Irrigation in Kashmir From Earliest Times Up

to 1947: An Overview
Dr Javeed Ul Aziz
Bashir Ahmad Tantray

Irrigation has played one of the most pivotal

roles in the development and progress of
civilization; accordingly, the role of civilization
cannot be overlooked in any study of historical
development of irrigation. In the historical
development of irrigation, the small size works
carried out by individuals or groups of farmers
using small streams cannot be overlooked,
these have led to large national scale works
that characterize irrigation today and have
played a significant role in developing irrigation
in the world.1
All efforts to increase agricultural
production may prove futile if we fail to provide
required moisture to the plants when required.
Since rainfall is unequal and irregular and
shows considerable annual and seasonal
variations, therefore, it becomes imperative for
productive agriculture to have sound
irrigational facilities. In fact, the state of
agriculture virtually depends upon the security
and flexibility provided by irrigation facilities. 2
Irrigation is one of the indicators of measuring
the development of agriculture in any region or
state. The cropping pattern and agricultural
density of a region are also to a considerable
extent determined by irrigation facilities. Thus,
it is not surprising to see that the state as well

1 Hitoshi Fukuda Irrigation in the World, Comparative

Developments University of Tokyo Press, Tokyo, 1976, p.8.
2 U.M Jha, Irrigation and Agricultural Development, Deep and
Deep Publications, Delhi, 1984, p, 57.
 as the cultivator actively engaged themselves
for harnessing water resources for irrigation
purposes. In the Indian-subcontinent literary
sources are replete with references underlining
the importance accorded to irrigation
development by the state during the ancient
and medieval times, here empire building and
irrigation development complemented each
other. During the British colonialism the state
in order to effectively control populations and
establish territorial sovereignty initiated the
project of settling nomadic people and ordering
agrarian spaces. In this new enterprise
irrigation acted as an important instrument of
facilitating colonization of lands hitherto an
abode of the non-agrarian communities-tribal,
pastoralists etc.,3There was unanimity among
the different ideological groups on colonial
governance with regard to the role of state in
the development of irrigation infrastructure.
The advocates of laissez-faire who otherwise
looked upon economic development as a
process initiated by dynamism of individual
entrepreneurs, emphasized that the public
works-canals, roads.harbors etc. should be
undertaken as the necessary framework ‘within
which private economic activity be successfully
carried on.’ They emphasized that according to
Adam Smith one of the main functions of the
state was the construction and maintenance of
certain public works as these could never be
the interest of any individual or any group of
individuals to construct and maintain them4.
Strong state role in certain specific areas such

3 For more details see Neeladri Bhattacharya, The Great

Agrarian Conquest: Colonial Reshaping of a Rural World,
Permenant Black, Ranikhet, 2018.
 as the development of social and economic
overheads was advocated by J.S Mill, Mcculoch
and Senior.5
In Kashmir irrigation has been an ancient
practice and its history can be traced back to
1500 BC where evidences of paddy cultivations
can be found.6 As paddy cultivation required
assured and adequate water supply therefore it
was perhaps from this period that the resources
of water–rivers, streams and springs- were
channelized for purposes of irrigating the
fields. Also, as elsewhere, in Kashmir also it
seems that the state and the society worked in
tandem to build a vast hydraulic structure
consisting of a network of canals. Indeed, the
broad network of water channels that evolved
in Kashmir during the ancient and medieval
times amply demonstrate that the then societies
and power structures were consciousness of the
importance of irrigation as a means of
achieving an effective breakthrough in the
development of agriculture.7 It is important to
mention here that given the defused power
structure that Kashmir had under different
political regimes the local potentates, mostly
landed aristocracy, significantly contributed to
the development of an extensive irrigation
system. The topography of the valley with its
characteristic inclined terrain suitable for

4 Smith, Adam, An Inquiry into the nature and the wealth of

Nations
5 Mufakharul - ul –Islam, M., Irrigation, Agriculture and the Raj
1887-1947, Manohar Publishers, New Delhi, 1997, p.139.
6 Ray, S.C., Early History and Culture of Kashmir, Munshiram
Manoharlal, New Delhi, 1970, pp. 121-122
7 Abdul Waheed Traditional Agricultural Technology of Kashmir,
unpublished M.Phill Dissertation, Department of History,
University of Kashmir p.33.
 terrace irrigation and the abundance of surface
water sources greatly helped the farmers in the
construction of gravity canals locally called the
kuhls 8. In areas where surface water was not
available and water table was not that deep
either the peasants dug wells and employed
shadufs to benefit from underground water.
Well irrigation existed in the towns like
Srinagar, Baramulla, Sopore and Anantnag was
used for vegetable lands and also in kitchen
gardens.
Irrigation development was a matter of prime
concern for the state in Kashmir. It contributed to
agricultural development and helped the state in
amassing wealth by appropriating more revenue.
Thus, it is not surprising to come across some
references in Rajatarangani, a predominately
political narrative, talking about canal
construction in the region9. In this very context
the earliest reference that we get from
Rajatarangni about the construction of the canal
is that of king Suvarna who cut a canal called
Suvarnamanya kulya which proved very beneficial
for the development of the agriculture. This canal
still irrigates a greater part of south Kashmir. 10
However, it was king Damodar who made
important efforts to develop the irrigation system
in Kashmir.11 For the first-time efforts were made
to provide irrigation facilities to the karewas. The

8 Moonis Raza, Valley of Kashmir a Geographical

interpretation,”vol.1 (The land,) Vikas Publishers, New Delhi,
1978, p.97.
9 M.A Stein (tr), Rajtarangni, 1989, Gulshan Books Srinagar, p.
17,151.
10 Ray, S.C., Early History and Culture of Kashmir, Munshiram
Manoharlal, New Delhi, 1970, pp. 121-122
11 Stein, M.A., (tr)Rajtarangni, op cit. p. 159
reasons seem to be to utilize the fertility of the
Karewas [being of fluvial origin the karewas were
fertile] and second the area was considered safe
from annual floods which created havoc
throughout the history of ancient Kashmir. King
Damodar attempted to bring water to great
wadder (Karewa) by cutting down canals from the
flowing streams. This effort of utilizing the
gradient flow of water was the significant features
of ancient agricultural technology of Kashmir and
speaks of the scientific sense that the regime had,
however, these attempts remained confined to
very few places for the lack of royal patronage to
such initiatives after Damodar. 12 The development
of irrigation infrastructure received impetus
under the Karkota dynasty.
The rulers of Karkota dynasty besides being
powerful warriors contributed towards the
stabilization of Kashmir economy which was based
on agriculture. Among the rulers of Karkota
dynasty king Lalitaditya received great attention
at the hands of Kalhana, who not only praised him
as great warrior and architect but as a great ruler
who boosted the Kashmir economy. 13 According to
Kalhana it was Lalitaditya (724–61) who for the
first time infused a new spirit in the economic
activities of Kashmir and initiated several
schemes for the development of irrigation.
Lalitaditya was perhaps the first ruler of Kashmir
who adopted the technique of lifting water from
the river by means of water wheels
(ambhahpratarana). He made special
arrangements for Cakradara Karewa (Vijbohara)

12 Ibid
13 Ibid
by lifting water from river Jhelum 14, besides
constructing the Martand canal.
After Lalitaditya the development of irrigation
in the state, for a long period, fell prey to the
family feuds and centrifugal tendencies and
revived only under Awantivarman (855-83) who
took great pains in the building of hydraulic
structure of the state.15 Kalhana states that “He
(Awantivarman) made different streams with their
waves which are like the quivering tongues (of
snakes) move about according to his will, just as a
conjurer (does with) the snakes.”16 The water was
channeled for irrigation purposes and each village
was allotted as much water as was necessary for
its crops. Suyya, Avantivarman’s chief engineer
and the master architect of all his irrigation
schemes had many villages reclaimed from
marshy tracts by having circular embankments
raised round them to keep out water. Such
embanked villages looked like rounded bowls,
Kundals in local parlance, thereby earning them
names like Utsakundal, Markundal etc., the
nomenclature which they retain even today 17.
Owing to this wonderful work food production in
the valley significantly increased making Suya a
hero and earning him the name Anapati from
Kalhana18. Suyya’s example to irrigate the
unfertile plateau of Kashmir was probably
followed by others. An inscription discovered at

14 Ibid.
15 Stein, M.A., Ancient Geography of Kashmir, Gulshan Books
Srinagar, 2001, p.121.
16 Stein., (tr)Rajtarangni, op cit, p. 188
17 Stein., Ancient Geography of Kashmir, op cit. p.125
18 Stein., (tr)Rajtarngni., op cit. p. 158, see also P.N.K.Bamzai,
Cultural and Political History of Kashmi, M. D. Publications,
Delhi, n 1994. Vol.1, p.137.
Hatun, in the Punial tract up the Gilgit river
records that Makarasimha, a feudatory of the Sahi
kings of Gilgit, cut a canal and brought water to a
land which was waste before.19 It is likely that
similar projects were undertaken in Kashmir
proper also.
The irrigation scheme of Suyya or of any other
person, however, could not permanently save the
country from the clutches of famine. This is
mentioned by Kalhana by saying that for almost
six centuries after the death of Awantivarman
agriculture suffered the worst ever negligence. 20
Hydraulic chaos touched the nadir because of the
bestiality and savagery of the rulers, incessant
feuds, civil wars, rebellions, upheavals and foreign
invasions that marked the period. The weak
central power led to the insufficient upkeep of
canals, area under cultivation dwindled and
irrigation system was thoroughly destroyed.21
Irrigation facilities markedly improved after
the establishment and consolidation of the
Sultanate. The early sultans could not contribute
much to irrigation sector because of their pre-
occupations with consolidation of power and
suppression of rival elements. Phenomenal
development in canal building occurred during the
reign of sultan Zain-ul-Aabidin (1420-70) who while
understanding the importance of agriculture
evolved an integrated programme for the revival of
canal building. According to Jonaraja “There was
not a piece of land, and not a forest, where the king

19 Journal of Research of Asiatic Society of Bengal, 1944, pp. 5-

14.
20 M.A. Stein (tr) Rajtaranni, op.cit, p.271.
21 M.A. Stein (tr) Rajtaranni, op.cit, p.196.
did not dig a canal.”22 The sultan constructed and
reconstructed several canals some of which
included Utpalpora canal, Lal canal, Naidshai canal,
Lachman canal and Mar canal. 23 He converted the
low lands into tanks adorned with birds, lotuses and
water nuts. He extended river Mar to the
confluence of Jhelum, and Sindh. The Mar was used
for drinking and bathing purposes. He built a lake
in Pampore and named it Zain-Sarai; the site of this
artificially built lake is probably modern swamp on
Northeastern side of Pampore.24 This extensive
canalization manifested in the considerable
increase in agricultural production during his reign.
The Mughals also built a number of canals in
Kashmir however, the primary purpose of such
networks was beautification of the pleasure
gardens and not irrigation.25 During the reign of
Akbar, Yusuf Khan Rizvi (Subadar) built a canal
connecting a stream known as Nallah Sindh with
Bagh Illahi. Jahangir constructed a canal for
Shalimar garden and Asif Khan built another for
Nishat garden. Zakir Kol was expanded to provide
water to Naseem Bagh and Badshahi Canal was
channelized to provide water to Mulla Akhoon
Garden (Mullah Shahi Bagh) and Noor Bagh. A
seminal contribution of the Mughals to the
irrigation system of Kashmir came in the form of
certain rules guiding the distribution of water to
avoid disputes among the villagers. The post of

22 Dutt, J.C., (tr) Jonaraja,s Rajtarangni, Gulshan Books Srinagar,

2005, p.140.
23 Hassan, Mohibul., Kashmir under Sultans, Gulshan Books,
Srinagar, 1984, pp.125-30.
24 Fouq., Mohamad Din., Tariek-i-Budshahi, Jay Kay Publishing
House, Srinagar, 1992, p. 55
25 Matoo, A.M., Kashmir under Mughals 1586-1755, Golden
Hordge Enterprises, 1998 p.39.
Mirab was created to ensure the repairs of canals
and call out for labour. This system is said to have
been introduced by emperor Jahangir.26 The
Mughals earned a huge amount of revenue from
agriculture sector of the economy, but showed least
interest in constructing canals for the benefit of the
peasants.27
Like Mughals the Afghans also
accorded little interest in developing/ maintaining
the irrigation infrastructure of the valley. They paid
interest only in squeezing the life blood of the
Kashmiri people by imposing exorbitant taxes and
draining the same out of the valley to their capital
Kabul. The Afghans did not construct a single canal
for increasing the productive capacity of the
valley.28 The Sikh state was essentially medieval in
character and the drain of wealth from Kashmir
reached to its climax during the Sikh rule. No
attention was paid towards the construction and
repairement of canals. Even the mirabs had not
received pay for years and as a result, observed by
Moorcroft in 1823, most of the canals were chocked
with silt or were out of the order. 29 State being
exploitative in nature the development of irrigation
fell completely on the shoulders of cultivating
masses itself. Small dams were constructed on the
streams by the villagers themselves for irrigation.
To avoid disputes among the villager’s Mirab was

26 . Lawrence, Walter R.,The Valley of Kashmir, Chinar

Publishing House, reprint, 1992, pp. 23-24.
27 Matoo, A.M., op.cit, p. 39-40.
28 Khan, Ghulam Hassan., Irrigation, Flood and Food problems
in Jammu and Kashmir, Broca’s Art Press Printers and
Publishers, 1961, p.33-34.
29 Dhar, D.N., Socio-Economic History of Kashmir Peasantry
from Ancient Times to Modern Times, Center for Kashmir
Studies, Srinagar, 1989, pp.86-90.
appointed by the villagers.30 His duty was to
regulate irrigation and to repair the canals even
during this period of time.31 Irrigation remained a
neglected economic activity during the early Dogra
rule.32 As the state had introduced a fixed revenue
assessment, the village dwellers were forced to look
after the repairs of the canals themselves. In the
absence of state support, it was difficult for the
peasantry to make use of available water resources
for irrigation purposes of fields with unfriendly
landscapes. When the canal passed through hard
ground, irrigation became very uncertain and when
a ravine had to be crossed, a flat-bottomed boat was
erected on high trestles and the water flowed over
in a quaint- looking aqueduct but nevertheless very
difficult to maintain. It was under colonial pressure
that the state accorded some attention to the
overhaul of the irrigation system. A. Wingate who
surveyed the Valley for the land settlement of 1889
says “I propose to reserve the Durbar all rights in
respect of water because in Kashmir nothing is so
important or stands so much in need of control or
organization. There is abundance of water but the
villages unless very strong in men and so able to
send up contingent to fight for it cannot get and
much water turns to the waste and much irrigable
land is dry.”33 After the commencement of the land
settlement in 1889 the state looked after irrigation
channels promptly but this was not done without

30 Lawrence., op cit, p. 324. It was Jahangir, the Mughal

Emperor, who introduced this system in the Valley.
31 Sharma, D.C., Kashmir Agriculture and Land Revenue System
under the Sikh rule (1818-1846), Rima publishing house, New
Delhi, 1986, p.22
32 Hangloo, R., Agrarian system of Kashmir (1846-89)
Commonwealth Publishers, New Delhi, 1995, p.38.
33 Wingate, A., Preliminary Report of The Land Settlement in
Jammu and Kashmir, 1889, p.36
levying an extra irrigation cess. Secondly the
developments of activities were concentrated in
Jammu and registered very little progress in
Kashmir where there was a large room for
development.34 However, the major development
that took place in the field of irrigation was the
revival of the office of the Mirab. Besides the
irrigation which was derived from the mountain
streams, there was important auxiliary supply from
the numerous springs which afforded excellent
irrigation.35 The only lift irrigation in 1890 took the
form of the simple and inexpensive tol or dip well,
and in Srinagar and the small towns there was
some splendid garden cultivation which depended
wholly on the tol.36
In 1890-92 the land settlement
commissioner laid down that there was much to be
done in the way of agricultural improvement of the
state by sinking irrigation wells in certain dry
localities, utilizing peat as fuel for stream pumps, to
drain the swamps of the valley and so on. In kandi
areas irrigation was difficult except in case of small
water channels taken along the hill side. 37 But here
at the convenient points on the mountain streams
temporary weirs or projecting snags were erected,
and the water is taken off in main channels, which
then pass into a network of small ducts and
eventually empty themselves into the Jhelum. 38
Lower down in the valley, where the streams flow

34 Hangloo, R.L., op.cit. p.41

35 Bamzai, P.N.K., Socio-economic History of Kashmir (1846-
1925), Gulshan Books, Srinagar, 2007, pp. 232-233.
36 Ibid.
37 Knight, Capt., Diary of a Pedestrian in Kashmir and Tibet, City
Book Center, Srinagar, 2009, p.42.
38 Lawrence., op cit. p. 323
gently, dams were erected. 39 All villages which
depend for their irrigation on a certain weir were
obliged to assist in its construction and repair. 40 It
was because of the collective efforts of state and
society that a well-developed irrigation system
existed in Kashmir even before the end of the 19 th
century. In the network of the irrigation system the
other source of irrigation that was mostly prevalent
in Kashmir was in the form of Wells. Well irrigation
system was seen in towns like Srinagar, Anantnag,
Sopore and Baramulla.41 The water from these
wells was lifted not by using Persian wheels but
through the in expensive dip well, and in Srinagar
and other areas garden cultivation depended on the
dhenkil. The lift system, Tolsag system, was
operated by means of log pole to which half way
down a short pole was attached to form a fork. A
piece of wood joined to the upper end of the fork
provided the lever for a long pole placed at a right
angle. The short end of the pole carried a large
stone as a counterpoise to the other end where a
thick rope hung with a bucket of wood was
attached. The bucket was lowered into well by
pulling the rope and dragging down the pole and as
the rope was released the weight of the stone on
the other end raised the bucket.42 This is referred to
by James Douie as the bucket well. 43 But the most
important and useful technique of lifting water from
the wells was that of bucked tired with rope and

39 Ibid.
40 Ibid.
41 Knight, Capt., op cit, p.42.
42 Hangloo, R., Agricultural Technology in Kashmir, in The
medieval Hisory Journal, 11 (1), 2008, p.94.
43 Douie, Sir James., The Punjab North Western Frontier
Province and Kashmir, Rima Publishers, New Delhi, 1994, p.
143
was mostly used to irrigate the splendid gardens in
Kashmir.
However, owing to state apathy irrigation
infrastructure could not witness any significant
improvement during the 19th century and some of
the canals became totally useless for irrigation.
River Jhelum which was of great importance to the
valley could not be put to significant irrigation use.
It was during the reign of Maharaja Partap Singh
that attention was paid towards the irrigational
facilities. In 1901, for the first time, expansion of
irrigation facilities was considered on scientific
lines and a regular division of Public Works
Department was established and canals like
Martand, Lal Kuhl, Dandi and Naindi canals
reconstructed and repaired.44 The Martand Canal
was a bold work designed by Mr. Wildeblood,
primarily to irrigate the Martand plateau. Its
construction was started in 1901;45 the canal was
taken out on the left bank of the Lidder River at
Ganeshpur above Aishmukam and flowing at a high
level, ran along the face of the limestone cliffs
above Bawan and Martand.46 The total length of the
canal was 21 miles.47 The total cost of the canal was
estimated at Rs. 211300 and the increase in
revenue, as calculated by the Divisional Engineer
from local enquires regarding the present rates and
from measurement of the area was estimated at Rs.
37122.48 The canal was opened for irrigation in

44 R.G. Wreford, Census of India .vol.xxii, 1941, p.22-23.

45 Kapur, M.L, Sindhu Kapur., Social and Economic History of
Jammu and Kashmir, Gulshan Books, Srinagar, 2013, p. 212.
46 Ibid.
47 J&K Annual Administrative report of the year 1913, p. 22
48 Before the building of this canal on the Karewa, the main
crops grown were wheat, linseed and maize and in years of
good rainfall they did well. They were, however, liable to
1902, it served the two-fold objective of irrigating
the crops and supplying pure drinking water to the
inhabitants of the Martand plateau. 49 Another
important contribution that came from Pratap
Singh was the Lal Khul. This was in fact an
improvement of an old disused canal of the same
name taking off from the Pohru River at Bimhama,
2500 feet below the head of the old canal. Seven
miles long, it was intended to provide irrigation to
the area between Bimhama and Sopore.50 The work
was started in 189451 and completed in 1904.52 It
fully shows that with the efforts of the state in the
development of the irrigation not only production
increased but state also got benefitted with the
increase in the revenue.
Besides the completion of these two canals in the
Kashmir province, survey work for a number of
other irrigation schemes was also undertaken and
the construction of the Zainagir canal at an
estimated cost of rupees eleven lakhs was actually
started in 1923.53
In recognition of the significance of irrigation for
agricultural development the Irrigation Department
came into existence as a separate entity in
November 1923 as a result of a scheme prepared
by H.A.D. Fraser in 1916.54 Afterwards, many canals

failure in dry years. From April, 1901, the farmers slowly took
the rice cultivation as irrigation was now assured. See
Bamzai, op cit, p. 234.
49 Annual Administrative report of the year 1901-04, pp. 173,
454, see also census report of India, 1931, p. 27.
50 Annual Administrative Report of P.W.D, year 1902-03, p. 11
51 Ibid.
52 Annual Administrative Report year 1904-05, p. 93
53 Census Report of India, 1931, pp. 27-28. It took from the
Madhumati stream, had a total length of 43.8 miles and was
completed in 1931.
54 Khan, Ghulam Hassan., op.cit, p.52.
were repaired in the districts of Baramulla,
Anantnag and Srinagar, the main concern was to
look after the old Zamindari Canals.
Water for irrigation was available in abundance
almost everywhere in Kashmir but in many areas
use could not be made use of owing to different
gradients. The use of Arhatas (water wheel/Persian
wheel) for irrigation remained confined only to
some feudal lords as it was very expensive. It
needed a well, a bullock, laborer to handle the ox
and a machine. Further, the land to be irrigated
should have been in a consolidated form.
Throughout the 1930`s the percentage of irrigated
area had stagnated at an average of about 30% and
most of the land was irrigated through the
Zamindari kuls (private canals).55 It is pertinent to
mention here that the change in the political
geography of the state changed after 194756did not
have negative impact on the percentage of irrigated
area in the state as a substantial part of the land
area that came under the occupation of Pakistan
was unirrigated. This was unlike what happened in
the case of Punjab where a vast area of canal
irrigated land went to Pakistan and drastically
reduced the net irrigated in Indian Punjab. 57 In fact
in case of Kashmir the percentage of net irrigated
area increased from 30.4% to 41.1% as out of about
232 thousand hectares of cropped area which came
under the occupation of Pakistan only 40 thousand
hectares were irrigated.58

55 Mir, Abdul Rehman., Kashmir mein Abpashi, Shaheen

Publishers, Srinagar 1981, pp, 33-35
56 A substantial part of the state came under the occupation
Pakistan in 1947
57 Tan, Ta Yong and Gyanesh Kudaisya., The Aftermath of
Partition in SouthAsia, London , Routledge, 2000,pp. 15,37,
 The canals dominated the irrigation pattern of
the Valley and in 1949-50 about 86% of the total
cropped area was irrigated by the Zamindari kuls.
The task of the state government was, therefore, to
restore irrigation to its maximum by focusing on
zamindari kuls. Along with it, it was necessary to
extend irrigation by tapping natural resources in
the shape of available water discharge in various
river basins for providing necessary infrastructure
for agricultural development, both for intensive and
extensive cultivation. In true sense, the
development of irrigation received impetus after
1950s when the state entered upon an era of
planned economic development. Irrigation was the
main focus of the productive investments by the
state. Under different Five Year Plans the
development of irrigation was accorded high
priority and a considerable proportion of the plan
amount was earmarked for different irrigation
schemes.59

58 Gupta, N.S.. and Amarjit Singh, Agricultural development of

states in India, Vol.i Jammu and Kashmir, Seema Publications,
Delhi, 1979.p.69.
59 Government of India , First Five Year Plan( 1951- 52) ,
Planning commission of India ,Delhi, 1952-52,