' (Nathan
confronts
David); bronze bas-relief on the door of the La
Madeleine, Paris, Paris.
The Hebrew Bible prohibits adultery in the
Seventh Commandment, "Thou shalt not
commit adultery." (Exodus 20:12 ).
Leviticus 20:10 prescribes capital
punishment for adultery between a man
and married woman:
And the man that committeth
adultery with another man's
wife, even he that committeth
adultery with his neighbour's
wife, the adulterer and the
adulteress shall surely be put to
death.
Significantly, the penalty does not extend
to sex by an unmarried woman and
irrespective of the marital status of the
man.
Furthermore, Deuteronomic code
prescribes stoning not only for female
extramarital sex, but also for female
premarital sex in the case where the
woman lies about her virginity:
If any man take a wife, and go in
unto her, … and say, / I took this
woman, and when I came to her,
It also prescribes the same for engaged
women who lie with another man, under
the premise that if she allows the action
without protesting, this indicates
I found her not a maid. / … But if
this thing be true, and the tokens
of virginity be not found for the
damsel: / Then they shall bring
out the damsel to the door of her
father's house, and the men of
her city shall stone her with
stones that she die. (Deut. 22:13-
21).
willingness.
Adultery is considered by Christians to be
If a damsel that is a virgin be
betrothed unto an husband, and
a man find her in the city, and lie
with her; / Then ye shall bring
them both out unto the gate of
that city, and ye shall stone them
with stones that they die; the
damsel, because she cried not,
being in the city. (Deut. 22:23-24).
immoral and a sin, based primarily on
passages like Exodus 20:14 and 1
Corinthians 6:9–10 . Although 1
Corinthians 6:11 does say that "and that
is what some of you were. But you were
washed", it still acknowledges adultery to
be immoral and a sin.
Some churches have interpreted adultery
to include all sexual relationships outside
of marriage, regardless of the marital
status of the participants.[64]
Catholicism ties fornication with breaking
the sixth commandment in its
Catechism.[65]
Until a few decades ago, adultery was a
criminal offense in many countries where
the dominant religion is Christianity,
especially in Roman Catholic countries
(see also the section on Europe). Adultery
was decriminalized in Argentina in
1995,[66] and in Brazil in 2005;[67] but in
some predominantly Catholic countries,
such as the Philippines, it remains illegal.
The Book of Mormon also prohibits
adultery. For instance, Abinadi cites the
Ten Commandments when he accuses
King Noah's priests of sexual
immorality.[68] When Jesus Christ visits
the Americas he reinforces the law and
teaches them the higher law (also found in
the New Testament):
Behold, it is written by them of old
time,
that thou shalt not commit adultery; but
I
say unto you, that whosoever looketh
on
a woman, to lust after her, hath
committed adultery already in his
heart.[69]
Book of Mormon prophets and civil
leaders often list adultery as an illegal
activity along with murder, robbing, and
stealing.[70]
Judaism
Adultery in Judaism is prohibited by the
Seventh Commandment, "Thou shalt not
commit adultery.". Adultery in traditional
Judaism applies to both parties, but
depends on the marital status of the
woman (Lev. 20:10). Though the Torah
prescribes the death penalty for adultery,
the legal procedural requirements were
very exacting and required the testimony
of two eyewitnesses of good character for
conviction. The defendant also must have
been warned immediately before
performing the act.[71] A death sentence
could be issued only during the period
when the Holy Temple stood, and only so
long as the Supreme Torah Court
convened in its chamber within the
Temple complex.[72] Today, therefore, no
death penalty applies.[73]
The death penalty for adultery was
strangulation,[74] except in the case of a
woman who was the daughter of a Kohain
(Aaronic priestly caste), which was
specifically mentioned by Scripture by the
death penalty of burning (pouring molten
lead down the throat).[75] Ipso facto, there
never was mentioned in Pharisaic or
Rabbinic Judaism sources a punishment
of stoning for adulterers as mentioned in
John 8.
At the civil level, however, Jewish law
(halakha) forbids a man to continue living
with an adulterous wife, and he is obliged
to divorce her. Also, an adulteress is not
permitted to marry the adulterer, but, to
avoid any doubt as to her status as being
free to marry another or that of her
children, many authorities say he must
give her a divorce as if they were
married.[76]
According to Judaism, the Seven laws of
Noah apply to all of humankind; these
laws prohibit adultery with another man's
wife.[77]
The Ten Commandments were meant
exclusively for Jewish males.[78] Michael
Coogan noticed that according to their
text, the wives are the property of their
man, marriage meaning transfer of
property (from father to husband),[78] and
women are less valuable than real estate,
being mentioned after real estate.[78]
Adultery is violating the property right of a
man.[79] Coogan's book was criticized by
Phyllis Trible because of not noticing that
patriarchy was not decreed, but only
described by God, patriarchy being
specific to people after the fall.[80] She
admits that Paul the Apostle made the
same mistake as Coogan.[80]
Originally this commandment forbade
male Israelites from having sexual
intercourse with the wife of another
Israelite; the prohibition did not extend to
their own slaves. Sexual intercourse
between an Israelite man, married or not,
and a woman who was neither married or
betrothed was not considered adultery.[81]
This concept of adultery stems from the
economic aspect of Israelite marriage
whereby the husband has an exclusive
right to his wife, whereas the wife, as the
husband's possession, did not have an
exclusive right to her husband.[82]
David's sexual intercourse with Bathsheba,
the wife of Uriah, did not count as
adultery.
According Jennifer Wright Knust, this was
because Uriah was no Jew, and only
Jewish men were protected by the legal
code from Sinai.[83] However, according to
the Babylonian Talmud, Uriah was indeed
Jewish [84][85] and wrote a provisional bill
of divorce prior to going out to war,
specifying that if he fell in battle, the
divorce would take effect from the time
the writ was issued.[86][87]
Islam
Zina ( ‫ ) زنا‬is an Arabic term for illegal
intercourse; premarital or extramarital.
Various conditions and punishments have
been attributed to adultery.
Under Muslim law, adultery in general is
sexual intercourse by a person (whether
man or woman) with someone to whom
they are not married. Adultery is a
violation
of the marital contract and one of the
major sins condemned by Allah in the
Qur'an:
Qur'anic verses prohibiting adultery
include:
"Do not go near to adultery. Surely it is a
shameful deed and evil, opening roads
(to other evils)."[Quran 17:32 ]
"Say, 'Verily, my Lord has prohibited the
shameful deeds, be it open or secret,
sins and trespasses against the truth
and reason.'"[Quran 7:33 ]
Punishments are reserved to the legal
authorities and false accusations are to be
punished severely.[88] It has been said that
these legal procedural requirements were
instituted to protect women from slander
and false accusations: i.e. four witnesses
of good character are required for
conviction, who were present at that time
and saw the deed taking place; and if they
saw it they were not of good moral
character, as they were looking at naked
adults; thus no one can be convicted of
adultery unless both of the accused also
agree and give their confession under oath
four times.[89]
According to Muhammad, an unmarried
person who commits adultery or
fornication is punished by flogging 100
times; a married person will then be
stoned to death.[90] A survey conducted by
the Pew Research Center found support
for stoning as a punishment for adultery
mostly in Arab countries, such as in Egypt
(82% of respondents in favor of the
punishment) and Jordan (70% in favor), as
well as Pakistan (82% favor), whereas
Nigeria (56% in favor) and in Indonesia
(42% in favor) opinion is more divided,
perhaps due to diverging traditions and
differing interpretations of Sharia.[91]
Eastern religions
Hinduism
Ancient texts of Hinduism offer different
views on adultery. For example, Wendy
Doniger notes Rigveda verse 4.5 as
declaring adultery is evil.[92] A more
nuanced view is expressed in some
smritis. Richard W. Lariviere notes[93] that
verse 13.60-61 of Nāradasmṛti qualifies
when adultery is not a punishable crime;
for example, if a woman comes to a man's
house on her own volition and has
consensual sex with him even though she
is not married to him, then it is not
adultery. Further, sex with a married
woman was not a punishable crime
provided the woman initiates the sex of
her own volition, and she has been
abandoned by her husband or if her
husband is eunuch or her husband does
not care.[93] Another text, Manusmriti,
declares adultery by husband or wife to be
wrong, as well as includes a discussion
about sex outside marriage after both the
husband and wife consent.[94]
Buddhism
For lay Buddhists, marital fidelity is
traditionally considered to be part of Right
Action, part of the Eightfold Path.[95]
Specifically, it is considered part of the
avoidance of sexual misconduct (kamesu
miccha-cara veramani in Pali), which
defines who is an illicit or inappropriate
sexual partner for a man or a woman,
depending on their marital status, age, etc.
Different Buddhist-influenced cultures
have interpreted the specifics of this
prohibition differently with respect to
practices like multiple marriage and
concubinage; in 2015, for example, a
Japanese court ruled that paying for
prostitution did not constitute adultery,
though traditional rules of sexual
misconduct forbid a man from having sex
with a woman who might be obliged to
him for financial reasons.[96]
Other historical practices
An Aztec adulterer being stoned to death;
Florentine
Codex
In some Native American cultures, severe
penalties could be imposed on an
adulterous wife by her husband. In many
instances she was made to endure a
bodily mutilation which would, in the
mind
of the aggrieved husband, prevent her
from ever being a temptation to other men
After being accused of adultery, Cunigunde of
Luxembourg proved her innocence by walking
over
red-hot ploughshares.
again.[97][98] Among the Aztecs, wives
caught in adultery were occasionally
impaled, although the more usual
punishment was to be stoned to death.[99]
The Code of Hammurabi, a well-preserved
Babylonian law code of ancient
Mesopotamia, dating back to about 1772
BC, provided drowning as punishment for
adultery.[100]
Amputation of the nose – rhinotomy –
was a punishment for adultery among
many civilizations, including ancient India,
ancient Egypt, among Greeks and Romans,
and in Byzantium and among the
Arabs.[101]
In the tenth century, the Arab explorer Ibn
Fadlan noted that adultery was unknown
among the pagan Oghuz Turks. Ibn Fadlan
writes that "adultery is unknown among
them; but whomsoever they find by his
conduct that he is an adulterer, they tear
him in two. This comes about so: they
bring together the branches of two trees,
tie him to the branches and then let both
trees go, so that he is torn in two."[102]
In medieval Europe, early Jewish law
mandated stoning for an adulterous wife
and her partner.[103]
In England and its successor states, it has
been high treason to engage in adultery
with the King's wife, his eldest son's wife
and his eldest unmarried daughter. The
jurist Sir William Blackstone writes that
"the plain intention of this law is to guard
the Blood Royal from any suspicion of
bastardy, whereby the succession to the
Crown might be rendered dubious."
Adultery was a serious issue when it came
to succession to the crown. Philip IV of
France had all three of his daughters-inlaw
imprisoned, two (Margaret of
Burgundy and Blanche of Burgundy) on
the
grounds of adultery and the third (Joan of
Burgundy) for being aware of their
adulterous behaviour. The two brothers
accused of being lovers of the king's
daughters-in-law were executed
immediately after being arrested. The wife
of Philip IV's eldest son bore a daughter,
the future Joan II of Navarre, whose
paternity and succession rights were
disputed all her life.[104]
The christianization of Europe came to
mean that, in theory, and unlike with the
Romans, there was supposed to be a
single sexual standard, where adultery
was a sin and against the teachings of the
church, regardless of the sex of those
involved. In practice, however, the church
seemed to have accepted the traditional
double standard which punished the
adultery of the wife more harshly than that
of the husband.[105] Among Germanic
tribes, each tribe had its own laws for
adultery, and many of them allowed the
husband to "take the law in his hands" and
commit acts of violence against a wife
caught committing adultery.[105][106] In the
Middle Ages, adultery in Vienna was
punishable by death through
impalement.[107] Austria was one of the
last Western countries to decriminalize
adultery, in 1997.[108]
The Encyclopedia of Diderot &
d'Alembert,
Vol. 1 (1751) noted the legal double
standard from that period, it wrote:[25]
"Furthermore, although the husband
who violates conjugal trust is guilty as
well as the woman, it is not permitted
for her to accuse him, nor to pursue him
because of this crime".
Asia
Adultery is a crime in Taiwan[109] and the
Philippines.[110] It was a crime in Japan
until 1947[111] and until 2015, in South
Korea.[112] In 2015, South Korea's
Adultery and the law
Constitutional Court overturned the
country's law against adultery. Previously,
adultery was criminalized in 1953, and
violators were subject to 2 years in prison,
with the aim of protecting women from
divorce. The law was overturned because
the court found that adultery is a private
matter which the state should not
intervened in.[113][114][115] Adultery is not a
crime in Mainland China, but is a ground
for divorce.[116]
In Pakistan, adultery is a crime under the
Hudood Ordinance, promulgated in 1979.
The Ordinance sets a maximum penalty of
death. The Ordinance has been particularly
controversial because it requires a woman
making an accusation of rape to provide
extremely strong evidence to avoid being
charged with adultery herself. A
conviction
for rape is only possible with evidence
from no fewer than four witnesses. In
recent years high-profile rape cases in
Pakistan have given the Ordinance more
exposure than similar laws in other
countries.[117] Similar laws exist in some
other Muslim countries, such as Saudi
Arabia and Brunei.
In Indian law, adultery is defined as sex
between a man and a woman without the
consent of the woman's husband.[118] The
man is prosecutable and can be
sentenced for up to five years (even if he
himself was unmarried) whereas the
married woman cannot be jailed.[119] Men
have called the law gender discrimination
in that women cannot be prosecuted for
adultery[120] and the National Commission
of Women has criticized the British era
law
of being anti-feminist as it treats women
as the property of their husbands and has
consequently recommended deletion of
the law or reducing it to a civil offense.
The Government is yet to act.[121]
Extramarital sex without the consent of
one's partner can be a valid grounds for
monetary penalty on government
employees, as ruled by the Central
Administrative Tribunal.[122]
In Southwest Asia, adultery has attracted
severe sanctions, including death penalty.
In some places, such as Saudi Arabia, the
method of punishment for adultery is
stoning to death. Proving adultery under
Muslim law can be a very difficult task as
it requires the accuser to produce four
eyewitnesses to the act of sexual
intercourse, each of whom should have a
good reputation for truthfulness and
honesty. The criminal standards do not
apply in the application of social and
family consequences of adultery, where
the standards of proof are not as exacting.
Sandra Mackey, author of The Saudis:
Inside the Desert Kingdom, stated in
1987
that in Saudi Arabia, "unlike the tribal
rights of a father to put to death a
daughter who has violated her chastity,
death sentences under Koranic law [for
adultery] are extremely rare."[123]
In the Philippines, the law differentiates
based on the gender of the spouse. A wife
can be charged with the crime of Adultery
for having sexual intercourse with a man
other than her husband, while a husband
can only be charged with the related crime
of Concubinage, which is more loosely
defined (it requires either keeping the
mistress in the family home, or cohabiting
with her, or having sexual relations under
scandalous circumstances).[124] There are
currently proposals to decriminalize
adultery in the Philippines.[125]
In regions of Iraq and Syria under ISIL,
there have been reports of floggings as
well as execution against people who
engage in adultery. The method of
execution was typically through
stoning.[126] ISIL would not merely oppose
adultery but also oppose behavior that
from their point of view could lead to
adultery, such as women not being
covered, people of the opposite sex
socializing with one another, or even
female mannequins in store windows.[127]
Europe
Adultery is no longer a crime in any
European country. Among the last
Adultery graffiti in Bristol, by Banksy
Western European countries to repeal their
laws were Italy (1969), Malta (1973),
Luxembourg (1974), France (1975), Spain
(1978), Portugal (1982), Greece (1983),
Belgium (1987), Switzerland (1989), and
Austria
(1997).[128][129][130][131][132][133][134][135]
In most Communist countries adultery
was not a crime.[136] Romania was an
exception, where adultery was a crime
until 2006,[137] though the crime of
adultery had a narrow definition, excluding
situations where the other spouse
encouraged the act or when the act
happened at a time the couple was living
separate and apart;[138] and in practice
prosecutions were extremely rare.[139]
In Turkey adultery laws were held to be
invalid in 1996/1998 because the law was
deemed discriminatory as it differentiated
between women and men. In 2004, there
were proposals to introduce a
genderneutral
adultery law. The plans were
dropped, and it has been suggested that
the objections from the European Union
played a role.[130][140][141]
Before the 20th century, adultery was
often punished harshly. In Scandinavia, in
the 17th century, adultery and bigamy
were subject to the death penalty,
although few people were actually
executed.[142] Examples of women who
have been executed for adultery in
Medieval and Early Modern Europe
include
Maria of Brabant, Duchess of Bavaria (in
1256), Agnese Visconti (in 1391), Beatrice
Lascaris di Tenda (in 1418), Anne Boleyn
(in 1536), and Catherine Howard (in
1542).
The enforcement of adultery laws varied
by jurisdiction. In England, the last
execution for adultery is believed to have
taken place in 1654, when a woman
named Susan Bounty was hanged.[143]
The European Court of Human Rights
(ECHR) has had the opportunity to rule in
recent years on several cases involving the
legitimacy of firing a person from their job
due to adultery. These cases dealt with
people working for religious organizations
and raised the question of the balancing of
the right of a person to respect for their
private life (recognized in the EU) and the
right of religious communities to be
protected against undue interference by
the State (recognized also in the EU).
These situations must be analyzed with
regard to their specific circumstances, in
each case. The ECtHR had ruled both in
favor of the religious organization (in the
case of Obst) and in favor of the fired
person (in the case of Schüth).[144]
Central and South America
Until the 1990s, most Latin American
countries had laws against adultery.
Adultery has been decriminalized in most
of these countries, including Paraguay
(1990),[145] Chile (1994),[146] Argentina
(1995),[66] Nicaragua (1996),[147]
Dominican Republic (1997),[148] Brazil
(2005),[67] and Haiti (2005).[149] In some
countries, adultery laws have been struck
down by courts on the ground that they
discriminated against women, such as
Guatemala (1996), where the Guatemalan
Constitutional Court struck down the
adultery law based both on the
Constitution’s gender equality clause and
on human rights treaties including
CEDAW.[17] The adultery law of the
Federal
Criminal Code of Mexico was repealed in
2011.[150][151]
Australia
Adultery is not a crime in Australia. Under
federal law enacted in 1994, sexual
conduct between consenting adults (18
years of age or older) is their private
matter throughout Australia,[152]
irrespective of marital status. Australian
states and territories had previously
repealed their respective adultery criminal
laws. Australia changed to no-fault divorce
in 1975, abolishing adultery as a ground
for divorce.
United States
This map shows U.S. adultery laws in 1996.
The United States is one of few
industrialized countries to have laws
criminalizing adultery.[153] In the United
This map shows adultery statutes in the United
States
in 1996 and who they penalized.
This map shows U.S. adultery laws in 1996 and
when
these laws were enacted.
States, laws vary from state to state. Up
until the mid 20th century most U.S. states
(especially Southern and Northeastern
states) had laws against fornication,
adultery or cohabitation. These laws have
gradually been abolished or struck down
by courts as unconstitutional.[154][155][156]
Pennsylvania abolished its fornication and
adultery laws in 1973.[157]
States which repealed their adultery laws
in recent years include West Virginia in
2010,[158] Colorado in 2013,[159] and New
Hampshire in 2014.[160]
As of 2017, adultery remains a criminal
offense in 21 states, but prosecutions are
rare.[161][162] Although adultery laws are
mostly found in the conservative states
(especially Southern states), there are
some notable exceptions such as New
York and Massachusetts. Massachusetts,
Idaho, Oklahoma, Michigan, and
Wisconsin
consider adultery a felony, while in the
other states it is a misdemeanor. It is a
Class B misdemeanor in New York[163]
and
Utah, and a Class I felony in
Wisconsin.[164] Penalties vary from a $10
fine (Maryland)[165] to four years in prison
(Michigan).[166] In South Carolina, the fine
for adultery is up to $500 and/or
imprisonment for no more than one year
(South Carolina code 16-15-60), and South
Carolina divorce laws deny alimony to the
adulterous spouse.[167][168][169]
In the last conviction for adultery in
Massachusetts in 1983, it was held that
the statute was constitutional and that "no
fundamental personal privacy right
implicit
in the concept of ordered liberty
guaranteed by the United States
Constitution bars the criminal prosecution
of such persons [adulterers]."[170] Whether
a conviction under this statute would be
possible today is not known.
In Utah, the adultery law only applies to
the
married party (the law states that "A
married person commits adultery when he
voluntarily has sexual intercourse with a
person other than his spouse.").[171]
However, Utah also has a fornication law
that applies to any unmarried person (also
a class B misdemeanor).[172]
In Florida adultery ("Living in open
adultery", Art 798.01) is illegal; while
cohabitation of unmarried couples was
decriminalized in 2016.[173][174]
South Carolina's adultery law came into
spotlight in 2009, when then governor
Mark Sanford admitted to his extramarital
affair. He was not prosecuted for it; it is
not clear whether South Carolina could
prosecute a crime that occurred in another
jurisdiction (Argentina in this case);
furthermore, under South Carolina law
adultery involves either "the living
together
and carnal intercourse with each other" or,
if those involved do not live together
"habitual carnal intercourse with each
other" which is more difficult to prove.[175]
In Alabama "A person commits adultery
when he engages in sexual intercourse
with another person who is not his spouse
and lives in cohabitation with that other
person when he or that other person is
married." Adultery is a Class B
misdemeanor.[176]
Since adultery is still a crime in Virginia,
persons in divorce proceedings may use
the Fifth Amendment. Any criminal
convictions for adultery can determine
alimony and asset distribution. In 2016
there was a bill in Virginia to
decriminalize
adultery and make it only a civil offense,
but the Virginia Senate did not advance
the bill.[177]
In the U.S. military, adultery is a potential
court-martial offense.[31] The
enforceability of adultery laws in the
United States is unclear following
Supreme Court decisions since 1965
relating to privacy and sexual intimacy of
consenting adults.[178] However,
occasional prosecutions do occur.[179]
Six U.S. states (Hawaii, North Carolina,
Mississippi, New Mexico, South Dakota,
and Utah) allow the possibility of the tort
action of alienation of affections (brought
by a deserted spouse against a third party
alleged to be responsible for the failure of
the marriage).[36][37] In a highly publicized
case in 2010, a woman in North Carolina
won a $9 million suit against her
husband's mistress.[180][181]
Criticism of adultery laws
Political arguments
Laws against adultery have been named
as invasive and incompatible with
principles of limited government (see
Dennis J. Baker, The Right Not to be
Criminalized: Demarcating Criminal Law's
Authority (Ashgate) chapter 2). Much of
the criticism comes from libertarianism,
the consensus among whose adherents is
that government must not intrude into
daily personal lives and that such disputes
are to be settled privately rather than
prosecuted and penalized by public
entities. It is also argued that adultery laws
are rooted in religious doctrines; which
should not be the case for laws in a
secular state.
Opponents of adultery laws
regard them as painfully archaic,
believing they represent
sanctions reminiscent of
nineteenth-century novels. They
further object to the legislation of
morality, especially a morality so
steeped in religious doctrine.
Support for the preservation of
There is a history of adultery laws being
the adultery laws comes from
religious groups and from
political parties who feel quite
independent of morality, that the
government has reason to
concern itself with the
consensual sexual activity of its
citizens … The crucial question
is: when, if ever, is the
government justified to interfere
in consensual bedroom
affairs?[182]
abused. In Somerset, England, a
somewhat common practice was for
husbands to encourage their wives to
seduce another man, who they would then
sue or blackmail, under laws (for examples
see Criminal conversation) prohibiting
men from having sex with women married
to other men.[183]
Historical context
Historically, in most cultures, laws against
adultery were enacted only to prevent
women—and not men—from having
sexual
relations with anyone other than their
spouses, since women were deemed their
husbands' property, with adultery being
often defined as sexual intercourse
between a married woman and a man
other than her husband. Among many
cultures the penalty was—and to this day
still is, as noted below—capital
punishment. At the same time, men were
free to maintain sexual relations with any
women (polygyny) provided that the
women did not already have husbands or
"owners". Indeed, ‫( בעל‬ba`al), Hebrew for
husband, used throughout the Bible, is
synonymous with owner. These laws were
enacted in fear of cuckoldry and thus
sexual jealousy. Many indigenous
customs, such as female genital
mutilation[184] and even menstrual
taboos,[185] have been theorized to have
originated as preventive measures against
cuckolding. This arrangement has been
deplored by many modern intellectuals.
Discrimination against women
Opponents of adultery laws argue that
these laws maintain social norms which
justify violence, discrimination and
oppression of women; in the form of state
sanctioned forms of violence such as
stoning, flogging or hanging for adultery;
or in the form of individual acts of
violence
committed against women by husbands or
relatives, such as honor killings, crimes of
passion, and beatings.[17][186] UN Women
has called for the decriminalization of
adultery.[186] A Joint Statement by the
United Nations Working Group on
discrimination against women in law and
in practice in 2012, stated:[17]
The United Nations Working
Group on discrimination against
women in law and in practice is
deeply concerned at the
criminalization and penalization
of adultery whose enforcement
Concerns exist that the existence of
"adultery" as a criminal offense (and even
in family law) can affect the criminal
justice process in cases of domestic
assaults and killings, in particular by
mitigating murder to manslaughter,[187] or
otherwise proving for partial or complete
defenses in case of violence. These
concerns have been officially raised by the
Council of Europe and the UN in recent
years. The Council of Europe
Recommendation Rec(2002)5 of the
leads to discrimination and
violence against women.
Committee of Ministers to member states
on the protection of women against
violence states that member states
should: (...) "57. preclude adultery as an
excuse for violence within the family".[188]
UN Women has also stated in regard to
the defense of provocation and other
similar defenses that "laws should clearly
state that these defenses do not include or
apply to crimes of 'honour', adultery, or
domestic assault or murder."[189]
Use of limited resources of the
criminal law enforcement
An argument against the criminal status of
adultery is that the resources of the law
enforcement are limited, and that they
should be used carefully; by investing
them in the investigation and prosecution
of adultery (which is very difficult) the
curbing of serious violent crimes may
suffer.[190]
The importance of consent as the
basis of sexual offenses
legislation
Human rights organizations have stated
that legislation on sexual crimes must be
based on consent, and must recognize
consent as central, and not trivialize its
importance; doing otherwise can lead to
legal, social or ethical abuses. Amnesty
International, when condemning stoning
legislation that targets adultery, among
other acts, has referred to "acts which
should never be criminalized in the first
place, including consensual sexual
relations between adults".[191] Salil Shetty,
Amnesty International’s Secretary
General,
said: "It is unbelievable that in the
twentyfirst
century some countries are
condoning child marriage and marital rape
while others are outlawing abortion, sex
outside marriage and same-sex sexual
activity – even punishable by death."[192]
The My Body My Rights campaign has
condemned state control over individual
sexual and reproductive decisions; stating
"All over the world, people are coerced,
criminalized and discriminated against,
simply for making choices about their
bodies and their lives".[193]
General
For various reasons, most couples who
marry do so with the expectation of
fidelity. Adultery is often seen as a breach
of trust and of the commitment that had
been made during the act of marriage.[194]
Adultery can be emotionally traumatic for
both spouses and often results in
Consequences
divorce.[195] However, in a new work, The
New Rules by Dr Catherine Hakim, a
British
sociologist and author, refers to the United
Kingdom arguing that a "sour and rigid
English view" of infidelity as opposed to
the 'wonderful French way' of male
infidelity is condemning millions of people
to live frustrated "celibate" lives with their
spouses. She argues that there is such a
thing as a "successful affair" in which both
parties are happier but no one gets hurt:
"Sex is no more a moral issue than eating
a good meal," she writes. "The fact that we
eat most meals at home with spouses and
partners does not preclude eating out in
restaurants to sample different cuisines
and ambiences, with friends or
colleagues."[196]
Adultery may lead to ostracization from
certain religious or social groups.[197]
Adultery can also lead to feelings of guilt
and jealousy in the person with whom the
affair is being committed. In some cases,
this "third person" may encourage divorce
(either openly or subtly).[198] If the
cheating spouse has hinted at divorce in
order to continue the affair, the third
person may feel deceived if that does not
happen.[199][200] They may simply
withdraw
with ongoing feelings of guilt, carry on an
obsession with their lover, may choose to
reveal the affair, or in rare cases commit
violence or other crimes.[201]
While there is correlation, there is no
evidence that divorces causes children to
have struggles in later life.[202]
If adultery leads to divorce, it also carries
higher financial burdens.[203] For example,
living expenses and taxes are generally
cheaper for married couples than for
divorced couples.[204] Legal fees can add
up into the tens of thousands of
dollars.[203] Divorced spouses may not
qualify for benefits such as health
insurance, which must then be paid out-
ofpocket.[
205] Depending on jurisdiction,
adultery may negatively affect the
outcome of the divorce for the "guilty"
spouse, even if adultery is not a criminal
offense.[206]
Sexually transmitted infections
Like any sexual contact, extramarital sex
opens the possibility of the introduction of
sexually-transmitted diseases (STDs) into
a marriage. Since most married couples
do not routinely use barrier
contraceptives,[207] STDs can be
introduced to a marriage partner by a
spouse engaging in unprotected
extramarital sex. This can be a public
health issue in regions of the world where
STDs are common, but addressing this
issue is very difficult due to legal and
social barriers – to openly talk about this
situation would mean to acknowledge that
adultery (often) takes place, something
that is taboo in certain cultures, especially
those strongly influenced by religion. In
addition, dealing with the issue of barrier
contraception in marriage in cultures
where women have very few rights is
difficult: the power of women to negotiate
safer sex (or sex in general) with their
husbands is often limited.[208][209][210] The
World Health Organisation (WHO) found
that women in violent relations were at
increased risk of HIV/AIDS, because they
found it very difficult to negotiate safe sex
with their partners, or to ask medical
advice if they thought they have been
infected.[211] Note, that contraceptives
offer little protection against some of the
STDs, like HPV.
Violence
Historically, female adultery often resulted
in extreme violence, including murder (of
the woman, her lover, or both, committed
by her husband). Today, domestic violence
is outlawed in most countries.
Honor killings
Honor killings are often connected to
Inca woman and man to be stoned for adultery,
by
Huamán Poma
accusations of adultery. Honor killings
continue to be practiced in some parts of
the world, particularly (but not only) in
parts of South Asia and the Middle East.
Honor killings are treated leniently in
some
legal systems.[212] Honor killings have also
taken place in immigrant communities in
Europe, Canada and the U.S. In some parts
of the world, honor killings enjoy
considerable public support: in one survey,
33.4% of teenagers in Jordan's capital city,
Amman, approved of honor killings.[213] A
survey in Diyarbakir, Turkey, found that,
when asked the appropriate punishment
for a woman who has committed adultery,
37% of respondents said she should be
killed, while 21% said her nose or ears
should be cut off.[214]
Until 2009, in Syria, it was legal for a
husband to kill or injure his wife or his
female relatives caught in flagrante delicto
committing adultery or other illegitimate
sexual acts. The law has changed to allow
the perpetrator to only "benefit from the
attenuating circumstances, provided that
he serves a prison term of no less than
two years in the case of killing."[215] Other
articles also provide for reduced
sentences. Article 192 states that a judge
may opt for reduced punishments (such
as short-term imprisonment) if the killing
was done with an honorable intent. Article
242 says that a judge may reduce a
sentence for murders that were done in
rage and caused by an illegal act
committed by the victim.[216] In recent
years, Jordan has amended its Criminal
Code to modify its laws which used to
offer a complete defense for honor
killings.[217]
According to the UN in 2002:
"The report of the Special Rapporteur ...
concerning cultural practices in the
family that are violent towards women
(E/CN.4/2002/83), indicated that honour
killings had been reported in Egypt,
Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco, Pakistan,
the Syrian Arab Republic, Turkey,
Yemen, and other Mediterranean and
Persian Gulf countries, and that they had
also taken place in western countries
such as France, Germany and the United
Kingdom, within migrant
communities."[218][219]
Crimes of passion
Crimes of passion are often triggered by
jealousy, and, according to Human Rights
Watch, "have a similar dynamic [to honor
killings] in that the women are killed by
male family members and the crimes are
perceived as excusable or
understandable."[220]
Stoning
Stoning, or lapidation, refers to a form of
capital punishment whereby an organized
group throws stones at an individual until
the person dies, or the condemned person
is pushed from a platform set high enough
above a stone floor that the fall would
probably result in instantaneous death.[221]
Stoning continues to be practiced today, in
parts of the world. Recently, several
people have been sentenced to death by
stoning after being accused of adultery in
Iran, Somalia, Afghanistan, Sudan, Mali,
and Pakistan by tribal courts.[222]
Flogging
In some jurisdictions flogging is a
punishment for adultery.[223][224] There are
also incidents of extrajudicial floggings,
ordered by informal religious courts. In
2011, a 14-year-old girl in Bangladesh
died
after being publicly lashed, when she was
accused of having an affair with a married
man. Her punishment was ordered by
villagers under Sharia law.[225][226]
Violence between the partners
of an adulterous couple
Married people who form relations with
extramarital partners or people who
engage in relations with partners married
to somebody else may be subjected to
violence in these relations.[227][228]
Because of the nature of adultery – illicit
or illegal in many societies – this type of
intimate partner violence may go
underreported or may not be prosecuted
when it is reported; and in some
jurisdictions this type of violence is not
covered by the specific domestic violence
laws meant to protect persons in
'legitimate' couples.[229][230]
The theme of adultery has been used in
many literary works, and has served as a
theme for notable books such as Anna
Karenina, Madame Bovary, Lady
Chatterley's Lover, The Scarlet Letter
and
Adultery. It has also been the theme of
many movies.
In fiction
Adultery in literature
Affair
Crime of passion
Cuckold
Emotional affair
Family therapy (Relationship
counseling)
Fornication
Honor killing
Incest
Incidence of monogamy
Jesus and the woman taken in adultery
See also
MacLennan v MacLennan
Mistress
On-again, off-again relationship
Open marriage
Polygyny threshold model
Polyamory
Sexual jealousy in humans
Swinging
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222. Examples include:
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Robert Tait; Noushin Hoseiny (2008-
07-21). "Eight women and a man face
stoning in Iran for adultery" . The
Guardian. London. Retrieved
2010-06-24.
"Two Men Stoned to Death for
Adultery in Iran".
"Taliban 'kill adulterous Afghan
couple' " . BBC News. 2010-08-16.
http://www.rawa.org/temp/runews/2
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north-afghanistan.html
Smith, David (2012-05-31). "Sudanese
woman sentenced to stoning death
over adultery claims" . The Guardian.
London.
http://edition.cnn.com/2012/08/02/w
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2010/jul/18/couple-sentencedpakistan
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225. "Four arrested after Bangladesh
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226. "Bangladesh village shaken after
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mistress" . thestar.com. 31 October
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228. Spencer S. Hsu (22 March 2013).
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officer sentenced to life in prison for
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Wikimedia Commons has media related
to Adultery.
McCracken, Peggy (1998). The romance
of adultery: queenship and sexual
transgression in Old French literature.
his mistress and daughter" .
Washington
Post.
229.
http://derechoalderecho.org/wpcontent
/
uploads/110324desicionsupremol
ey54-1.pdf
230. "Puerto Rico: Controversial
Decision
on Domestic Violence · Global Voices"
.
Global Voices.
Further reading
University of Pennsylvania Press.
ISBN 0-8122-3432-4.
Mathews, J. Dating a Married Man:
Memoirs from the "Other Women.
2008.
ISBN 1-4404-5004-8.
Best Practices: Progressive Family Laws
in Muslim Countries (August 2005)
Moultrup, David J. (1990). Husbands,
Wives & Lovers. New York: Guilford
Press.
Glass, S. P.; Wright, T. L. (1992).
"Justifications for extramarital
relationships: The association between
attitudes, behaviors, and gender".
Journal of Sex Research. 29: 361–387.
doi:10.1080/00224499209551654 .
Goody, Jack. "A Comparative Approach
to Incest and Adultery" . The British
Journal of Sociology. 7 (4): 286–305.
doi:10.2307/586694 .
Pittman, F. (1989). Private Lies. New
York: W. W. Norton Co.
Rubin, A. M.; Adams, J. R. (1986).
"Outcomes of sexually open marriages".
Journal of Sex Research. 22: 311–319.
doi:10.1080/00224498609551311 .
Vaughan, P. (1989). The Monogamy
Myth. New York: New Market Press.
Blow, Adrian J.; Hartnett, Kelley (April
2005). Infidelity in Committed
Relationships I: A Methodological
Review. Journal of Marital and Family
Therapy. INFIDELITY IN COMMITTED
RELATIONSHIPS I: A
METHODOLOGICAL REVIEW | Journal
of Marital & Family Therapy | Find
Articles at BNET at
www.findarticles.com
Blow, Adrian J; Hartnett, Kelley (April
2005). Infidelity in Committed
Relationships II: A Substantive Review.
Journal of Marital and Family Therapy.
INFIDELITY IN COMMITTED
RELATIONSHIPS II: A SUBSTANTIVE
REVIEW | Journal of Marital and Family
Therapy | Find Articles at BNET at
Content is available under CC BY-SA 3.0 unless
otherwise noted.
www.findarticles.com
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