ECE 4875

Wind & Solar Power Systems

Part 3: Aerodynamic and electrical properties,
& basic operation principles of wind turbines
Instructor: Dr. Ha Le
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
California State Polytechnic University, Pomona
Fall 2018
 What will be presented?
1) Basic operation principles of wind energy conversion
systems.
2) Aerodynamic properties of WT and blade design.
3) Electrical properties of WT.
4) Types of wind turbines: Fixed speed versus variable
speed wind turbines.
5) Fixed speed wind turbines: construction, operation
principles, electrical characteristics, pitch control, steady
state analysis.
6) Variable speed wind turbine: construction, principles of
operation, power control, steady state analysis.
Reading: Wind textbook, Chapter 3, 5, 8

2
Wind turbine components (1)
1. Rotor
2. Pitch drive
3. Nacelle
4. Brake
5. Low-speed shaft
6. Gear box
7. High-speed shaft
8. Electrical
generator
9. Heat exchanger
10. Controller
11. Anemometer
12. Wind vane
13. Yaw drive
14. Tower 3
 Wind turbine components (2)
1. Rotor: Typically 3 blades, fiberglass reinforced plastics, epoxy laminates.
2. Pitch drive: Rotates blades to reduce the amount of lift under high wind
speeds.
3. Nacelle: Houses WT components.
4. Brake: Acts as a back-up to the pitch drive braking or as parking brake for
maintenance.
5. Low-speed shaft: Attaches to the wind rotor
6. Gear box: Increases the low rotor speed (18-20 rpm) to 1200-1800 rpm
7. High-speed shaft: Attaches to electrical generator
8. Electrical generator: Convert the mechanical energy into electrical.
9. Heat exchanger: Keeps the electrical generator cool
10. Controller: Computerized, tests, starts, stops the turbine etc.
11. Anemometer: Measures wind speed and passes it to the controller.
12. Wind vane: Detects wind direction and passes it to the controller
13. Yaw drive: Keeps the rotor facing into the wind
14. Tower: Raises the rotor to higher elevation where wind is better.
4
Rotor components

5
Rotor attach point

6
Rotor hub: Suzlon 0.95 MW

7
 Nacelle: Bonus 1.3MW WT
1. Spinner
2. Rotor Hub
3. Blade
4. Pitch Bearing
5. Pitch Gearbox
6. Main Bearing
7. Main Shaft
8. Top Controller
9. Gearbox
10. Brake Disc
11. Brake Caliper
12. Coupling
13. Generator
14. Meteorological
Sensors
15. Yaw Ring
16. Yaw Bearing
17. Yaw Gearbox
18. Nacelle Bedplate
19. Hydraulics
20. Canopy
21. Generator Fan 8
 Aerodynamics of wind turbine
Airfoils and general concepts of Aerodynamics

 Airfoils are structures with specific geometric shapes that

are used to generate mechanical forces due to the relative
motion of the airfoil and a surrounding fluid (air).

 Wind turbine blades use airfoils to develop mechanical

power.

 The cross-sections of wind turbine blades have the shape of

airfoils.

 The width and length of the blade are functions of the

desired aerodynamic performance, the maximum desired
rotor power, the airfoil properties, and strength
considerations.
9
 Schematic of blade elements

c = airfoil chord length; dr = radial length of element;

r = radius (partial, or an intermediate radius);
R = rotor radius;  = angular velocity of rotor. 10
 Airfoil terminologies (1)

1) Mean camber line: The locus of points halfway between the upper
and lower surfaces of the airfoil.
2) Chord line: The straight line connecting the leading and trailing edges
of the airfoil,
3) Chord length: The distance from the leading to the trailing edge
measured along the chord line. 11
 Airfoil terminologies (2)

4) Angle of attack: The angle between the relative wind (Urel) and
the chord line.
5) Camber: The distance between the mean camber line
and the chord line, measured perpendicular to the chord line.
6) Thickness: The distance between the upper and lower surfaces,
also measured perpendicular to the chord line. 12
 Airfoil terminologies (3)

7) Span (not shown): The length of the airfoil perpendicular to its

cross-section.
 The geometric parameters that have an effect on the aerodynamic
performance of an airfoil are: the leading edge radius, mean
camber line, maximum thickness and thickness distribution of
the profile, and the trailing edge angle. 13
What is relative wind? (1)

14
 What is relative wind? (2)

Relative wind is shown

by the Apparent Wind
Direction (blue vector)
15
 Lift, drag and moment (1)

 Air flow over an airfoil produces a distribution of forces

over the airfoil surface.
 The flow velocity over airfoils increases over the convex
surface resulting in lower average pressure on the ‘suction’
side of the airfoil compared with the concave or ‘pressure’ side
of the airfoil.
 Viscous friction between the air and the airfoil surface slows
the air flow to some extent next to the surface.
16
 Lift, drag and moment (2)
The resultant of all of
these pressure and
friction forces is usually
resolved into two forces
and a moment that act
along the chord at a
distance of c/4 from the
leading edge.

1) Lift force: Perpendicular to direction of the oncoming air flow. The lift
force is a result of the unequal pressure on the upper and lower airfoil
surfaces.
2) Drag force: Parallel to the direction of the oncoming air flow. The drag
force is due both to viscous friction forces at the surface of the airfoil and
to unequal pressure on the airfoil surfaces facing toward and away from
the oncoming flow.
3) Pitching moment: To be about an axis perpendicular to the airfoil
cross-section. 17
 Relation between
Angle of attack, Lift and Drag forces

 When the airfoil is not symmetrical and the upper surface is curved
more than the lower surface, then a lift force occurs because the
pressure decrease and speed increase in the upper surface is
larger than the pressure decrease and speed increase in the lower
surface.

 Positive  or nonsymmetrical airfoils cause airplanes to fly and wind

turbines to produce energy. Each type of blade has an optimal value
of  that produces maximum lift and minimal drag. 18
Practice: Symmetrical vs. Non-Sym. airfoils

 Known that: When the airfoil is not symmetrical and the

upper surface is curved more than the lower surface, then a
lift force occurs because the pressure decrease and speed
increase in the upper surface is larger than the pressure
decrease and speed increase in the lower surface.

 Question: Using symmetrical airfoils, can airplanes fly

and WTs produce power?
19
 Important parameters
for analysis and design of wind turbines
Many flow problems (design and analysis of WT) can be
characterized by following parameters:
1) Reynolds number
2) Lift coefficient
3) Drag coefficient
4) Pitching moment coefficient
5) Power coefficient
6) Thrust coefficient
7) Tip-speed ratio
8) Pressure coefficient
9) Surface roughness ratio
20
 Reynolds number (1)
Reynolds number Re is the most important non-
dimensional parameter for defining the characteristics of
fluid flow conditions.

 is the fluid density;

 is fluid viscosity;
 = / is the kinematic viscosity;
U and L are velocity and length that characterize the scale
of the flow. These might be the incoming stream velocity,
Uwind, and the chord length c on an airfoil.
21
 Reynolds number (2)
Example:

Wind speed U = 15 m/s

Kinematic viscosity  = 0.000013 m2/s
Chord length L=2m
Reynolds number: Re = UL /  = 2,307,692

22
 Lift coefficient, Drag coefficient,
Pitching moment coefficient

Lift coefficient

Drag coefficient

Pitching moment
coefficient

where  is the density of air, U is the velocity of undisturbed

air flow, A is the projected airfoil area (chord x span), c is
the airfoil chord length, and l is the airfoil span.
23
 Relation between Reynolds number,
Lift & Drag coefficients

Lift and drag coefficients for the NACA 0012 symmetric airfoil
 Cl is high, Cd is low for HAWTs at low angles of attack.
 = 0, Cl = 0, i.e. no lift at all (typical  is 10 - 15 deg.)
 High Re, Cl is better because viscous forces and Cd are less.
24
 Power coefficient, Thrust coefficient

Power coefficient

Thrust coefficient

Note: Thrust is the force of the wind on the wind turbine.

 Question 1: What is the maximum power coefficient for

any wind turbine?
Answer: ???
 Question 2: What is the maximum value of CT?
Answer: At maximum power output, CT = 8/9
25
 Tip-speed ratio
Tip-speed ratio, , is the ratio of the blade tip speed to the
free stream wind speed. It often occurs in the aerodynamic
equations for the rotor.

R = rotor radius;  = angular velocity of rotor.

The local speed ratio is the ratio of the rotor speed at some
intermediate radius to the wind speed, defined as follows.

r = radius (partial, or an intermediate radius).

26
 Relation between
Power coefficient & Tip-speed ratio

Theoretical maximum power coefficient as a function of

tip speed ratio for an ideal horizontal axis wind turbine, with
and without wake rotation.
27
 Pressure coefficient,
Surface roughness ratio
Pressure coefficient is used to analyze airfoil flow.

Surface roughness ratio:

28
 Air flows behavior on airfoils (1)

 The lift, drag, and pitching moment coefficients of an airfoil are

generated by the pressure variation over the airfoil surface and the
friction between the air and the airfoil.

 The pressure variations are caused by changes in air velocity that

can be understood using Bernoulli’s principle, which states that the sum
of the static pressure and the dynamic pressure are constant.

 The air speeds up more over the upper surface than over the lower
surface of the airfoil, then there is a net lift force. The pitching
moment is a function of the integral of the moments of the
pressure forces about the quarter chord over the surface of the airfoil.
29
 Air flows behavior on airfoils (2)
Divided into three flow regimes: Attached,
high lift, fully-stalled regime

1) Attached flow regime:

 At low angles of attack (< 7-10 deg.), air
flows stick to the upper surface of the airfoil
i.e. laminar flow.
2) High lift / Stall development:
 Increase in angle of attack leads to
increased lift.
 When critical angles of attack (e.g. 16 deg.)
is exceeded, air flows do not stick, causes
a wake above the airfoil, reduce lift and Top to bottom:
increase drag. (1) Attached flow regime
3) Fully-stalled regime: (2) High lift / near stall
 Under feather-condition, airfoils are fully- (3) Fully-stalled regime
stalled. 30
Air flows behavior on airfoils (3)

31
Attached and separated air flows

32
 Aerodynamic power controls
Functions:
To limit rotor power in case of high wind speed for the
following reasons:
(1) Turbine’s structural safety, (2) Electric generator can
overheat, (3) To increase rotor power in case of low wind
speed, (4) To maximize rotor performance

Methods to control rotor power:

 Aerodynamic stall
 Blade pitching
 Active stall

Main background idea:

 To change the angle of attack.
33
 Blade pitching

Relative wind is shown

by the Apparent Wind
Direction (blue vector)
34
 Stall-regulated power control

For stall-regulated WT, blades are rigidly fixed to the hub, no moving
parts. The method works as follows.

 When Uwind is high, Urel ~ Uwind . The angle of attack is larger up to

some critical angles where the air flow does not “stick” to the top
surface of the blades (e.g. 16 deg.)

 Wake formed on above the top surface, leading to high drag, low lift
forces.

 Blades stalled  Torque is reduced  Power reduced.

35
 Pitch-regulated power control
To maximize the power output when wind speed is low, limit the
power output when wind speed is high.

Pitch-regulated WT: The blade can rotate on bearings to

reduce the angle of attack.

The method works as follows.

 When Uwind is high, Urel ~ Uwind

 Pitch the blades (counter clock wise) to the direction of

oncoming wind. This reduces the angle of attack, the blades
never stall.

 Reduction in the angle of attack leads to reduced lift

 reduced torque  reduced power.
36
 Active-stall regulated power control
This is a combination of pitched and stall regulated
methods. It is also known as CombiStall (by Bonus)

The method works as follows.

 At low wind speeds, it works like a stall-regulated

 At high wind speeds, pitch the blade clock wise. This is

the opposite of the pitch-regulated method which turns the
blades towards the direction of oncoming wind (CCW).

 This increases the angle of attack close to the stalled

regime, leading to reduction in the rotor power output.

 At extreme high wind, the trailing edge faces the wind.

37
 Blade pitching & feather condition

Blade pitching

Feather condition
38
Impact of control on WT power output

39
 Blade design for modern WT (1)
 General requirements:

(a) To convert the kinetic energy in the wind into torque

efficiently, and

(b) To have structural properties that ensure the

required static and fatigue strength for a long
operational life.

 Design target 1: To maximize the power coefficient of the

rotor.

 Design target 2: To maximize the energy capture of the

rotor.

 Blade design uses the Momentum Theory and Blade

Element Theory to determine ideal blade shapes.
40
 Blade design for modern WT (2)
There are many complex methods for blade design.

We will consider two simple methods:

1) Blade shape for ideal rotor without wake rotation:

Computation of Cp for each blade element.

2) Blade shape for ideal rotor with wake rotation:

This blade design can be used as the start for a
general blade design analysis.

Note: The Blade design uses the Momentum Theory

and Blade Element Theory to determine ideal blade
shapes.

41
 Momentum Theory (1)
First refer to the Conservation of Momentum presented
previously. The following analysis is based on the annular control
volume shown in figure below.

Geometry for rotor analysis:

U=velocity of undisturbed air; a= induction factor; r= radius
42
 Momentum Theory (2)
 Applying the conservation
of linear momentum to the
control volume of radius r
and thickness dr leads to an
expression for the
differential contribution to
the thrust, dT.

 From the conservation of

angular momentum equation,
the differential torque, dQ,
imparted to the blades is
obtained.

 The two equations above define the thrust and torque on

an annular section of the rotor as a function of the axial and
angular induction factors (i.e. of the flow conditions).
43
 Momentum Theory (3)

a is axial induction factor, defined as the fractional decrease in wind

velocity between the free stream and the rotor plane.
is an angular induction factor.
 is angular velocity imparted to the flow stream.
 is rotor angular velocity.
U1 & U2: Velocity at Location 1& 2 in the above figure.
For maximum
power in each
annular ring 

44
 Blade Element Theory
c = airfoil chord
length;
dr = radial length of
element;
r = radius (partial, or
an intermediate
radius);
R = rotor radius;
 = angular velocity
of rotor.
The following assumptions are made:
 The blade is assumed to be divided into N sections (or elements).
 There is no aerodynamic interaction between elements (thus, no
radial flow).
 The forces on the blades are determined solely by the lift and
drag characteristics of the airfoil shape of the blades. 45
Blade geometry for analysis of HAWT (1)

46
Blade geometry for analysis of HAWT (2)
 dFL is the incremental lift
force;

 dFD is the incremental drag

force;

 dFN is the incremental force

normal to the plane of rotation
(It contributes to thrust);

 dFT is the incremental force

tangential to the circle swept
by the rotor. This is the force
creating useful torque.

 Urel is the relative wind

velocity.
47
 Blade theory: Calc. of parameters (1)

p,0 is the section pitch angle at the

blade tip where r/R=1

48
 Blade theory: Calc. of parameters (2)
If the rotor has B blades, the total
normal force on the section at a
distance, r, from the center is:

The differential torque due to the

tangential force operating at a
distance, r, from the center is:

The equations of the normal force (thrust) and torque on the annular
rotor section are used to determine ideal blade shapes for optimal rotor
performance and performance of any arbitrary blade shape. 49
 Blade shape for ideal rotor
without wake rotation (1)
We can combine the momentum theory relations with those
from blade element theory to determine an ideal blade shape
for optimal rotor performance.

In this analysis, the following assumptions are made:

 There is no wake rotation; thus a’=0.
 There is no drag; thus Cd=0.
 There are no losses due to a finite number of blades (i.e.
no tip loss).
 The axial induction factor, a=1/3 in each annular stream
tube.

50
 Blade shape for ideal rotor
without wake rotation (2)
Design steps: The following parameters need to be selected.

1) Tip speed ratio 

2) Desired number of blades B

3) Radius R

4) Airfoil with known lift and drag coefficients as a function of angle of

attack.

5) Angle of attack: This angle of attack should be selected where

Cd/Cl is minimal. This allows the assumption Cd=0.

6) Lift coefficient Cl at which the airfoil will operate.

 These choices allow the twist and chord distribution of a blade that
would provide Betz limit power production (given the input assumptions) to
be determined. Hence, this is called the “Betz optimum rotor”.
51
 Blade shape for ideal rotor
without wake rotation (3)
Based on the assumption that a=1/3 and the momentum theory

Based on blade element theory and assumption that Cd=0

For a’=0 and a=1/3

 These relations can be used to find the chord and twist

distribution of the Betz optimum blade.
52
 Example: Blade shape for ideal rotor
without wake rotation
Parameters: =7, the airfoil has a lift coefficient Cl=1, Cd/Cl has a
minimum at the angle of attack =70, number of blades B=3.

Twist and chord

distribution for the
example Betz optimum
blade
 r/R = fraction of rotor
radius
 c/R = non-
dimensionalized chord
 The twist angle is
assumed to start at 0
at the tip
53
 Blade chord
for the example Betz optimum blade

54
 Blade twist angle for
the example Betz optimum blade

55
 Derivation of a formula for CP
of an ideal Betz rotor (1)
Assumptions: No wake rotation i.e. a’=0, no losses due to a
finite number of blades (i.e. no tip loss), a=1/3 in each blade
element.
Objective: To obtain a formula for CP that includes Cd and Cl

Power coefficient

The power generated at each blade element is

56
 Derivation of a formula for CP
of an ideal Betz rotor (2)
With no wake rotation

Substituting (2) into (1) and simplifying, the desired formula for CP is

For n-element blade

57
 Blade shape for optimum rotor
with wake rotation
 The blade shape for an ideal rotor that includes the effects of wake
rotation can be determined using the analysis developed for a general
rotor.

 This optimization includes wake rotation, but ignores drag (Cd=0)

and tip losses.

 Neglecting derivation, the formula to find the chord and twist

distribution of the optimum blade with wake rotation are:

Note: The optimum values for  and c, including wake rotation may
be significantly different from those obtained without wake rotation. As
before, select the tip-speed ratio  where Cd /Cl is minimal.
58
 Effect of drag and number of blades
on rotor optimum performance

Maximum achievable power coefficients as a function

of number of blades, no drag 59
 Effect of Cd and Cl
on rotor optimum performance

Maximum achievable power coefficients of a three-bladed

optimum rotor as a function of the lift to drag ratio, Cl/Cd
60
Relation between CP, tip-speed ratio ,
and pitch angle 

61
Electrical properties of wind turbine (1)

DC generators, synchronous and asynchronous generators

are used in wind turbines. They include:
 Squirrel cage induction generator (SCIG)
 Wound-rotor induction generator (WRIG)
 Permanent magnet synchronous generator (PMSG)
 Wound-rotor synchronous generator (WRSG).
The most commonly-used generators are induction
machines (SCIG and WRIG).
Therefore, we will discuss induction machines in details.

62
Electrical properties of wind turbine (2)
Typical equipment necessary for interfacing the wind
turbine with a power system include:
 Transformers
 Circuit breakers
 Power converters (for variable-speed wind turbines)
 Ground control unit
 Data recording devices

Some or all of these components may be located within the

base section of the wind turbine tower.

Power electronics used for wind power applications include

soft-starters (and capacitor banks), rectifiers, inverters, and
frequency converters (or power converters).
63
 Types of wind turbine
Wind turbines can operate either with a fixed speed or a variable
speed.

Fixed-speed wind turbines:

In the early 1990s the standard installed WT operated at fixed

speed. Regardless of the wind speed, the WT rotor speed is fixed
and determined by the frequency of the supply grid, the gear ratio
and the generator design.

Variable-speed wind turbines:

Today, the variable-speed WT has become the dominant type

among the installed wind turbines. They can accelerate or
decelerate the rotational speed in response to the wind speed.
This way, the tip speed ratio is kept constant at a predefined value
that corresponds to the maximum power coefficient.
64
 Fixed-speed wind turbines (1)

 Equipped with an
induction generator
(squirrel cage or wound
rotor) that is directly
connected to the grid.

 Equipped with a soft-starter and a capacitor bank for reducing

reactive power compensation.
 These WT are designed to achieve maximum efficiency at
one particular wind speed.
 To increase power production, the generator of some fixed-speed
WTs has two winding sets: one is used at low wind speeds
(typically 8 poles) and the other at medium and high wind speeds
(typically 4–6 poles). 65
 Fixed-speed wind turbines (2)
Advantages:
 The fixed-speed wind turbine is simple, robust and reliable and
well-proven.
 Cost of its electrical parts is low.
Disadvantages:
 Uncontrollable reactive power consumption, mechanical stress
and limited power quality control.
 Due to its fixed-speed operation, all fluctuations in the wind
speed are further transmitted as fluctuations in the mechanical
torque and then as fluctuations in the electrical power on the
grid.
 In the case of weak grids, the power fluctuations can also lead to
large voltage fluctuations, which, in turn, will result in many
problems for the host power grid.
66
 Variable-speed wind turbines (1)
 Also known as power
converter interfaced
WT since the WT
generator is typically
connected to the grid
through power
converters.
 The power converter
controls the generator
speed.

 Rotor speed varies to follow wind speed.

 Real power and reactive power can be controlled.
 Generator: squirrel cage, doubly-fed (wound) induction machines.
67
 Variable-speed wind turbines (2)
Power electronics for variable-speed WT:

 Small variable-speed WT with DC or AC generators

are generally implemented with one of the following
types of converters:
1) AC-DC
2) DC-AC
3) AC-AC
4) AC-DC-AC

 Large variable-speed WT usually use direct AC to AC

frequency converters, or DC link converters.

68
 Variable-speed wind turbines (3)
Advantages:
 A variable-speed WT keeps the generator torque fairly
constant and the variations in wind are absorbed by changes in
the generator speed, resulting in less power fluctuations.

 These lead to an increased energy capture, improved power

quality, and reduced mechanical stress on the wind turbine.

Disadvantages:

 The electrical system of a variable-speed WT is more

complicated than that of a fixed-speed WT.

 Power losses in power electronics.

 Increased cost of equipment due to the use of more

components and power electronics  increased maintenance.
69
Fixed-speed vs. Variable-speed (1)

 A fixed-speed wind turbine captures less energy

than a variable-speed WT.

70
Fixed-speed vs. Variable-speed (2)

 Rotor speed must

change to keep the tip-
speed ratio where
maximum power
coefficient occurs.

A generic Cp vs. Tip-speed ratio

characteristic curve 71
 Overview of induction machines (1)
AC induction machines, also known as asynchronous
machines, are the most common motors in many
applications. They are the workhorses of the industry.

Types of induction machines (IM)

 Based on number of phases: single-phase induction

motors and poly-phase induction motors. Both are widely
used. Three-phase motors are preferably installed where
3-phase source is available.

 Based on rotor construction: squirrel-cage and wound-

rotor machines. Squirrel-cage motors are more popular.

72
Overview of induction machines (2)

73
Construction of induction machines (1)

74
 Construction of IM (2)
A typical IM consists of two components: Stator and rotor
Stator:
 The outer (stationary) member of an induction motor. It is formed
by stacking thin-slotted, highly permeable steel laminations
inside a steel or cast-iron frame. The frame provides
mechanical support to the motor. Although the frame is made of a
magnetic material, it is not designed to carry magnetic flux.
 Identical coils are wound (or placed) into the slots and then
connected to form a balanced three-phase winding.
Rotor
 The rotor is also composed of thin-slotted, highly permeable
steel laminations that are pressed together onto a shaft.
 There are two types of rotors: a squirrel-cage rotor and a
wound rotor.
75
 Squirrel-cage and wound rotor

 Squirrel-cage rotor: Circular rings called the end-rings are also

formed on both sides of the stack. These end-rings short-circuit
the bars on both ends of the rotor (hence called squirrel-cage).

 Wound rotor: Has as many poles and phases as the stator.

Its three-phase windings are internally connected to form an
internal neutral connection. The other three ends are
connected to the slip-rings. 76
Operation principles of induction machines
1) When the stator winding of a three-phase IM is connected to a 3-
phase power source, it produces a magnetic field that is constant
in magnitude and revolves around the periphery of the rotor at
the synchronous speed. This magnetic field induces an emf in
the rotor circuit (Faraday law).

2) A current flows in the rotor due to the induced emf. Being

immersed in a magnetic field, the rotor experiences a force (or
torque) that tends to rotate it. The developed torque is called the
starting torque.

3) If the load torque is less than the starting torque, the rotor starts
rotating. The force developed and hence the rotation of the rotor are
in the same direction as the revolving field.

4) Under no load, the rotor soon achieves a speed nearly equal to the
synchronous speed. However, the speed is always lower than the
sync. speed of the revolving field. Hence, an IM is also called an
asynchronous motor.
77
 Speed and slip of induction machines
Sync. speed of revolving field

Let Nm (or wm) be the rotor speed at a certain load, P be the number of
poles. The revolving field is moving ahead of the rotor at a relative speed
Nr or wr. This relative speed is called the slip speed.

The slip (per unit or The rotor speed in terms

percent) is defined as of per unit slip is

Slip equation with

other notation 78
 Slip and IM operation modes

 Slip is the ratio of the difference between synchronous speed

ns (or NS) and rotor operating speed n (or Nm), and
synchronous speed.

 Positive slip: The machine is a motor

 Negative slip: The IM is a generator.

 Slip is often expressed as a percentage.

 Typical values of slip at rated conditions are in the range of

a few percent (2% - 5%).
79
 Frequency of emf in rotor
 When the rotor is stationary, the per-unit slip is 1. The
frequency of the induced emf in the rotor winding is the same as
that of the revolving field.

 When the rotor rotates, the relative speed of the rotor Nr (or wr) is
responsible for the induced emf in its windings. Hence, the
frequency of the induced emf in the rotor is

 The above equation highlights the fact that the rotor

frequency depends on the slip of the motor.

 An IM usually operates at low slip (e.g. 5-10%). Hence, the

frequency of the induced emf in the rotor is low.
80
 Example: Frequency of emf in rotor
Example 9.1 (Guru): A 208-V, 60-Hz, 4-pole, three-phase
induction motor has a full-load speed of 1755 rpm. Calculate (a) its
synchronous speed, (b) the slip, and (c) the rotor frequency.

Solution:

81
 Generator mode of IM

When stator and rotor are in sync, the slip is zero; negative slip corresponds
to generator mode; for small slip, torque increases linearly until it reaches
the breakdown point. Higher slips can be supported by increasing the
external resistance. Note the rotor speed increases from right to left. 82
 Exact equivalent circuit of IM (1)

V is the terminal voltage, I is the stator current, IM is the magnetizing

current, IR is the rotor current, XLS is the stator leakage inductive
reactance, RS is the stator resistance, X’LR is the rotor leakage inductive
reactance (referred to the stator), R’R is the rotor resistance (referred to
the stator), XM is the magnetizing reactance, and RM is the core-loss
resistance.
Note: Primes (‘) are used with the rotor parameters to indicate that they
are referred to the stator, by taking into account the turns ratio between
the stator and the rotor.
83
 Exact equivalent circuit of IM (2)

 XM is always much larger than XLS and X’LR

 The term is essentially a variable resistance. For a

motor, it is positive. For a generator, it is negative.

 Core-loss resistance RM is often ignored.

84
 Power of induction generator (1)
In the generator
mode, mechanical
power input to the
machine, Pin, that is
available to produce
electricity is reduced
by mechanical
losses, Pmechloss.

The mechanical power available to be converted at the

generator’s rotor, Pm, is:

Note: The minus sign is consistent with the convention

that generated power is negative. 85
 Power of induction generator (2)
Electrical and magnetic
losses in the rotor reduce
the power that may be
transferred from the rotor
across the air gap to the
stator. The power that is
transferred, Pg, is: Note: I2RR’R is the electrical power loss in
the rotor, making Pg less negative than Pm

The power loss in stator is

The power delivered (negative) at the

terminals of the generator, Pout, is
86
 IG efficiency and power factor
The overall efficiency in
the generator mode, gen,
is:

The power factor, which is always lagging in an induction

machine, is the ratio of the real power to apparent power. PF can be
calculated using 1-phase or 3-phase power.

If Pout is If Pout is
1-phase 3-phase
power  power 

 Question: What does lagging power factor mean? 87

 Simplified exact equivalent circuit (1)
 Complete calculations in terms of machine parameters can be done
more conveniently by simplifying the exact equivalent circuit as shown
in the figure below.

Exact equivalent circuit

Simplified circuit

R=resistance; XLS =stator leakage inductive reactance;

RS =stator resistance; X=reactance; V=terminal voltage 88
 Simplified exact equivalent circuit (2)

The total impedance is:

89
 Real & reactive power, torque
calculation using simplified circuit
The phasor current is:

The mechanical power converted per

phase is:

The real power generated per phase is:

The reactive power per phase is:

Total mechanical torque, Tm, applied to a three-phase induction machine

as a generator, is the total input power (i.e. 3-phase power) divided by the
rotational speed:

90
 Practice: Induction motor
exact equivalent circuit & power
A 480V, 60 Hz, 6-pole, three-phase, delta-connected induction motor has
the following parameters:
RS=0.461Ω, R’R=0.258 Ω, XLS=0.507 Ω, X’LR=0.309 Ω, Xm=30.74 Ω, RM
is neglected. Rotational losses are 2450W. The motor drives a
mechanical load at a speed of 1170 rpm.
Calculate the following parameters:
1) Synchronous speed in rpm
2) Slip
3) Line current
4) Input power
5) Airgap power
6) Output power

91
 Power, current, torque
of an induction machine

Generator slip: Up to 3% above synchronous speed

Peak current: 730 A during startup (over 5 times the rated value of 140 A)
Peak torque: About two and half times rated (504 Nm).
Peak terminal power: Around three times rated value (100 kW). 92
 Efficiency and power factor
of the example induction machine

Efficiency and power factor: Same when motoring during normal

operation as when generating, but both decrease to zero at no load.
93
 Starting wind turbines with IG (1)
There are two basic methods of starting a wind turbine with an
induction generator:

1) Method 1: Using the wind turbine rotor to bring the generator rotor
up to operating speed, and then connecting the generator to the
grid.

2) Method 2: Connecting the generator to the grid and using it as a

motor to bring the wind turbine rotor up to speed.

Method 1:

 The wind turbine rotor must be self-starting. This method is

common with pitch-controlled wind turbines, which are normally
self-starting.

 Monitoring of the generator speed is required so that it may be

connected when the speed is as close to synchronous speed as
possible.
94
 Starting wind turbines with IG (2)
Method 2:

 The second method is commonly used with stall-controlled WTs.

The control system monitors the wind speed and decide when
the wind is in the appropriate range for running the turbine.

 The generator may then be connected directly ‘across the

line’ to the electrical grid, and it will start as a motor.

 In practice, across the line is not a desirable method of starting. It

is preferable to use some method of voltage reduction or current
limiting during starting.

 As the speed of the WT rotor increases, the aerodynamics

become more favorable. Wind-induced torque will impel the
generator rotor to run at a speed slightly greater than
synchronous i.e. the WT enters generator mode.

95
 WT types vs. power control

Note: The grey zones indicate combinations that are not in use
in the wind turbine industry today.

96
 Typical wind turbine configurations
Type A: fixed speed
Type B: limited variable speed

Type C: variable speed with

partial scale frequency
converter

Type D: variable speed with

full-scale frequency converter
97
 Type A: fixed speed WT

 This configuration denotes the fixed-speed WT with a squirrel

cage induction generator (SCIG) directly connected to the grid via
a transformer.
 Since the SCIG always draws reactive power from the grid, this
configuration uses a capacitor bank for reactive power
compensation.
 A smoother grid connection is achieved by using a soft-starter.
98
Type B: limited variable speed WT (1)

 This configuration corresponds to the limited variable speed

WT with variable generator rotor resistance, known as OptiSlip
(Vestas, mid-1990s). It uses a wound rotor induction generator
(WRIG).
 The unique feature of this concept is that it has a variable
additional rotor resistance, which can be changed by an
optically controlled converter mounted on the rotor shaft. This
way, the total rotor resistance is controllable  the slip is controlled
 the power output is controlled.
99
 Type B: limited variable speed WT (2)

 The optical coupling eliminates the need for costly slip rings that
need brushes and maintenance.
 The generator is directly connected to the grid.
 The range of the dynamic speed control depends on the size of
the variable rotor resistance. Typically, the speed range is 0–10%
above synchronous speed.
 A capacitor bank performs the reactive power compensation. A
smoother grid connection is achieved by using a soft-starter.
100
 Type C: Variable speed WT
with partial scale frequency converter (1)

 This configuration, known as the doubly fed induction generator

(DFIG) concept, corresponds to the limited variable speed wind turbine
with a wound rotor induction generator (WRIG) and partial scale
frequency converter (rated at about 30% of nominal generator power) on
the rotor circuit.
 Speed range:  40% to +30 %, can be up to  50% to +50 compared to
synchronous speed.
101
 Type C: Variable speed WT
with partial scale frequency converter (2)

 The partial scale frequency converter performs the reactive power

compensation and the smoother grid connection. It has a wider
range of dynamic speed control compared with the OptiSlip,
depending on the size of the frequency converter.
 The smaller frequency converter makes this concept attractive from an
economical point of view.
 Its main drawbacks are the use of slip rings and protection in the
case of grid faults.
102
 Type D: Variable speed WT
with full-scale frequency converter (1)

 This configuration corresponds to the full variable speed WT, with

the generator connected to the grid through a full-scale frequency
converter.
 The frequency converter performs the reactive power
compensation and the smoother grid connection.
 The generator can be wound rotor synchronous generator (WRSG),
wound rotor induction generator (WRIG), or a permanent magnet
synchronous generator (PMSG).
103
 Type D: Variable speed WT
with full-scale frequency converter (2)

 Some full variable-speed wind turbine systems have no gearbox.

This is why the gearbox is shown using dotted line.

 In these cases, a direct driven multi-pole generator with a large

diameter is used.

 The wind turbine companies Enercon, Made, and Lagerwey are

some manufacturers that use this configuration.
104
Practice: Induction generator performance
A 480V, 60 Hz, 4-pole, three-phase induction generator has the following
parameters: RS=0.014Ω, R’R=0.0136 Ω, XLS=0.15 Ω, X’LR=0.15 Ω,
Xm= 5 Ω, RM is neglected. The generator is operating at slip of -0.025.
Determine the following parameters:
1) Operating speed in rpm
2) Output power of the generator
3) Power factor
4) Efficiency
5) Torque developed by the generator
6) If the generator is used in a wind turbine and the torque due the
wind is 2100 Nm. What happens to the induction generator?

105
Variable-speed operation with WRIG
Wound rotor induction generators (WRIG) can be used in a
variety of ways to facilitate variable-speed operation. These include:
(1) High slip operation, (2) Slip power recovery, and (3) True
variable speed operation.
Topology options for variable-speed wind turbine using wound rotor
induction generators are presented in the table below.

106
 High slip operation of WRIG (1)
 This concept is of Type B: limited variable speed WT
 Since the rotor windings of the WRIG are accessible, they could
just be short circuited, or are connected to an external varying
resistance.
 When the rotor circuit resistance is made higher, the operating
speed range is increased. Note that a high-resistance leads to
greater losses, unless the rotor power (known as “slip power”) can
be recovered.

Wind turbine with WRIG and external rotor resistance 107

 High slip operation of WRIG (2)
Equivalent circuit for WRIG with external rotor resistance

 The circuit is similar to that of the typical induction machine (i.e.

squirrel-cage), except that (1) the core-loss resistance RM is ignored, (2)
an external resistance Rx is added.
 The above matrix represents the equiv. circuit where IS,r and IS,i are
real and imag. parts of the stator current. Similar notation is used for the rotor
current IR. 108
 High slip operation of WRIG (3)
 The equations for calculating power and torque for typical
induction machine apply to WRIG where R’R is replaced with
(R’R + RX).
 For safety, the stator current must be kept at or below its rated
level when adjusting the external resistance. This can be done by
varying the external rotor resistance Rx according to the following
relation:

 snew is a slip other than the rated slip. snew corresponds to a desired
generator speed that differs from the rated operating speed.

 The most straightforward way is to have no resistance when the

generator output is less than rated, but then to gradually increase
the rotor resistance at higher input powers.
109
 High slip operation of WRIG (4)

 By varying the external resistor, the stator power can be

held constant (with currents kept at rated value).

 The excess shaft (input) power under high wind can be

dissipated in the external resistance. This provides a
convenient way to quickly shed power, for example, from a
sudden gust of wind.

 This excess power would have to be accommodated by

changing the blade pitch (which might be too slow) or
allowing it to overload the generator.

 It is more efficient to recover all of the rotor power

(called the slip power)  Slip power recovery operation.

110
Slip power recovery operation of WRIG (1)
The slip power can be recovered by first rectifying it to DC and then
inverting the DC to grid frequency AC power, as shown in the figure below.

Variable-speed wind turbine with WRIG and slip power recovery

where VR,r is the real component and VR,i is the imaginary component
of the rotor voltage (both referred to the stator). 111
 Slip power recovery operation of WRIG (2)
The stator currents must be kept below
the rated current. This requires

 The rectifier/inverter may be viewed as a resistive load in which

Rx= VR / IR, where VR is the rotor voltage and IR is the rotor current. We assume
that the rotor current is limited at some rated value IR, rated.
 The value of the “constant” can be determined from the rated conditions,
which are assumed to occur when the rotor circuit is short circuited:

For any given slip the magnitude of the rotor voltage is:

112
 Practice: WRIG analysis
A 3-phase WRIG has the following parameters: Rated voltage of 480V, 60 Hz, 4
poles, RS=0.005Ω, XLS=0.01 Ω, R’R=0.004 Ω, X’LR=0.008 Ω, Xm=0.46 Ω, RM is
neglected. The generator nominal power is rated at 2 MW and operating at slip
of -0.036. Determine:
1) Rated stator and rotor currents
2) Input shaft power when the rotor is short-circuited
3) Actual delivered power
4) An external resistor to be added to the rotor circuit to dissipate
excess power when the slip is -0.4. Note that the rated currents
cannot be exceeded.
5) The power dissipated in the external resistor.
6) What is the effective rating of the WRIG if the dissipated power is
recovered?

113
True variable speed operation of WRIG (1)

 This is a limited variable speed WRIG-based WT of Type C.

 Two PWM power converters, separated by a DC link, connect the
rotor to the grid. These power converters are bidirectional.
 In super-synchronous operation, converter PWM1 operates as a
rectifier and PWM2 operates as an inverter. Power flows out of the
rotor as well as out of the stator.
 In sub-synchronous operation, rotor power goes the other way;
PWM1 operates as an inverter and PWM2 operates as a rectifier.
114
True variable speed operation of WRIG (2)

 The complete WRIG generator/converter system is often called

“doubly fed induction generator (DFIG)”. The term emphasizes
the ability of this concept to transfer power into or out of the rotor,
as well as out of the stator.

 It is possible to convert power coming out of the rotor and to

feed power into the rotor. This is accomplished by the rotor-side
converter that can interact directly with the AC of the rotor.
115
True variable speed operation of WRIG (3)

 The power transfer into or out of the rotor can take place with
both the voltage and the current in phase. In this case, the
rotor load looks like either a resistor or a ‘negative resistor.’

 The power transfer can be done with the current and voltage
being at different phase angles. This allows the power factor
of the DFIG to be adjusted as needed, and even to supply
reactive power to the grid.

 Overall, the presence of PWM converters in the circuit allows a

wide range of control options.
116
WT ancillary electrical equipment

Ancillary electrical
equipment associated
with a wind turbine
normally includes both
high-voltage (generator
voltage) and low-voltage
items.

The figure illustrates the

main high-voltage
components for a
typical installation.
Dotted lines indicate
items that are often not
included.
117
 WT power cables
 WT power is transferred from the generator down the tower to
electrical switch gear at the base via power cables.

 Three-phase generators have four conductors, including the

ground or neutral. In most larger WT, the conductors are continuous
from the generator down the tower to the main contactor.

 To prevent cables from being wrapped up and damaged as the

turbine yaws, a substantial amount of slack is left in them so that
they ‘droop’ as they hang down the tower (hence called droop
cables).

 The slack is taken up as the turbine yaws and then released as it

yaws back the other way. With sufficient slack, the cables seldom
or never wrap up tight in most sites.

 When cables do wrap up, they must be unwrapped. This may be

done manually after disconnecting them, or by using a yaw drive.
118
 WT slip rings
 Some turbines, particularly smaller ones, use discontinuous
cables. One set of cables is connected to the generator.
Another set goes down the tower. Slip rings and brushes are
used to transfer power from one set to the other.

 Slip rings are not commonly used on larger WT to carry

power down the tower, since they become quite expensive as
the current-carrying capacity increases. In addition,
maintenance is required as the brushes wear.

 Slip rings and brushes may be used to carry the slip power
out of the rotor of a WRIG.

 Overall, slip rings may be used to transfer both power and

signals.

119
Example: WT slip rings
Moog WP58484 IP65 sealed slip
ring for harsh environments
It provides both power and signal
contacts in a stainless steel housing.
2 signal and 3 power at 18 amps,
600V AC

Moog AC7008 direct

replacement pitch control slip
ring for GE 1.5-MW WT
It provides direct connection to the
gearbox with wire terminal
connections in both the stator and
rotor junction boxes.
Maintenance free for 100 million
revolutions. Weight: 60 pounds.
120
 WT soft starters
 Induction generators draw much more current while
starting across the line than they produce when running. High
currents can result in early failure of the generator windings,
and can result in voltage drops for loads nearby on the
electrical network.

 Rapid acceleration of the entire wind turbine drive train can

result in fatigue damage.

 In isolated grids with a limited supply of reactive power, it may

not be possible to start a large induction machine at all.

 Therefore, most wind turbines employ some form of soft

start device. In general, they are a type of power electronic
converter that, at least, provides a reduced current or voltage
to the generator.

121
Example: IG soft starters
XFE Soft Starter
Current : 4 – 1800 Amp (2.2 – 1050kW @400V);
Operational Voltage: 230 – 460 VAC rms (-15%
+10%); 400 – 575 VAC rms (-15% +10%); 500 –
690 VAC rms (-15% +10%); Rated Frequency: 50
– 60Hz +/- 2Hz; Start Time: 1 to 255 seconds;
Stop Time: 0 to 255 seconds

WGE SSW06 3rd generation Soft Starter line

Heavy Duty Full Automation Capability
Power: 3 - 1500HP (2.24 - 1119 kW)
Voltage: 230V-575V
Current: 10-1400A
Weight: 7-480 lb

122
Contactors
 The main contactor is a switch that connects
the generator cables to the rest of the
electrical network. When a soft start is
employed, the main contactor may be integrated
with the soft start or it may be a separate item.

 In the latter case power may be directed

through the main contactor only after the
generator has been brought up to operating
speed. At this point the soft start device is
simultaneously switched out of the circuit.

 Motor Contactor in the figure: 3-phase, 480V,

AC power comes in to the three contacts at the
top of the contactor via screw terminals labeled
"L1," "L2," and "L3“. Power to the motor exits at
the bottom via screw terminals labeled "T1,"
"T2," and "T3."

123
 Circuit breakers and fuses
 Circuit breakers or fuses are
installed somewhere in the
circuit between the
generator and the
electrical grid.

 These are intended to open

the circuit if the current gets
too high, presumably as a
result of a fault or short
circuit.

 Circuit breakers can be

reset after the fault is
corrected. Fuses need to be
replaced.
124
 Main disconnect
 A main disconnect switch is usually provided between
the electrical grid and the entire wind turbine
electrical system.

 This switch is normally left closed, but can be opened

if any work is being done on the electrical equipment of
the turbine.

 The main disconnect would need to be open if any

work were to be done on the main contactor to
provide an additional measure of safety during any
electrical servicing.

125
Power factor correction capacitors
 Capacitors are frequently employed to
supply reactive power to WT induction
generators and improve the power factor of
the generator when viewed from the utility.
 These are connected as close to the
generator as is convenient, but typically at
the base of the tower or in a nearby control
house.

Example: Aerovox capacitors

Capacitance Range: 0.5 to 325 KVAR
AC Voltage: 240 VAC to 4,800 VAC;
1-phase or 3-phase
Rated Frequency: 50 or 60 Hz
Capacitor Connection: 3-P, internal delta
connection standard; wye available on request
Operating Life: >200,000 hours
Operating Temperature: -40°C to +46°C
126
 Popular wind turbine concepts (1)
The following table lists the most popular WT concepts applied by the
top-10 wind turbine manufacturers (based on installed capacity in 2002)

127
Popular wind turbine concepts (2)

128
Popular wind turbine concepts (3)

129
Popular wind turbine concepts (4)

130
Popular wind turbine concepts (5)

131
 World market share of wind turbine
concepts between 1998 and 2002

Type A: fixed speed

Type B: limited variable speed
Type C: variable speed with partial scale frequency converter
Type D: variable speed with full-scale frequency converter
132
 References
1. J. F. Manwell, J.G. McGowan, A.L. Rogers, Wind Energy Explained:
Theory, Design and Application, 2nd and previous edition, Wiley.
2. J. P. Dunlop (In Partnership with NJATC), Photovoltaic Systems,
American Technical Publishers, 3rd (2012) and previous editions.
3. M. R. Patel, Wind and Solar Systems, Boca Raton, CRC Press,
1999.
4. P. Jain, Wind Energy Engineering, McGraw-Hill Professional, 2010.
5. T. Ackermann (editor), Wind Power in Power Systems, John Wiley
and Sons, Inc., 2005.
6. P. C. Krause, Analysis of Electric Machinery, McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1986.
7. H. Saadat, Power System Analysis, 3rd and previous editions,
McGraw-Hill.
8. Personal research and publications.
9. Other sources.

133