Federmoghulpistonringhandbook 180826003915

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htm
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Contents
Preface
Contents
General Principles
Nomenclature
Piston Ring Functions and Operation
Theoretical Relationships
Contact Pressure
Tangential Force
Diametral Force
Closure Stress
Piston Ring Parameter
Opening Stress
Modulus of Elasticity
Conformability
Radial Pressure Distribution
Piston Ring Types
Compression Rings
Scraper Rings
Oil Control Rings
Single-Piece Oil Control Rings
Multi-Piece Oil Control Rings
• Two-Piece Oil Control Rings
• Three-Piece Oil Control Rings
Ring Joints
Joint Notches
Operational Criteria and Malfunctions
Engine Operation
Oil Consumption
Blowby
Exhaust Emissions
Tribology
Wear
Scuffing
Microwelding
Friction
Malfunctions
Ring Sticking
Ring Flutter
Ring Breaking
Piston Ring Materials
Wear-Resistant Peripheral Coatings
Chromium Plated Peripheries
Thermal Spray Coatings
PVD Coatings
Nitriding and Nitrocarburizing
Surface Treatments
Tin and Copper Plating
Phosphating
Black Oxiding
CPS and CPG
Ring Side Armouring
Chromium Plating
Nitriding
Piston Ring Manufacture
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Application Experience
Examples of Typical Ring Packs
Design Potential for Performance Optimization
References
Appendix
Wear Measurement in the Cylinder / Piston Ring System
Material Specifications
Piston Rings and Piston Ring Elements
• Cast Iron Materials, Automotive and Large Bore Engine
Applications
• Cast Iron Materials, Large Bore Engine Applications
Piston Rings and Piston Ring Elements - Steels
Coatings
Testing Instructions
Overview of the Current International Piston Ring Standards
© 2008 Federal-Mogul Burscheid GmbH and Federal Mogul Corporation | Legal | Contact
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korihandbook.federalmogul.com/en/index.htm
Piston Ring Handbook

SEARCH Preface
As a leading global supplier of powertrain technologies, Federal-Mogul Corporation is

considered an expert in the design and manufacture of automotive piston rings. Federal-
Mogul has published the GOETZE® Piston Ring Handbook to inform specialists and future
generations of engineers about the key areas of piston ring technology. The GOETZE ®
brand is backed by more than 100 years of experience and know-how.
The most recent edition of the GOETZE Piston Ring Handbook was published in May 2003.
The German and English versions of the Piston Ring Handbook appeared on CD-ROM for
the first time in 2004.
To take account of the growing importance of online publications, an online edition of the
GOETZE® Piston Ring Handbook was placed on Federal-Mogul’s Web site -
- www.federalmogul.com -- in Summer 2008 to supplement the existing print edition and the
CD-ROM. This online edition of the Handbook has been expanded to include the latest
specifications in piston ring technology.
Burscheid, August 2008
Contents next page >>
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korihandbook.federalmogul.com/en/section_5.htm
General Principles
Nomenclature
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Contact pressure p in N/mm2
Axial ring width h in mm
Bending moment M in N/mm
Diametral force Fd in N
Closure stress σb in N/mm2
Modulus of elasticity E in N/mm2
Spring force in N
Conformability U in mm
Gas pressure pz in N/mm2
Piston ring parameter k -
Radius of curvature of the open ring (ring in free state) ρ1 in mm
Radius of curvature of the closed ring (ring at nominal ρ2 in mm

diameter)
Inertia force in N
Total free gap m in mm
Nominal diameter d in mm
Ovality u in mm
Radial wall thickness a in mm
Radius at outside diameter r in mm
Radius of ring centre line rm in mm
Friction force in N
Closed gap s in mm
Tangential force Ft in N
Moment of inertia l in mm4
Assembly stress: tangential opening σbüT in N/mm2
Assembly stress: opening by means of a sleeve σbüH in N/mm2
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General Principles
Piston Ring Functions and Operation
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Piston rings are metallic seals and have the
function of sealing the combustion chamber
from the crankcase and assuring the flow of
heat from the piston to the cylinder. Other
functions are to prevent the oil not needed for
lubrication from passing from the crankcase to
the combustion chamber and to provide a Fig. 1: Forces Acting on the
uniform oil film on the cylinder bore surface. Piston Ring
To achieve this the piston rings must be in

contact with the cylinder wall and piston groove
side. Radial contact is generally achieved by
means of the inherent spring force of the ring.
Fig. 1 shows the forces acting on the piston
ring and Fig. 2 the most important terminology
used.
Gas pressure in the combustion chamber

augments both the radial and the axial contact
in the piston ring groove , i.e. the action of the
gas pressure increases the sealing capability of
the piston ring. Axial contact can alternate Fig. 2: Piston Ring Nomenclature
between the top and bottom side of the groove
owing to the interaction of gas, inertia and
friction forces.
The operational characteristics of piston rings,

i.e. faultless sealing against combustion gas
and lubricating oil, are contingent on the
engine design, the thermal and combustion-
related dynamic loading, the cylinder design
and finish, the piston, the lubricating oil used,
the fuel and, most significantly, the quality and
design of the rings themselves.
Besides service in the piston cylinder system of
internal combustion engines, piston rings are
also employed as metallic seals for rotating
shafts and are used both as contracting and
expanding seals [1].
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Contact Pressure
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The ring is pressed against the cylinder wall
under a contact pressure p which is governed
by the dimensions and total free gap of the ring
and by the modulus of elasticity of the material
used. The total free gap is defined as the
distance, measured along the neutral axis,
between the ends of a piston ring in its
uncompressed state (Fig. 2).
A ring can be given a constant or a variable
contact pressure [2, 3], the latter being a Fig. 2: Piston Ring Nomenclature
function of the angle (φ) (Fig. 3).
Measurement of the contact pressure is

extremely difficult. Therefore, in practice it is
calculated from the tangential force. This is the
force which, when applied tangentially to the
ends of the ring , is sufficient to compress the
ring to the specified closed gap. By comparing
the bending moment of the tangential force
against that of the constant contact pressure,
the following relationships are established (Fig.
4):
For the case when p is constant, e.g. the ring is

compressed inside a flexible tensioning tape,
the following expression can be derived for the
bending moment M: Fig. 3: Constant and Variable
Contact Pressure of a Piston Ring
(1)
The bending moment M can also be expressed

in terms of the tangential force F t:
(2) Fig. 4: Relationship between

Constant Contact Pressure and
Tangential Force
From (1) and (2)
(3)
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Tangential Force
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The tangential force is usually measured with the aid of a flexible tensioning tape
which encloses the ring and compresses it to closed gap. (For commercially sized
rings the friction effects can be ignored.) The tangential force F t therefore acts at
the periphery of the ring. By substituting in (3) the ring diameter d for the radius r
the pressure that the ring exerts radially outwards against the cylinder wall is
stated by:
(4)
The contact pressure of compression rings on account of their inherent tension

generally lies between 0.12 and 0.25 N/mm2 for rings conforming to DIN/ISO
standard. The actual contact pressure is many times greater due to the gas
pressure acting behind the ring.
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Diametral Force
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Calculations are sometimes also performed based on the diametral force F d . This
is the force acting diametrically at 90° to the gap that is necessary to compress
the ring to its nominal diameter. The following relationship between the diametral
and tangential force has been established for the different piston ring materials
based on empirical values:
Fd = 2,05 F t for heat treated and non heat treated cast iron materials (5)
Fd = 2,15 F t for spheroidal graphite cast irons
(see GOE 504, P. 120)
The exact mathematical correlation is
k = piston ring
parameter
u = ovality
The maximum
error using the
practical form (5) of the equation is 5% and may be disregarded.
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Closure Stress
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The closure stress σ b is a measure of the stress present in the ring when
installed in the cylinder. For a ring of rectangular cross section σ b is stated in
terms of the total free gap m by
(6)
and in terms of the tangential force by
(7)
For a slotted oil control ring σ b is expressed in terms of the total free gap m by
(8)
and in terms of the tangential force by
(9)
lu = moment of
inertia of the
unslotted cross
section
ls = moment of
inertia of the
slotted cross section
x 1 = twice the distance between centre of gravity and outside diameter
k = piston ring parameter
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Piston Ring Parameter
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The piston ring parameter k is defined as
(for rectangular (10a)

section rings)
or expressed in terms of the constant contact pressure p
(10b)
with a moment of inertia
(for rectangular (10c)

section rings)
or expressed in terms of the total free gap m
(10d)
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Opening Stress
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The greatest stressing of the ring occurs during assembly, as the ring must be
stretched open sufficiently to enable the inner contour to slip over the outer
diameter of the piston.
The standard formula for the opening stress σ bü found in the literature makes the
assumption that the closure stress and opening stress are equal. This assumption
is only true for a particular value of the total free gap m and a given d/a
relationship. Use of the formula for any other value of m can lead to significant
errors.
When determining the ring dimensions given in the DIN/ISO piston ring standards
a new formula for calculating the opening stress was used which is valid for all
values of m and also makes allowance for assembly by means of a sleeve.
However, it is rather complicated to use.
Based on the mathematically exact relationship
(11)
σ = the stress in the outermost element

ρ1 = radius of curvature of the unstressed ring
ρ2 = radius of curvature of the stressed ring, measured at the same point
a more convenient expression for the opening stress was derived, since the
solution to the mathematically exact relationship would be too complicated.
The constants in equations (12) to (15) were determined by means of computed
tables and assure a high degree of conformity between the equations in the
stated form and the exact solution:
The following applies to rings of rectangular cross section:

1. Opening the piston ring solely under tangential force: (12)
(12)
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(12a)
and k = piston ring parameter (equation 10)
2. Opening the piston ring by means of a sleeve:
(13)
(13a)
k = piston ring parameter (equation 10)

dH = diameter of sleeve
The following applies to slotted oil control rings:

1. Opening the piston ring solely under tangential force:
(14)
(12a)
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2. Opening the piston ring by means of a sleeve:
(15)
(13a)
lu = moment of inertia of the unslotted cross section

ls = moment of inertia of the slotted cross section
lm =
x 2 = twice the distance between centre of gravity and inside diameter

dH = diameter of sleeve
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Modulus of Elasticity
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The modulus of elasticity for the ring material is obtained from the relation
(16)
Given that the moment of inertia l of an uncoated ring with rectangular

cross section is
it follows (17)
that
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Conformability
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Conformability is defined as the ability of a piston
ring to conform to a deformed cylinder bore. A long
process of calculation is required to derive the Fig. 5: Conformability
mathematically exact solution [4] from theory. In
practice, however, a simplified equation may be
used derived from the theory of the closed (uncut)
ring [5] and the ring with constant radial pressure
[6].
The conformability opposite the ring gap (see also

Fig. 5) in a cylinder with an "i"th order radial
deformation ui under which the ring is still light tight
at a contact pressure p = 0 is calculated as:
(18)
ui = radial deformation of the cylinder by the "i"th

order from its nominal radius
Since with increasing i the conformability

decreases by approximately the 4th power, it
follows that high order cylinder distortions are
particularly critical for the functioning of piston
rings.
It should be noted that the simplified theory only

indicates the conformability opposite the ring gap
and not the local conformability around the ring
periphery.
In the case of self-conforming piston rings the
conformability decreases progressively from the
region opposite the ring gap towards the gap. (Fig.
5)
Conformability is improved by the gas pressure p z

acting behind the piston ring:
(19)
Spring backed rings have a very uniform

conformability around the whole periphery.
Accordingly, for a spring loaded ring:
(20)
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Radial Pressure Distribution
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Radial pressure distribution is an important
aspect that determines the sealing function
between the piston ring periphery and cylinder
wall [7].
Continuing development led from constant unit
pressures (Fig. 6) to unit pressures with a
variable radial pressure distribution (Fig. 7, Fig.
8) designed to influence piston ring behaviour
in the engine. Variable radial pressure
distributions in the past could only be created Fig. 6: Radial Pressure
when there was an additional requirement for Distribution "Constant
Characteristic" (round)
positive or negative ovality.
The measure of ovality is assumed as the
difference between outer diameters measured
in the direction ring gap/ring back and at an
offset of 90°.
Fig. 7: Radial Pressure

Distribution "Four-Stroke
Characteristic" (positive ovality)
Fig. 8: Radial Pressure

Distribution "Two-Stroke
Characteristic" (negative ovality)
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Piston Ring Types

Compression Rings
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The main functions of compression rings are to seal the combustion chamber
from the crankcase and transfer heat from the piston to the cylinder. However,
they also play an important part in controlling engine oil consumption.
There are the following types:
Rectangular Ring:
A piston ring with a rectangular cross section. This ring with its geometrically simple
shape performs the necessary sealing functions under normal operating conditions.
With a peripheral coating and appropriate barrel face the rectangular ring is today used
mainly in the top groove in passenger car gasoline and diesel engines. Besides service
in internal combustion engines, rectangular rings are commonly used as rotary shaft
seals, e.g. transmission seals [1].
Taper Faced Ring:

Owing to the tapered running face the ring contacts the cylinder bore with its bottom
outer edge. This shortens running-in and improves oil scraping. The gas forces acting
initially at the running face provide a degree of pressure relief (especially when used in
the top groove). Taper faced rings are chiefly installed in the second groove in
passenger car gasoline and passenger car and truck diesel engines. In passenger car
gasoline engines they are also used in the top groove.
Internally Bevelled or Stepped Ring:

By providing an edge relief on the top side of rectangular and taper faced rings a twist
effect is achieved which, in all operating phases without gas pressure loading, brings
the ring into bore contact only with its bottom outer edge while the inner edge contacts
the bottom groove side (positive twist). This helps to improve oil consumption control.
Under operating conditions the gas pressure forces the ring flat against the piston
groove, creating an additional dynamic behaviour of the ring. Rings of this kind are used
in the top and second groove of passenger car gasoline and passenger car and truck
diesel engines.
Taper Faced Ring with Inside Bottom Bevel or Step:

In the installed condition this edge relief causes a negative twist, i.e. in the opposite
direction to a ring with the relief on the top side. The taper must be larger than on a
taper faced ring without twist or with positive twist so that the top outer edge is
prevented from contacting the cylinder wall.
The effect of the negative twist is to make the ring contact the groove and create a seal
with its outer bottom side and its inner top side [8]. This type of ring is installed in the
second groove in passenger car gasoline and passenger car and truck diesel engines.
Keystone Ring:
A compression ring with a wedge cross section. With its tapered sides, radial movement
of the ring in engine operation will cause the axial clearance in the groove to increase
and decrease. This greatly reduces ring sticking, as the ring continuously works its way
free of the combustion residues. These rings are designed with an overall side angle of
6° bzw. 15°, the larger angle being more effective against the tendency to coking. The
keystone ring is used in the top groove in passenger car and truck diesel engines where
ring sticking must be expected.
Half Keystone Ring:

A compression ring with only the top side tapered. Like on the keystone ring, the tapered
side (keystone angle 7°) causes the axial clearance to vary as the ring moves radially,
and thus reduces ring sticking. Owing to its asymmetrical cross section the ring has a
positive twist when installed.
A half keystone ring is used in the top groove of passenger car and truck diesel engines
when a rectangular ring is no longer adequate in regard to ring sticking but a keystone
ring is not yet warranted. Another application is in 2-stroke gasoline engines, e.g. for
snowmobiles and ultralight aircraft.
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L-Shaped Compression Ring:
This ring is used mainly in small 2-stroke gasoline engines as a "head land" ring, the
vertical arm of the L being flush with the top edge of the piston crown [9]. With gas
pressure acting behind the vertical arm, this ring will also seal when in contact with the
top side of the piston groove.
Besides being used in 2-stroke engines, in some cases it has been installed in
automotive diesel engines in order to minimize crevice volume in the combustion
chamber [10].
2/2
Piston Ring Types

Scraper Rings
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Practically all of the scraper rings used are rings with a step recessed into the
bottom outer face. This assures extremely effective oil scraping [2].
The efficient scraping can be explained by a number of features. The step
increases the unit pressure. Additionally, the step relief causes a positive twist
which, without gas pressure, brings the periphery into bore contact only with the
very edge of the step.
The volume created by the step is beneficial in allowing large amounts of oil to be
stored there. This means that the favourable characteristics of a ring with a
stepped bottom outer edge can be adjusted by varying the size of the step.
The step can be produced in a rectangular or undercut (Napier) design. An
advantage of the undercut step is that, when the ring twists, a sharp downward
scraping edge will still be available to conduct the oil quickly from the outer edge
of the ring into the reservoir of the step and thus prevent oil from gathering at the
scraping edge and diminishing the scraping effect.
If necessary, the benefit of the oil storage volume can be enhanced by the
provision of an additional recess on the outer diameter of the bottom piston
groove side.
Rings with a step have a higher oil scraping effect than taper faced rings , but this
is usually coupled with higher blowby.
The following types exist:
Napier Ring:
This can be installed in the second groove in passenger car gasoline and
passenger car and truck diesel engines, but has been almost entirely replaced by
the taper faced Napier ring. It is now occasionally used only in the compressors
of air brake systems.
Taper Faced Napier Ring:

Like on the taper faced ring, the periphery of this ring is designed with a taper in
order to improve oil scraping and quicken running-in. These rings are used on
the same applications as Napier rings.
Taper Faced Closed Gap Scraper Ring::

On this ring the step runs out at the gap and is designed without an undercut. It
seals better against blowby than the Napier and taper faced Napier rings with a
continuous step. The applications for this ring are the same as for Napier and
taper faced Napier rings.
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Piston Ring Types

Oil Control Rings
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The main function of the rings in the bottom piston groove is to scrape oil from
the cylinder wall, i.e. oil control rings play a major part in regulating the oil
economy of the internal combustion engine. In order to control lube oil
consumption most effectively, various types of oil rings are available depending
on the application [11,12,13].
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Oil Control Rings

Single-Piece Oil Control Rings
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Single-piece oil control rings - like for example compression rings - derive their
tangential force from their inherent inner tension. There are the following types:
Slotted Oil Control Ring:

A slotted oil control ring with two outer lands, the sides of which are parallel
to one another. As the width of the lands is smaller than the overall width a
higher unit pressure can be obtained than with a rectangular ring.
Bevelled Edge Oil Control Ring:

To obtain still higher unit pressures than with a slotted oil control ring, this
type of ring has the outer lands chamfered on the outer edge.
Double Bevelled Oil Control Ring:

On this type both lands are chamfered on the edge facing the combustion
chamber. While the unit pressure is the same, oil consumption is reduced
through the improved oil scraping effect.
In modern passenger car production engines single-piece rings are generally

no longer used as they fail to meet today's performance requirements.
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Oil Control Rings

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Another characteristic of oil control rings that is at least as important as the
contact pressure at the running face is their ability to conform to the bore
distortions of an engine. Given the prevailing trend towards lightweight engines,
higher levels of bore distortion must be expected. To assure oil economy in such
engines, highly flexible rings (i.e. rings with a low moment of inertia across the
wall thickness) with sufficient unit pressure are needed.
The usual way of combining these two requirements is to use multi-piece oil
control rings. These have an additional, self-supporting spring which presses the
optimized ring against the cylinder wall. The types of spring that are supported on
the base of the piston groove are now scarcely ever used as with such springs
the piston rings must also transmit the lateral forces of the piston.
Multi-piece rings are produced in two-piece and three-piece designs:
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Two-Piece Oil Control Rings
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Two-piece oil control rings consist of a cast iron or profiled steel ring and a coil
spring. The spring is a cylindrical coil spring made from heat-set resistant spring
steel and it acts uniformly around the whole of the ring circumference.
The retaining groove for the coil spring may be semicircular or V-shaped. The coil
spring groove has the effect of reducing the moment of inertia. Where greater
durability is required, such as in diesel engines, the springs are centerless
ground, sometimes additionally wound more tightly at the ring gap and in many
cases sheathed in a Teflon tube in the ring gap region. These features have the
purpose of reducing secondary wear between the spring and ring.
In order to prevent oil from accumulating between the two outer lands, drainage
holes are provided. These can be either circular or slotted. For a long time the
slotted hole was preferred but today round holes are again being used
increasingly. The drilled rings have better breaking strength than the slotted type,
offering greater safety in assembly especially for narrow width rings. Additionally,
drilled rings have a more even outer contour, which assures better oil scraping.
The cast iron rings described below can all be produced optionally with drilled or
slotted holes.
Coil Spring Loaded Slotted Oil Control Ring::

A slotted oil control ring with two outer lands, the sides of which are parallel to
one another. Compared to the slotted oil control ring described above, this ring
additionally has a groove on the inside diameter to accommodate the coil spring.
Coil Spring Loaded Bevelled Edge Oil Control Ring::

Consists of a ring similar to the bevelled edge ring, but has an additional groove
for the coil spring.
Coil Spring Loaded Double Bevelled Oil Control Ring::

Like the double bevelled ring, but with a groove to hold the coil spring.
Coil Spring Loaded Bevelled Edge Oil Control Ring with Chromed, Profile
Ground Lands::
The wear coating gives the ring high long-time stability and makes it particularly
suitable for operation mainly in diesel engines. The profile grinding of the lands
allows close tolerances to be achieved on these critical working surfaces.
Nitrided Profiled Steel Ring::

A bevelled edge ring made from a high-chromium profiled steel. Wear protection
is provided by nitriding the ring all over. Like the chromed bevelled edge ring, this
ring is chiefly used in diesel engines. Oil drainage is provided by means of
punched holes.
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Ring Joints
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The most common type of ring joint is the butt joint.
Angle and overlapped joints are not used in passenger car and truck engines,
and they have no advantages in terms of sealing. They are only used in
compressors and hydraulic service.
Joints for improved sealing of the convex step and angle step type provide a
better seal than the butt joint. Such joints are used chiefly in hydraulic
applications. Tests conducted in internal combustion engines produced varying
results.
The hook joint merely serves to facilitate assembly and has no additional
sealing effect. It is used, for example, in automatic automotive transmissions for
easier assembly of rectangular rings which seal against hydraulic pressure.
Butt Joint
Angle Joint
Overlapped joint
Convex Step Type Joint for Improved

Sealing
Angle Step Type Joint for Improved Sealing
Hook Joint
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Joint Notches
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Piston ring joint notches are designed to prevent ring rotation in two-stroke
engines. This ensures that the ring ends do not spring into the cylinder
scavenging ports and break. Occasionally the ring gap is also fixed in position in
the second groove in horizontal-cylinder 4-stroke engines.
The ring is arrested by means of a pin which is secured in the piston groove and
engages into the additional recesses at the ring ends. With the internal and
central notch the pin is located in the piston groove root and with the side notch it
is in either the top or bottom side of the groove.
Of the three systems described, the internal notch is the most commonly used.
Joint with Internal Notch
Joint with Central Notch
Joint with Side Notch
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Engine Operation
Oil Consumption
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Since the term "oil consumption" [14, 15, 16,
17, 18, 19, 20, 21] as used in the internal
combustion industry often covers a number of
phenomena, it would be wise first to provide an
explicit definition. Oil consumption denotes the
change in the amount of lube oil in the sump Fig. 9: Definitions of Oil
over time, usually measured gravimetrically, Consumption
and is affected by three criteria (Fig. 9):
1. Lube oil loss through the exhaust system

2. Lube oil deposits in the engine (extreme
case: oil sludge)
3. Drag-in of products from the combustion
chamber (extreme case: cold operation in
gasoline engine with growing lube oil content in
the sump)
Fig. 10: Comparison of Oil
The term "oil emission" [18, 19] is understood Emission and Oil Consumption
as the loss of lube oil solely through the
exhaust system, determined e.g. based on the
correlated mass of a tracer in the fresh oil in
the exhaust gas stream. Oil emission is
therefore only a greater or lesser fraction of the
above defined oil consumption and is useful
especially in determining the potential for
improving engine emissions. Oil consumption,
on the other hand, is more significant as an
indicator for oil change intervals and, if large
amounts of combustion products are dragged Fig. 11: Oil Consumption Paths
into the oil, it can even assume negative
values. Consequently measurements of both
parameters often do not correlate, as can be
seen in Fig. 10.
For purposes of assessing the oil scraping

effect of piston rings, both of these parameters
can yield valuable information. Currently it is
not possible to determine directly the lube oil
loss solely through the piston ring system,
since oil losses / oil emissions also occur
through blowby and the lube oil elements it
contains, and through other lubricated
components of the engine such as the valves
and turbocharger. Fig. 11 indicates these
different paths schematically.
The diagram additionally indicates a special

overflow construction which is part of the
"Movan" engine oil consumption measurement
system developed by GOETZE. This system is
capable of high-precision measurement with
statistical analysis.
Oil consumption of the piston / piston ring /

cylinder system can be reduced by making
adjustments to all of the three components.
1/2
Briefly, the adjustments to the piston rings can
be summarized as follows:
1. Increase contact pressures

2. Increase conformability
3. Design sharp bottom scraping edges for the
downstroke
4. Design a hydrodynamic running face
geometry for the upstroke / avoiding top
scraping edges
5. Reduce the pumping action in the piston
grooves - more stable contact conditions
On the whole, however, when considering any

of these options the effect on the tribology and
self-cleaning characteristics of the complete
system must be taken into account. Too thin an
oil film may cause wear problems and/or
increased friction losses, while insufficient
scavenging can lead to excessive deposits with
adverse effects on performance after long
operating times.
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Engine Operation
Blowby
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"Blowby" denotes the part of the total amount of
engine ventilation gas that escapes from the
combustion chamber, past the piston ring
system and into the crankcase [22, 23].
Furthermore, gas escaping past valves and
shaft seals or the turbocharger causes changes
in the absolute amount of ventilation gases
(see Fig. 12). As the amount of blowby cannot
be measured directly, measurement of the total Fig. 12: Ventilation Gas Paths
ventilation gas is often referred to as blowby
measurement. However, this can only give an
indirect indication of the sealing performance of
the piston ring system.
Since the piston ring system is a dynamic

sealing system, the quality of sealing is
governed both by the velocity of the system
and the differential pressure at the point of Fig. 13: Ventilation Map (Diesel)
sealing. When stationary, such a system is
therefore more or less ineffective.
A typical diesel engine map such as shown in

Fig. 13 indicates, as may be expected, that the
amount of ventilation gas increases with
increasing mean effective pressure (equals
differential pressure above the piston ring
system). However, if this map is not plotted per
unit of time - i.e. R/min - as in Fig. 13, but the Fig. 14: Ventilation Map (Diesel)
quantities are related to the engine speed
(R/rev) as in Fig. 14, then it will be apparent
that the sealing quality of the system improves
with increasing engine speed. These maps
show no anomalies.
In gasoline engines, on the other hand, there

are more frequent anomalies as can be seen
from a representative gasoline engine
Fig. 15: Ventilation Map
ventilation map (Fig. 15). Up to a typical engine (Gasoline)
speed (here about 4500 rpm) a gasoline engine
often exhibits a similar ventilation behaviour to
the diesel engine described previously.
Upwards of this speed, however, the gas
quantity rises significantly at low mean effective
pressures and at the highest revolutions even
surpasses the full load values. This anomaly is
generally referred to as "flutter" (for details see
"Ring Flutter").
1/2
Engine Operation
Exhaust Emissions
SEARCH
Engine exhaust gas contains gaseous, liquid and solid constituents of the fuel and
lube oil in different compositions and quantities. The gaseous constituents like
HC, NOX and CO, and in diesel engines also the particulate mass, are limited at
different levels for different operating cycles by legislation in the various countries
[24, 25]. Additionally, the CO 2 fraction in exhaust gas is indirectly limited by way
of the 'CAFE' (fuel economy) values. Fuels with a high hydrogen / carbon ratio
have a favourable effect on exhaust emissions. An entirely hydrogen-fueled
engine consequently emits only HC, CO and CO 2 fractions from the complete or
incomplete combustion of the lube oil.
Such "oil emissions" (see section "Oil Consumption") can be controlled principally
by means of the combustion process, the engine operating points, the
formulation and ageing of the oil itself, and also by considering the following
aspects in the layout of the cylinder / piston / piston ring system:
Consequently, the rather conflicting aims of this layout in terms of exhaust

emissions are on the one hand to optimize oil scraping and so reduce oil
emissions, and on the other to reduce friction and obtain better fuel economy and
lower CO2 levels.
1/1
Tribology
Wear
SEARCH
The reaction to tribological stressing of a pair of components
is manifested by material loss due to corrosive, adhesive or
abrasive action and/or by deformation of the interacting Fig. 16: View of
the System:
components, or a combination of both these effects Liner Wear at
accompanied by a change in the chemical properties of the TDC, Ring
interfaces. Since it is often difficult afterwards to distinguish Running Face
between them, both phenomena are usually combined under and Side Wear
and Piston
the term "wear". Groove Wear
Basically, however, tribological stressing should not be

equated solely to the external loading of interacting
components, but rather it originates under external loading
and is a function of the components themselves. To put it
another way, the tribological stressing of different pairs of
components, despite identical external loading, is not the
same but different. A good example of this is the differing
behaviour of chromed piston rings in the " standard lap" and
"special lap" finishes running on standard-honed grey iron
cylinders [26, 27] (see section "Chromium Plated
Peripheries").
The piston ring / cylinder system is subject essentially to so-

called "running face wear", while " side wear" affects the
piston / piston ring system. Fig. 16 illustrates schematically
some typical forms of wear on the piston ring running face
and sides and on the piston grooves and cylinder
representing stressing in a diesel engine. After wear
stressing, the running face of the rings usually has an
asymmetrical barrel shape. The bottom sides of both the
piston ring and piston groove indicate by their form that a
"rolling motion" or "rolling stress" has been present.
A typical wear feature in diesel engines, where a ridge is
formed in the cylinder at the top ring reversal point, is
frequently termed "liner wear at TDC " or, in German,
"Zwickelverschleiß". In some cases there can even be a
double ridge, the second ridge being created by the ring in
the 2nd groove. In gasoline engines with grey cast iron
cylinders, however, there is practically no liner wear at TDC ,
although the situation may be different with other cylinder
materials. Furthermore, on multi-piece piston rings wear can
also occur within the ring system and this is referred to as
"secondary wear".
With a view to reducing wear there are different basic tools

available for lowering the tribological stresses of the piston /
piston ring and cylinder / piston ring systems. At least some
of the options summarized below, however, could conflict
with other objectives such as the optimization of piston ring
performance or reduction of friction losses.
Actions related to the piston ring:

Relieve ring stressing by means of the
macrogeometry
Improve lubrication by means of the macro-
and microgeometry
Use different ring materials
1/2
Actions related to the cylinder:
Improve lubrication by means of the cylinder
macrogeometry (e.g. distortion)
Improve lubrication by means of the surface
microgeometry
Use different cylinder materials
Optimize cylinder cooling conditions
Minimize bore distortions
Actions related to the piston
Control by means of the lube oil and engine
refinements
2/2
Tribology
Scuffing
SEARCH
The term "scuffing" was originally defined with reference to phenomena (Fig. 17) on the
Fig. 17:
running face of chromed piston rings. The discolorations and the so-called "alligator skin" on Scuffed
the chromium plated surface are indicators of thermal over loading. If use of the term Running
"scuffing" is extended to other materials as well, then all phenomena indicating thermal Face of a
overstressing of the ring running face may be captured under it. Chromed
Piston Ring
The distinction between scuffing and seizure is fluid. Common to both terms is tribological
overloading. In the case of severe seizure the surface of the piston rings will show heavy
scoring and/or a welding of foreign material [28, 29].
Actions related to the piston ring:

Use piston rings with hydrodynamically improved running face geometries and
pressure distributions (e.g. asymmetrical barrel face, optimized radial pressure
distribution, axial ring width, etc.)
Use tribologically optimized surfaces (e.g. special lapped finish, channel-type
chromium plating for standard chromium)
Change to other ring running face materials
the chromium variants CKS, GDC
the high-molybdenum "plasma" variant MKP81 A
the "HVOF" variant MKJet502
the "PVD" variant CrN
Actions related to the cylinder:
Surface finishing of the bore surface to provide better hydrodynamic
characteristics (e.g. micropressure chambers)
<< previous page Contents next page >>
1/1
Tribology
Microwelding
SEARCH
"Microwelding" (MW) describes a particular
form of damage to the piston ring or piston
groove side that often occurs after only short
operating times on cast iron top compression
rings or the corresponding groove of aluminium
pistons.
This form of damage is characterized by and
derives its name from localized welding of
material accompanied by breaking out and
transference of material from the piston to the
ring side, especially the bottom ring side. Fig. 18: Damaged Piston Groove
Examples of typical microwelding failures on at 25x; SEM micrograph
piston groove and ring sides are shown in Fig.
18 and Fig. 19 [30].
If the ring with such damage is then restricted

in its movement in the groove or even becomes
jammed, this will affect the subsequent wear
behaviour (e.g. flaring of the groove) and
functional characteristics (increased blowby
and oil consumption), in extreme cases to the
point of engine failure.
There are many potential means of avoiding
microwelding depending on the diverse
tribological interactions between the
component materials and surface finishes and
the operating conditions in the engine [31]:
Fig. 19: Piston Ring Side Showing
Actions related to the ring: Welding of Aluminium, 100x
Actions related to the piston, and
adjustment of the operating conditions
Microwelding can be reliably avoided above all

if actions to the ring and piston are
appropriately combined.
1/1
Tribology
Friction
SEARCH
Internal combustion engines generate a
controllable torque within an engine speed
range and deliver a brake horsepower of
P e =2πnM. The powertrain within the
reciprocating engine (pistons, rings, cylinder Fig. 20: Percentage Distribution of
the Fuel Energy (mB Hu,mixture[kW])
barrels, connecting rods, crankshaft, bearings, between BHP and Engine Power
oil) is subject to friction in operation which is a Losses, as per [32]
part of engine mechanical losses. The
distribution of expended fuel energy over time
between BHP and various engine power losses
is presented in Fig. 20. The ring pack loss
constitutes 20% of the engine friction loss (Fig.
21), with the oil ring accounting for about 60%
of this figure.
Friction is observable as a resistance against

the relative movement of contacting surfaces.
Contact occurs directly (contact between Fig. 21: Percentage Distribution of
Power Losses between Different
solids), indirectly (lubrication) or by a Components and Accessories, as
combination of both in the case of mixed per [32]
friction. Frictional forces are a function of
material properties and physical and chemical
system characteristics. Other contributory
effects are the surface structures, manifested
by the ring running face contour , the
roughness, and the deviation from the ideal
cylinder shape. These structures do not have
full-face contact, so that local contact pressures
diverge significantly from the specific contact
pressure. In the presence of contact and mixed
friction, wear mechanisms occur which are
accompanied by loss of energy. Frictional heat Fig. 22: Stribeck Curve [33]
can reach very significant levels locally and
may trigger material damage which can result
in the failure of tribological systems (scuffing,
seizure).
The Stribeck Curve (Fig. 22, schematic) shows

the coefficient of friction f and oil film thickness
h as a function of the velocity, the oil viscosity
and the specific contact pressure at the
surfaces in relative motion.
The piston ring operating point on the Stribeck

Curve is dependent on the crank angle and
even at constant engine speed shifts back and
forth between the functional values for zero and
maximum velocity, while in the region of the
dead centres it is in the mixed friction zone.
Owing to the squeeze effect, remains of oil film
can be retained at the dead centres at high
revolutions. Maximum relative velocity is
determined by the engine speed. With its
strong correlation to temperature , the dynamic
viscosity is dependent on the engine operating
point.
1/2
Modern computer programs are capable of
numerically calculating oil film thicknesses and
ring frictional forces while considering surface
roughness and orientation as well as partial oil
fill states of the gap between the components
[34, 35, 36, 37, 38] . To determine ring friction
loss, the product of ring frictional force and
velocity is then integrated for whole working
cycles.
In the region of the dead centres the rings
operate in the mixed friction zone; the frictional
forces within the working cycle are at their
greatest here but contribute only negligibly to
the friction loss as this is where relative velocity
approaches zero. Generally speaking, the
friction loss of ring packs may be assumed to
be roughly proportional to the engine speed. Its
correlation to load is not significant. For piston
rings the friction mean effective pressure is
defined as p mr,ring=PR,ring /(i n V h ).
Friction reduction is concerned with optimizing

the functional behaviour of ring packs in order
to improve engine fuel economy. It often
conflicts, however, with the optimization of oil
consumption and blowby.
The main actions to reduce friction are:
Actions related to the piston ring

Control by means of the lube oil and
engine refinements
2/2
Malfunctions
Ring Sticking
SEARCH
Ring sticking must be distinguished according to " hot sticking" and " cold sticking".
Whereas cold sticking refers to rings which essentially stick, or jam, in the piston
grooves only in the "cold" condition, e.g. during piston disassembly, hot sticking is
a state in which the rings are impeded in their movement or even totally jammed
in the grooves under engine operating conditions. Sticking occurs when the oil
together with combustion residues cokes up the piston groove and cannot be
flushed out.
Remedial actions:
Use keystone rings

Increase axial clearance (ring / piston groove)
Decrease axial ring width
Lower the piston groove temperature
Use other qualities of oil with a lower coking tendency
1/1
Malfunctions
Ring Flutter
SEARCH
As described in the section on blowby, anomalies in blowby (excessively high
values at low mean pressures and high engine speeds) occur in the ventilation
map especially in gasoline engines [39, 40, 41].
Such anomalies are frequently referred to by the term "flutter" and are essentially
attributable to two different causes or a combination of both:
A piston ring collapses radially when a positive load differential oriented radially
inwards is present between the outer and inner diameters of the ring. The load
distribution and orientation depends both on the radial pressure of the ring and its
distribution and on the pressure from combustion that builds up in front of and
behind the ring.
The alternating ring contact in the piston groove is controlled firstly by the inertia
and frictional forces and secondly by the gas forces acting over and under the
piston ring. A negative pressure differential (pressure over and under the ring)
can cause the rings to lift from the bottom groove side on the expansion stroke
[21, 38], which will lead to increased blowby.
Remedial actions:
Avoid radial collapse by choosing another running face geometry and/or

another radial pressure distribution
Retard pressure build-up under the top ring e.g. by using a ring in the 2 nd
groove that seals less effectively
Increase the volume under the ring
Piston groove inclination
Decrease the inertia forces
Adjust the axial clearance
1/1
Malfunctions
Ring Breaking
SEARCH
Rings can break in engine operation even if not previously damaged during
assembly, and there are many reasons for this [39, 42, 43]. Ring breakage can
occur on the one hand owing to fringe operating conditions - such as knocking
combustion in gasoline and diesel engines, etc. - and on the other due to
attendant geometrical conditions - ring closed gap too small, groove axial
clearance too large, ring gets caught in the scavenging ports in 2-stroke engines,
cross-sections too small especially due to slots in oil rings, special joint designs,
etc.
Like with all fracture phenomena, a distinction must be made between overload
fractures and fatigue fractures. Typically, a fatigue fracture occurs at the points at
which the highest ring closure stress - about 180° from the gap - combines with
an excessive pulsating or cyclical bending stress. However, ring breakages -
producing relatively small fragments - are also observed near the gap.
Furthermore, it is important especially with chromium plated rings to consider the
notch sensitivity of the material, as notches are known to generate high localized
stress peaks. Chromium coatings have the capacity to generate such notch
stresses. Fundamentally it should be noted that with one and the same base
material the thicker the chromium plating is, the greater will be the notch
formation and the lower the fatigue strength of the rings.
Remedial actions:
1/1

Piston Ring Materials
SEARCH
Piston ring materials are subject to a complex
stressing system under mainly dynamic mechanical
and tribological loads. Such loads call for the use
of materials with high strength (chiefly at
temperatures of 200-300°C) especially in the
elastic range, which also have the necessary wear Fig. 23: Fatigue Strength of Selected
characteristics for operation in normal and dry Piston Ring Materials1)
lubrication conditions. Additionally, thermophysical
properties such as thermal conductivity and thermal
expansion are a major factor in the performance of
piston rings. Increasingly, corrosion resistance and
resistance to microwelding are properties that also
determine the characteristics of piston ring
materials.
Ring materials are selected from cast irons and

steels according to the stated stresses and their
use as compression or oil control rings. Besides
steel materials, the grey (flake graphite) or ductile
(nodular graphite) cast irons shown in Table 1 are
used in a non heat-treated condition or hardened
and tempered.
Modulus
of
Minimum Elasticity
Material Bending **)
Specification Strength **) 103 x
Material (N/mm2) (N/mm2) Grade
Tensile
GOE 61 - 18% strength *) 230 Martensitic
Cr-Steel 1300 210 Chromium
GOE 65C - 1150 206 Steel
13% Cr-Steel 1020 Spring
GOE 64 - SAE Steel
9254
GOE 52 - KV1 1300 >150 Nodular

GOE 56 - KV4 1300 >150 Cast Iron,
unalloyed,
heat-treated
GOE 44 800 >165 Malleable

Cast Iron
GOE 32 - F14 650 130 - 160 Grey Cast

Iron,
alloyed,
heat-treated
GOE 12 - STD 350 85 - 115 Grey Cast

GOE 13 420 95 - 125 Iron,
unalloyed,
pearlitic
The preferred material for compression rings is a

low-alloyed, heat-treated nodular cast iron
1/2
(KV1/GOE 52). This material is characterized by a
high bending strength of min. 1300 MPa and a high
modulus of elasticity attributable to a martensitic
microstructure and spherulitic graphite structure.
For increased stresses a higher hardness is
created by varying the martensite morphology
(KV4/GOE 56).
In the 2nd groove, alloyed grey cast irons are used
in a heat-treated condition (F14/GOE 32). Besides
having a high bending strength and modulus of
elasticity, an increased hardness of 320 to 470 HB
is produced in order to obtain the required wear
resistance in the uncoated condition.
The demand for high wear strength is also met by
the use of a tempered, alloyed cast iron (GOE 44).
This has the benefit of a high bending strength of
min. 800 MPa and high modulus of elasticity. The
good wear resistance results from the combination
of a fine-pearlitic matrix structure and finely
dispersed, precipitated secondary carbides.
Unalloyed grey cast iron is used for 2-piece oil

rings in the 3rd groove. These ring materials (STD /
GOE 12, GOE 13) are characterized by a fine-
lamellar graphite structure in a pearlitic matrix and
have good conformability due to a relatively low
modulus of elasticity.
Reduced width piston rings in gasoline engines to

match reductions in the overall height of pistons,
and increasing combustion pressures in diesel
engines call for materials with increased strength
characteristics.
These challenges are met by the use of
high-chromium alloyed steels and spring steels.
The greater durability under increased stresses is
demonstrated by the improved fatigue strength
manifested as form stability, as shown in Fig. 23 in
a comparison of S/N curves for different piston ring
materials (spherulitic, heat-treated cast iron versus
heat-treated 18% chromium steel).
The wear resistance derives from finely distributed

chromium carbides of the type M 23C6 and M 7 C3
embedded in the tempered martensite matrix. For
improved wear resistance these steels are mainly
used in a nitrided condition or with a peripheral
coating.
The steels mentioned are used chiefly as
compression ring materials for gasoline engines
and truck diesel engines as well as for the steel
rails and expander-spacers of oil control rings and
for 2-piece profiled steel oil ring s.
2/2

Chromium Plated Peripheries
SEARCH
In the tribological system "piston ring / cylinder
wall", electrochemically deposited hard
chromium coatings on piston ring running faces
are noted for their high wear resistance and the Fig. 24: Schematic of Chromium
low cylinder wear they generate. Such hard Coatings Reinforced with Hard
chromium coatings are used mainly on rings in Particles
the top groove as this is where the mechanical /
thermal loads are greatest, and on oil rings as
these have a particularly high unit pressure. In
truck diesel engines the rings in the second
groove are also often coated with hard
chromium. These systems are only limited by
reduced oil film thicknesses combined with
extreme mechanical and thermal loading.
Coatings can suffer damage in early life or after

lengthy operating times. Adhesive wear
(scuffing) and/or fatigue-related peeling (the Fig. 25: Wear in Engine Operation
"peel and polish" phenomenon) can occur. For
these reasons GOETZE developed a special
surface topography, the special lap finish, as
an addition to the standard lapping process
used for hard chromium coatings. Special
lapping improves oil film formation in early life
and shifts the scuff threshold of hard chromed
rings towards higher tolerable loads. The
surface structure - plateaus alternating with
valleys - eliminates roughness peaks, creates
good bearing surfaces for a tight seal and
contains oil pockets with the result that critical
early-life conditions are better controlled.
With demands on the load levels of modern

internal combustion engines ever increasing,
there is often a need to improve the thermal
and/or mechanical load carrying capacity of
piston ring coatings beyond early life. The
patented coating system "Hard Chromium
Matrix with Hard Particles Embedded in the
Microcrack Network" meets such requirements
for the whole life (thickness) of the coating.
The variants resulting from the development
effort, namely CKS (chromium with aluminium
oxide ceramic) and GDC (chromium with
microdiamond), have a crack network that
extends either part-way or all the way through
the thickness of the coating, depending on
requirements, and is reinforced with embedded
hard particles.
Fig. 24 illustrates the structure of the coating

system schematically and shows the repetitive
process steps, consisting of chromium
deposition, opening of the microcrack network,
1/2
insertion of the hard particles, integration of the
hard particles, closing of the microcracks, and
build-up of the next layer of the coating.
The variant CKS ® was developed specifically

for piston rings in the top groove,
predominantly for highly rated diesel engines.
This coating has a crack network running
through its whole thickness and filled with
aluminium oxide ceramic particles. Compared
to hard chromium coatings this coating has
about a 50% lower wear rate and significantly
improved scuff resistance (Fig. 25). An adapted
variant is used for the oil control rings, the final
layer being entirely in hard chromium to provide
mechanical support for the lands.
The variant GDC ® was developed for extreme

engine loads. This is a hard chromium coating
reinforced with minute diamond particles
embedded in the extremely fine crack network
with substructure. Compared to CKS® the
coating wear was halved and scuff resistance
further improved without significantly increasing
cylinder wear. This coating is also used for oil
control rings in an adapted version with a hard
chromium final layer.
Rings with chromium, CKS ® or GDC ® as

peripheral wear coatings can be produced
either in a full-face or a semi-inlaid design.
2/2

Thermal Spray Coatings
SEARCH
Spray coatings on piston rings in the top
groove are preferred to hard chromium plated
rings above all when engines - chiefly diesel
engines - are subject to increased risk of
scuffing. Materials deposited by a spray
process can better withstand this adhesive
Fig. 26: Thermal Spray Coating
wear caused by direct metal-to-metal frictional Structures
contact, as in some cases they have a very
high ceramic content.
The materials for piston ring wear coatings

range from all-molybdenum, which has a low
adhesion tendency due to its proneness to form
hard (ceramic) oxides during spraying and its
high melting temperature, to metal-ceramic
composite coatings and all-ceramic coating
systems.
Metal-ceramic composite coatings today

predominate in most applications as armouring Fig. 27: Wear in Engine Operation
for the running face of piston rings in diesel
engines, while molybdenum coatings are now
only used occasionally because of their
comparatively low wear resistance. Coatings
based on molybdenum and self-fluxing hard
alloys, such as MP43, are nowadays practically
only used in gasoline engines. The all-ceramic
spray coatings will play a more significant role
in the future if the brittleness typical of ceramics
can be successfully reduced.
For the manufacture of metal-ceramic

composite coatings the plasma spraying
process is still largely used. The coating known
by the name MKP 81A is used particularly
successfully in passenger car and truck diesel
engines. Owing to its high melting efficiency,
plasma spraying is a very economical universal
process [44] but is not suitable for producing
the hard metal-like structures that are of
advantage. Therefore, the HVOF (High Velocity
Oxy-Fuel) spraying process was developed
[45].
In a controlled process operating at relatively
moderate temperatures the powdery materials
are shot onto the piston ring surface and
sintered in an ultrasonic flame. In the GOETZE
range of ring coatings such coatings are
identifiable by the name MKJet® .
Among the outstanding advantages of the

MKJet® coatings over plasma coatings are the
finer coating structure (Fig. 26), easily
controllable residual compressive stresses, an
extremely low and fine porosity and exceptional
adhesive strength. This reduces wear
1/2
compared to plasma coatings by a factor of 3 to
4 (Fig. 27) and increases spalling resistance on
all ring designs. The wear characteristics are
comparable to those of CKS®36 coated piston
rings.
MKJet® coatings exhibit a directional hard

metal-like structure which originates chiefly
through powder compaction. They have a
ceramic content of up to 80%.
MKP coatings have a lamellar structure typical

of plasma spraying which originates through
powder melting. The ceramic content is up to
40%.
As there is a wide range of materials available

for spraying, coatings can be specially matched
to specific engine operating requirements.
Consequently, spray coatings are offered in a
larger selection of alloy compositions than
chromium coatings.
2/2

PVD Coatings
SEARCH
PVD technology (Physical Vapour Deposition) is a method of
depositing hard coatings reactively from the vapour phase
onto the surface of piston rings. This involves vaporizing and Fig. 28: Cross
ionizing a metal by means of an arc or an inert gas ion Sectional
bombardment. The metal ions are accelerated to the surface Metallographic
Specimen of a
of the component, discharged and deposited. In the reactive PVD CrN
process the metal atoms react with the reactive gas atoms, Coated Piston
forming nitrides, carbides, oxides, etc. This causes thin and Ring
dense coatings to form true to contour on the surface of the
component.
Owing to the ceramic character of these coatings, PVD coated

piston rings are exceptionally scuff resistant and extremely
wear resistant. The PVD coatings preferred for piston rings
are based on the CrN system (Fig. 28). Alternative material
systems like DLC (Diamond-Like Carbon) are being
increasingly used with a view to reducing friction. DLC coated
piston rings in gasoline engine applications demonstrate a
significantly improved early life behaviour and reduced
cylinder wear especially in combination with Al cylinder
surfaces.
Given the ceramic structure of PVD coatings they are

characterized by high residual stresses, placing restrictions on
the usable coating thickness and the ring design (O.D. edge).
However, it is anticipated that further improvement of the
coating systems (multi-layer, multi-component, graduated
hard coatings) compared to the CrN systems mostly in service
today will enable more widespread use in the future.
1/1

Nitriding and Nitrocarburizing
SEARCH
Nitriding / nitrocarburizing is a process used mainly for enhancing the
performance of piston rings in gasoline engines. The nitrided case with the
resulting significant increase in hardness has the effect above all of reducing
abrasive and adhesive wear and improving scuff behaviour.
Nitriding / nitrocarburizing of piston rings is a thermal treatment in which nitrogen

and carbon are absorbed at a temperature ranging between 450 - 585°C to form
a multi-phase nitrided layer. This hardened layer is created by phase
transformation of the near-surface regions of the material so that a so-called
"case" is produced.
The choice of piston ring materials for nitriding is instrumental in determining the
formation of the case and hence its characteristics. For use as nitrided
compression rings and oil control rings (steel rails, 2-piece oil rings)
high-chromium alloyed steels (GOE 65C, GOE 66) are mainly chosen. The
nitriding produces a so-called " diffusion layer" which has a surface hardness >
900 HV 0,1 and a nitrided case thickness of NHT 700 HV0.5 = 0.05 to 0.07 mm.
Nitriding / nitrocarburizing is also carried out on cast iron piston rings. In such
instances the nitrided case is characterized by the formation of what is termed a
"white layer" consisting of iron nitrides and carbonitrides, with a diffusion layer
beneath. With its high hardness of 600 - 800 HV 0.05 the 2 - 10 µm thick white
layer acts as the wear-resisting layer. The diffusion layer has the effect of
improving ring performance, especially in the case of heat-treated cast irons, due
to the significant hardness increase.
1/1

Surface Treatments
SEARCH
The following surface treatments for piston rings are principally designed to provide corrosion
protection for storage, enhance appearance and improve running-in, and not so much to
reduce wear on running faces and sides or to increase early-life scuff resistance.
1/1
Surface Treatments
Tin and Copper Plating
SEARCH
Electrochemically deposited tin and copper coatings have a low hardness and therefore act,
in a sense, as "lubricants". They are usually applied in thicknesses of between 2 and µm.
1/1
Surface Treatments
Black Oxiding
SEARCH
Black oxiding is used mainly for coating the sides of rails made of carbon steel. These very
thin iron oxide layers (thickness < 1µm) provide a certain amount of corrosion protection.
1/1
Surface Treatments
CPS and CPG
SEARCH
CPS (for nitrided steel rings) and CPG (for nitrided cast iron rings) are chemical passivation
processes. They reduce the risk of microwelding through a controlled modification of the
surface morphology to create shallow micro-depressions and remove grinding mark ridges.
They also have a favourable effect on corrosion resistance and fatigue strength.
1/1
Ring Side Armouring

Chromium Plating
SEARCH
The life of internal combustion engines is limited
not only by wear of the cylinder and piston ring
running face but also to some extent by wear of
the ring sides and piston groove.
A means of remedying the problem of side wear
besides armouring the piston grooves is to Fig. 29: Piston Ringwith
chromium plate the ring sides. Chromed Running Face and
See Fig. 29. Sides
Depending on the application and required
durability chromium coating thicknesses on the
ring sides of min 5 µm for high speed gasoline
engines and min. 10 µm for diesel engines are
recommended
1/1
Ring Side Armouring

Nitriding
SEARCH
Another option for armouring piston ring sides is nitriding.
A controlled side nitriding process significantly increases the surface hardness and hence
improves wear resistance. Precipitation of nitride in the diffusion layer additionally reduces
susceptibility to microwelding.
See Fig. 30.
Fig. 30: Rectangular Ring with

Nitrided Sides; View of the Nitrided
Case
1/1

Piston Ring Manufacture
SEARCH
Grey cast iron and steel piston rings are manufactured in different processes. At
Federal-Mogul grey iron piston rings are cast as individual rings in a noncircular
shape; there are other ring manufacturers who cut the individual rings from pots
or cuffs. The rings are generally machined to the required shape by means of
double cam turning , a process in which the ring blank, already axially ground, is
copy turned simultaneously on the inside and outside diameters. After a segment
equivalent to the free gap is cut from the ring it assumes the free shape that will
give it the required radial pressure distribution when fitted into the cylinder. Once
inside the cylinder the ring is completely light tight on its outside diameter and
exerts the predefined radial pressure against the cylinder wall.
Besides using double cam turning , ring blanks can also be shaped by machining
the inside and outside diameters separately. This involves cam turning the
outside diameter of the noncircular blank and machining the inside diameter with
the ring in the compressed state. The gap is cut out in a step between O.D. and
I.D. machining. Heat forming as a means of shaping piston rings should be
mentioned to complete the range of options, but this process is seldom used.
Steel piston rings are made from a profiled wire. The rings are first coiled into a
circular shape and then the gap is cut out. The necessary shape is obtained using
a heat treatment process in which the rings are mounted onto an arbor
appropriately designed to impart the required radial pressure distribution .
Profiling of the running faces of taper faced, Napier and slotted oil rings is carried
out, depending on the ring design, on automatic O.D. lathes or profile grinding
machines using special profile cutting tools before or after coating.
1/1
Application Experience
Design Potential for Performance Optimization
SEARCH
Strength
Change from nodular cast iron to steel for
compression rings
Use nodular cast iron or steel for oil rings
Wear and Scuff Resistance:
Top compression ring
2nd compression ring Oil control ring

Microwelding
Oil Consumption Reduction

Asymmetrically barrelled or tapered
running face on top ring
Optimize the bottom outer edge
Optimize conformability through design
and product optimization Fig. 31: Hybrid Liner
Increase tangential forces
Optimize the lands on oil control rings
[13]
Reduce static and dynamic bore
distortions
Optimize the bore surface topography
[25]
Blowby Reduction
CO2 / Friction Loss Reduction
The demand for lower CO2 levels brings with it
the need for further reductions in piston ring
friction loss. To accomplish this there must be
a move towards smaller axial widths and radial
wall thicknesses and consequently lower
tangential forces. However, at the same time
the functional values like durability, oil economy
and assembly must not be neglected.
Bore Distortion Reduction
The functional values "oil consumption" and
Fig. 32: (Grooved) Grey Iron Liner
"blowby" are critically affected by such factors without Outer Coating
as engine block design. Low distortions in
many cases enable the tangential force to be
reduced, resulting in lower friction losses with
no adverse effect on oil consumption.
In aluminium blocks with cast-in grey iron liners

the bond integrity between the block and liner
material is extremely important. The typical gap
found between grey iron liners and the
aluminium block adversely affects the dynamic
performance of the engine ( Fig. 32). If the
block is produced by high pressure die-casting
the use of hybrid liners (grey iron or aluminium
liners with an aluminium outer coating) will
assure maximum bonding of the liner to the
block material especially in the critical TDC
region (a quasi-monolithic bond is obtained Fig.
31). Experience in the field shows that this
system provides definite improvements in
dynamic performance.
2/3

References
SEARCH
[1] Dressel, U.:
Kolbenringe als Dichtelemente in der Hydraulik
Kolbenringe als Wellenabdichtung
Fachschrift K6 der Goetze AG, 1983
[2] Englisch, C.:
Kolbenringe Bd. I und II
Wien, Springer Verlag 1958
[3] Arnold, H. , Florin, F.:
Zur Berechnung selbstspannender Kolbenringe von konstanter Stärke
Konstruktion 1 (1949), Nr. 9
[4] Mierbach, A.:
Berechnung der Radialdruckverteilung von Kolbenringen in verzogenen
Zylinderbuchsen
Fachschrift K 15 der Goetze AG, 1980
[5] Gintsburg, B. J.:
Splitless-type Piston Rings
Russian Engineering Journal, Volume XLVIII, Nr. 7
[6] Müller, R.:
Zur Frage des Formfüllvermögens von Kolbenringen in von der Kreisform
abweichenden Bohrungen gleicher Umfangslänge
MTZ 31 (1970), Nr. 2
[7] Mierbach, A.:
Radialdruckverteilung und Spannbandform eines Kolbenringes
MTZ 55 (1994), Nr. 2
[8] Jakobs, R.:
Ein Beitrag zur Wirkungsweise von negativ vertwistenden Minutenringen
in der zweiten Nut von Pkw-Dieselmotoren
[9] Furuhama, S.; Ichikawa, H.:
L-Ring Effect on Air-Cooled Two Stroke Gasoline Engines
SAE Paper 730188 (1973)
[10] McLean, D.H.; et al.:
Development of Headland Ring and Piston for a Four-Stroke Direct
Injection Diesel Engine
SAE Paper 860164 (1986)
[11] Jöhren, P.:
Ölabstreifringe: Ein Vergleich bewährter und neuer Ringkonstruktionen
[12] Jakobs, R.:
Einfluß von Ölringdesign und Ölringauslegung auf Ölverbrauch und
Reibung
[13] Esser, J.:
Einfluss von Ölabstreifringen auf den Ölverbrauch
MTZ 63 (2002), Nr. 7/8
[14] Furuhama, S.:
A Study of the Oil Loss through the Piston
Bulletin of JSME, Vol. 6, No. 22, 1963
[15] Jöhren, P.:
Beurteilung des Ölverbrauchsverhaltens von Hubkolbenmotoren bei
Instationärbetrieb
[16] Iven, P.:
Ölverbrauch von 4-Takt-Tauchkolbenmotoren
[17] Jöhren, P., Newman, B. A.:
1/3
Evaluating the Oil Consumption Behaviour of Reciprocating Engines in
Transient Operation
SAE Paper 880098 (1988)
[18] Bergmann, M., Röthig, J., Seibold, J., Zeuner, A.:
Methode zur Ölverbrauchsmessung durch Markierung mit radioaktivem
Brom
MTZ 58 (1997), Nr. 2
[19] Püffel, P. K.:
Eine neue Methode zur schnellen und exakten Ölverbrauchsmessung
MTZ 60 (1999), Nr. 12
[20] Priebsch, H. H., Herbst, H. M.:
Simulation des Einflusses von Kolbenringparametern
MTZ 60 (1999), Nr. 11
[21] Knoll, G., Lechtape-Grüter, R.:
Rechnerische Simulation der Ölverbrauchs- und Öltransportwege im
Bereich
Kolben-Kolbenring-Zylinder
FVV Bericht, Heft 707, 2001
[22] Wölfle, M. et al.:
Die neue Motorenbaureihe von Ford für den Einsatz in Schwellenländern,
Teil 2
MTZ 60 (1999), Nr. 12
[23] Ebner, H. W., Jaschek, A. O.:
Die Blow-by-Messung ? Anforderungen und Meßprinzipien
MTZ 59 (1998), Nr. 2
[24] Dietrich, W. R.:
Die Gemischbildung bei Gas- und Dieselmotoren sowie ihr Einfluß
auf die Schadstoffemissionen - Rückblick und Ausblick - Teil 1 und 2
MTZ 60 (1999), Nr. 1 und 2
[25] Robota, A., Zwein, F.:
Einfluss der Zylinderlaufflächentopografie auf den Ölverbrauch und die
Partikelemissionen eines DI-TCI-Dieselmotors
MTZ 60 (1999), Nr. 4
[26] Plankert, H. W., Stecher, F.:
Oberflächengestaltung von Kolbenringlaufflächen -
Ein Ergebnis tribologischer Untersuchungen
[27] Gerve, A., Oechsner, H.:
Tribomutation von Werkstoffoberflächen im Motorenbau
am Beispiel des Zylinderzwickels
FVV Bericht, Heft R 497, 1998
[28] Wiemann, L.:
Die Bildung von Brandspuren auf den Laufflächen der Paarung
Kolbenring-Zylinder in Verbrennungsmotoren
MTZ 32 (1971), Nr. 2
[29] Wiemann, L., Oesterlee, R., Uetz, H.:
Brandspuren und Honeinflüsse - Untersuchungen zur Brandspurbildung
in Verbrennungsmotoren
FVV Bericht, Heft 112, 1970
[30] Grunow, F.:
Schutz der Kolbennut durch Oberflächenbehandlung des Kolbenrings
Sonderausgabe von ATZ und MTZ : Werkstoffe im Automobilbau 98/99
[31] Ishaq, R.; Grunow, F.:
Wege zur Optimierung des Reibsystems Kolbenring und Ringnut.
MTZ 60 (1999) 9
[32] Pischinger, S.:
Verbrennungsmotoren, Band I und II
Vorlesung an der RWTH Aachen, 2001
[33] Kessen, U.:
Tribologische Untersuchungen an der Kolbengruppe eines Dieselmotors
bei hohen
Mitteldrücken
Dissertation Universität Hannover, 1999
[34] Patir, N.; Cheng, H.S.:
An Average Flow Model for Determining Effects of Three-Dimensional
Roughness on Partial Hydrodynamic Lubrication.
Trans. of ASME, Journal of Lubrication Technology, VOL 100, 1978
[35] Jakobs, R.:
2/3
Zur Reibleistung der Kolbenringe bei Personenwagen-Ottomotoren
MTZ 49 (1988) 7/8
[36] Kornprobst, H., Woschni, G., Zeilinger, R.:
Kolbenringbewegung
FVV Forschungsbericht Heft 405, 1987
[37] Lechtape, R., Knoll, G.:
Kolbenringreibung II
FVV Forschungsbericht Hefte 570-1 und 570-2, 1994
[38] N.N.:
Piston Ring Dynamics and Lube Oil Consumption
AVL Glide Version 4.3, User Manual, 2000
[39] Goetze AG:
Flattern und Brechen von Kolbenringen
Arbeitsgespräch November 1967 in Burscheid
Sonderdruck der Goetze AG
[40] Dykes, P. et al.:
Piston Ring Movement during Blow-by in High Speed Petrol Engines
Transact. Inst. Mech. Eng., Vol 2, 1947
[41] Steinbrenner, H.:
Messungen zur Erfassung des Ringflatterns in schnellaufenden
Kolbenmaschinen
MTZ 22 (1961), Nr. 7
[42] Jöhren, P.:
Gestaltfestigkeitsuntersuchungen an Kolbenringen im Ottomotor
MTZ 43 (1982), Nr. 4
[43] Neuhäuser, H. J.:
Zum Riß- und Ermüdungsverhalten hartverchromter Kolbenringe -
Ergebnisse der Schallemissionsanalyse und der Gestaltfestigkeitsprüfung
[44] Buran, U., Mader, C.; Morsbach, M.:
Plasmaspritzschichten für Kolbenringe: Stand und Einsatzmöglichkeiten
[45] Herbst-Dederichs, C.:
Grundlagen des thermischen Spritzens
In: Handbuch der thermischen Spritztechnik
Hrsg.: E. Lugscheider
DVS-Verlag, Düsseldorf, 2002
[46] Morsbach, M., Jöhren, P.:
Praxisrelevante Verschleißermittlung an Kolbenring- und
Zylinderlaufflächen
MTZ 52 (1991), Nr. 9
3/3
Appendix
Cylinder / Piston Wear Measurement
SEARCH
There are various wear measurement methods
available for assessing changes in the
tribological system in terms of wear behaviour.
Depending on the method used data can be
obtained on mass wear, volumetric, localized or
integral wear behaviour, and wear forms. All
these methods are legitimate for particular
problems but differ greatly in complexity. Fig. 33: Integral Wear
Measurement
The most common procedures are described
briefly below.
Integral Wear Measurement

With this very simple and quick method the
mean radial wear on the ring running face is
determined based on the change in
circumferential length as a result of engine
running (Fig. 33). In this wear measurement
procedure the closed gap is measured before
and after engine running in a bore gauge
having the nominal dimension of the engine. Fig. 34: Piston Ring Running Face
The mean radial wear is then calculated from Wear
the measured closed gap increase . If the
closed gap was not measured before the
engine test it is usual to calculate the wear
based on the closed gap tolerances stated in
the drawing.
This method does not allow a determination of
the cylinder wear.
Localized (Geometrical) Wear Measurement

In this complicated wear measurement
procedure a profile trace (preferred
magnification 1000/40x) of the ring running face
is produced at a specific point on the ring both
before and after engine running (Fig. 34). The
wear is determined by comparing the profiles
from both measurements. Wear is normally
defined as radial abrasion of the profile. Usually
5 measurement points are selected on the ring
(10° and 90° to the right and left of the gap, and
opposite the gap), though a different number
may be chosen depending on the nominal
Fig. 35: An Individual Cylinder
diameter and/or purpose of the investigation. Wear Measurement
With this method localized radial wear and
wear forms as well as mean wear is determined
[46].
Cylinder wear measurements at the top ring
reversal point are performed using a similar
procedure except that in this case the bore
surface is only measured after stressing (Fig.
35, Fig. 36, Fig. 37). The original condition of
the bore surface is inferred either from
mathematical functions or manual evaluations,
according to the measurement system used.
The previous normal scope of measurement
1/2
comprising 8 measurement points evenly
distributed around the circumference has been
increased for modern engines to as many as 24
measurement points per cylinder. This is
necessary so that wear phenomena triggered
by multi-valve technology and direct injection
diesel fuel injectors can be reliably identified.
The measured values are evaluated as
localized wear and/or mean wear. Fig. 36: Cylinder Wear
Measurement every 15°
Wear Measurement using the Radiotracer
Technique
In this procedure the components of interest
are differently tagged with a radioactive tracer.
During engine running the radioactively tagged
material is abraded from the surface of the
components. The debris enters the oil circuit
where it is registered by special measuring
devices. Ring and cylinder wear can be
individually distinguished due to the different
activation. The wear behaviour at different Fig. 37: Topographical View of
engine operating points can be investigated Cylinder Wear
directly. However, this procedure only enables
the mean mass wear of the components to be
determined.
2/2
AUTOMOTIVE AND
LARGE BORE ENGINE APPLICATIONS A
Issue date: 03.01
Piston Rings and Piston Ring Elements

Cast Iron Materials
Desig- Reference Grade Hardness

nation
KS MED AE DIN
unalloyed, non
GOE 12 K1 47 A 210 6621-3 heat-treated grey 94-106 HRB
cast iron
unalloyed, non
GOE 13 K 25 47 T 6621-3 heat-treated grey 97-108 HRB
cast iron
alloyed, heat-treated
GOE 32 K 11 47 Z 6621-3 grey cast iron 109-116 HRB
with carbides
malleable
GOE 44 222 6621-3 102-111 HRB
cast iron
spheroidal graphite
GOE 52 K9 47 J 227 6621-3 104-112 HRB
cast iron
spheroidal graphite
GOE 56 K 22 130 A 232 6621-3 40-46 HRC
cast iron
Material Specification
Piston Rings
GOE 12 A
Reference: K1, MED 47 A, MC 13, AE 210 Issue date: 06.00
Material:
Non heat-treated grey cast iron,
according to ISO 6621-3, subclass 12
Chemical composition (%):

C: 3.4 - 3.9 Si: 2.2 - 3.2 Mn: 0.5 - 1.0
P: 0.3 - 0.6 S: max 0.13 Cr: 0.1 - 0.4
V: max 0.15 Cu: 0.1 - 0.7
unetched 100 : 1
Other elements may be present as impurities.

Microstructure:
Graphite: predominantly flaky and
uniformly distributed
Matrix: pearlite, ferrite not exceeding 5 %
Phosphide eutectic: evenly distributed
Mechanical properties:
Hardness: 94 - 106 HRB
200 - 290 HB
etched with HNO 3 500 : 1 Bending strength: min 350 MPa
Modulus of elasticity: 100000 MPa typical
85000 - 115000 MPa
strongly etched 20 : 1
Note: The analysis ranges are designed to allow for different cross sections. Variations are admissible on condition
that the structure and mechanical properties are not adversely affected. The hardness data are averages of three
measurements on a single ring: 1st measurement at the gap, 2nd measurement 90° from the gap,
3rd measurement diametrically opposite the gap.
Hardness testing to DIN EN 10109-1 and DIN EN 10003-1. However, the minimum distance between the middle of the
impression and the edge of the specimen must be 1.5 mm. For specimens with narrower test surfaces or with cross
sections having an insufficiently high bearing capacity for test loads, the hardness can be measured to DIN 50133.
In this case the limit values must be appropriately adjusted by means of comparative measurements.
The modulus of elasticity is determined at a bending stress of 200 MPa.
Piston Rings
GOE 13 A
Reference: K25, MED 47T Issue date: 10.97
Material:
Unalloyed non heat-treated
flake graphite cast iron,
according to ISO 6621-3, subclass 13*

C: 2.8 - 3.8 Si: 2.0 - 3.0 Mn: 0.5 - 0.9
P: 0.3 - 0.7 S: max 0.15 Cr: 0.15 - 0.6
V: max 0.2 Cu: 0.2 - 0.8
unetched 100 : 1

Microstructure:
Graphite: predominantly flaky and
Matrix: pearlite, ferrite not exceeding 5 %
Phosphide eutectic: predominantly non-continuous
network
etched with HNO 3 500 : 1 Hardness: 97 - 108 HRB
200 - 320 HB
Bending strength: min 420 MPa
Modulus of elasticity: 95000 - 125000 MPa
strongly etched 20 : 1
* ISO 6621-3 / Draft Sept. 1997

Note: The composition ranges are designed to allow for different cross sections. Variations are admissible on
condition that the structure and mechanical properties are not affected.
The hardness figures are averages from three measurements on a single ring: 1st measurement at the gap;
2nd measurement 90° to the gap; 3rd measurement diametrically opposite the gap.
Hardness testing to DIN EN 10109-1 and DIN EN 10003-1. The minimum permissible distance between the middle of
the impression and the edge of the specimen is 1.5 mm. For specimens with narrower test surfaces or with cross
sections having an insufficiently high bearing capacity for the test loads (e.g. slotted oil rings), the hardness can be
measured in HV5 to DIN 50 133, the applicable range being 230 - 340 HV5.
Piston Rings
GOE 32 A
Reference: K11 (F14), MED 47Z Issue date: 10.97
Material:
Carbidic cast iron,

C: 2.5 - 3.3 Si: 3.6 - 4.6 Mn: 0.8 - 1.2
P: max 0.35 S: max 0.15 Cr: 0.2 - 0.6
V: 0.3 - 0.7 Mo: 0.5 - 1.0 Ni: 0.5 - 1.0
Cu: 0.5 - 1.0 Ti: max 0.3 W: 0.8 - 1.2
unetched 100 : 1
Nb: 0.1 - 0.4

Microstructure:
Graphite: fine-flaked, punctiform
Matrix: tempered martensite with
Phosphide eutectic: punctiform tending to
non-continuous network
etched with HNO 3 500 : 1 Mechanical properties:

35 - 49 HRC
Bending strength: min 650 MPa
Bending strength: 130000 - 160000 MPa
* ISO 6621-3 /Draft Sept. 1997

sections having an insufficiently high bearing capacity for the test loads, the hardness can be measured in HV5 to
DIN 50133, whereby the limit values are to be ascertained based on comparative measurements.
Piston Rings
GOE 44 A
Reference: AE 222 Issue date: 10.99
Material:
Malleable cast iron,
according to ISO 6621-3, subclass 44 *

C: 2.7 - 3.3 Si: 1.5 - 2.5 Mn: 0.4 - 0.9
P: max 0.5 S: max 0.1 Cr: 0.3 - 0.85
V: 0.1 - 0.4
unetched 100 : 1

Microstructure:
Graphite: uniformly distributed temper graphite aggregates
Matrix: pearlite containing 2-10 % (by area) of small well
distributed complex alloy carbides.
Some spheroidisation may be present.
27 - 36 HRC
etched with HNO 3 500 : 1 Bending strength**: min 800 MPa
Modulus of elasticity: min 150000 MPa
* ISO 6621-3 / Draft Aug. 1998

** An exact determination of the bending strength as per material specification B 14 is not possible owing to the
high ductility of the material.
2nd measurement 90° from the gap; 3rd measurement diametrically opposite the gap.
Hardness testing to DIN EN ISO 6508-1. The minimum permissible distance between the middle of the impression and
the edge of the specimen is 1.5 mm. For specimens with narrower test surfaces or with cross sections having an
insufficiently high bearing capacity for the test loads, the hardness can be measured in HV5 to DIN 50 133, whereby
the limit values are to be ascertained based on comparative measurements.
Piston Rings
GOE 52 A
Reference: K9 (KV1), MED 47J, AE 227 Issue date: 10.97
Material:
Spheroidal graphite cast iron,

C: 3.5 - 4.0 Si: 2.4 - 3.2 Mn: max 0.5
P: max 0.3 S: max 0.05 Cr: max 0.2
Cu: max 1.0 Mg: max 0.1
unetched 100 : 1

Microstructure:
Graphite: roughly spheroidal
Matrix: tempered martensite,
isolated carbide particles are acceptable
25 - 42 HRC
Bending strength**: min 1300 MPa
etched with HNO 3 500 : 1 Modulus of elasticity: min 150000 MPa
Coefficient of thermal expansion 10-6/K:

20 - 100°C: 10.0
Density:
7.3 g/cm3
* ISO 6621-3 / Draft Sept. 1997

DIN 50 133, whereby the limit values are to be ascertained based on comparative measurements.
Piston Rings
GOE 56 A
Reference: K 22 (KV4), MED 130 A, AE 232 Issue date: 10.97
Material:
Spheroidal graphite cast iron,

C: 3.5 - 4.0 Si: 2.4 - 3.2 Mn: max 0.5
P: max 0.3 S: max 0.05 Cr: max 0.2
Cu: max 1.0 Mg: max 0.1
unetched 100 : 1

Microstructure:
Graphite: roughly spheroidal
Matrix: tempered martensite, isolated
carbide particles are acceptable
Hardness: 40 - 46 HRC
390 - 470 HB
Bending strength**: min 1300 MPa
etched with HNO 3 500 : 1 Modulus of elasticity: min 150000 MPa
Coefficient of thermal expansion 10-6/K:

20 - 100°C: 10.0
Density:
7.3 g/cm3
* ISO 6621-3 / Draft Sept. 1997

DIN 50133, whereby the limit values are to be ascertained based on comparative measurements.
Automotive Applications
A
Issue date: 04.2008
Coatings
Designation Reference Coating Process Coating Materials
GOE 200 O 2 (MoVL) Flame spraying Molybdenum
GOE 201 O 4 (MP 43) Plasma spraying Molybdenum based powder
Powder composed of molybdenum

GOE 202 O 8 (MKP 81 A) Plasma spraying
and hard material

GOE 203 O 14 (MKP 110) Plasma spraying
and hard material

GOE 204 O 12 (MKP 107 E) Plasma spraying
and hard material
GOE 205 O 6 (MP 96 A) Plasma spraying Molybdenum based powder
high velocity oxy-fuel Metal matrix and carbides based

GOE 210 MKJet 502
spraying (HVOF) on chromium and tungsten
GOE 230 O 30 (CKS 36) Electrochemical deposition Chromium and aluminium oxide
GOE 231 CKS 38 Electrochemical deposition Chromium and aluminium oxide
GOE 232 GDC 50 Electrochemical deposition Chromium and diamond
GOE 233 GDC 52 Electrochemical deposition Chromium and diamond
GOE 234 CKS 37 Electrochemical deposition Chrom und Aluminiumoxid
GOE 240 PVD-Coating Chromiumnitrid
GOE 245 PVD-Coating DLC-Coating
Nitriding and nitro-

GOE 250 O 25, RES-M/525 Nitride segregations
carburizing of alloyed steels
Coatings
GOE 200 A
Reference: O 2 (MoVL) Issue date: 01.09.2008
Material:
molybdenum
Process:
flame spraying
Technological properties:
high suff resistance

unetched 100 : 1
Porosity:
max 20 %
Only pores larger than 5 µm are considered.
Pore size:
98 % of all pores must be no larger than 45 µm.
Sporadic pores up to 90 µm are allowable.
The pore size in radial direction must not exceed half the
thickness of the coating.
Hardness of coating:
unetched 200 : 1 average 480 – 1380 HV 0.1
Strength:
min 30 N/mm²
obtained by dividing max load from tensile test by
the specimen cross section (DIN EN 582)
etched according
to Murakami 500 : 1
Note: Details of test/measuring procedures and specimen preparation are contained in Material Specification
GOE 520.
Coatings
GOE 201 A
Reference: O 4 (MP43) Issue date: 01.00
Material:
molybdenum based powder
Process:
plasma spraying
high scuff resistance and a good relationship between
coating wear and cylinder wear
Chemical composition of the coating (% by weight):
unetched 100 : 1
Mo: 68 - 82 Ni: 12 - 22
Cr: 2.5 - 6.0 Si: 0.7 - 1.4
B: 0.5 - 1.0
Fe, Co, C, O and N together max 5 %.
Porosity:
max 10 %
Only pores larger than 5 μm are considered.
Pore size:
98 % of all pores must be no larger than 35 μm.
Sporadic pores up to 70 μm are allowable.
unetched 200 : 1 The pore size in radial direction must not exceed half the
thickness of the coating.
Particle hardness*:
dark phase: average 400 - 800 HV 0.05
white phase: average 700 - 1200 HV 0.05
Hardness of coating**:
average 350 - 500 HV 1
370 - 520 HV 0.5
Strength:
min 25 N/mm2
etched according to Murakami obtained by dividing max load from tensile test
500 : 1 by the specimen cross section (DIN EN 582)
* measured on the cross section etched according to Murakami

** for coating thicknesses ≤ 100 μm determined in HV 0.5
GOE 520.
Material Specifikation
Coatings
GOE 202 A
Reference: O 8 (MKP81A) Issue date: 03.2008
Material:
Powder composed of molybdenum and hard material.
Process:
Plasma spraying
High wear resistance, low cylinder wear and enhanced
thermal loading capacity .
Chemical composition of the coating [% by weight]:
Mo: 67 - 77
unetched 100 : 1
Ni: 16 - 24
Cr: 3.7 - 7.0
C: 0.5 - 2.0
Fe, Co, O, N: together max 5%
Porosity:
max 10 %
Only pores larger than 5µm are considered.
Pore size:
98% of all pores must not be larger than max 35µm.
Sporadic pores up to 70 µm are permitted.
The pore size in radial direction must not exceed half
unetched 500 : 1 the thickness of the coating.
Particle hardness: *
dark Phase average 400 - 800 HV0.05
yellow Phase average 200 - 500 HV0.05
white Phase average 900 - 1400 HV0.05
Coating hardnesss: **
average 260 - 480 HV1
average 260 - 500 HV0.5
average 370 - 800 HV0.1
Strength:
min 35 N/mm²
obtained by deviding max load from tensile test by the
Etched according
to Murakami 500 : 1 specimen cross section (DIN EN 582)
* Measured on the cross section etched according to Murakami

** Coating hardness HV1 used for coating thickness > 200µm (specified size in drawing), for coating thickness
< 200µm HV0.1
Note: details of tests/measuring procedures and specimen preparation are defined in Material Specification
GOE 520.
Coatings
GOE 203 A
Reference: O 14 (MKP110) Issue date: 01.00
Material:
powder composed of molybdenum and hard material
Process:
plasma spraying
high wear resistance, low cylinder wear and enhanced
thermal loading capacity
unetched 100 : 1
Mo: 67 - 77 Ni: 15 - 23
Cr: 2.0 - 6.0 C: 0.5 - 2.0
Fe, Co, Si, B, O and N together max 5%.
Porosity:
max 10 %
Pore size:
Particle hardness*:
brownish phase: average 900 - 1400 HV 0.05
440 - 590 HV 0.5
Strength:
min 35 N/mm2
etched according to Murakami obtained by dividing max load from tensile test by the
500 : 1 specimen cross section (DIN EN 582)

GOE 520.
Coatings
GOE 204 A
Reference: O 12 (MKP107E) Issue date: 01.00
Material:
powder composed of molybdenum and hard material
Process:
plasma spraying
very high wear resistance
Mo: 35 - 45 Ni: 34 - 42
unetched 100 : 1
Cr: 17 - 23 C: 0.5 - 2.0
Fe, Co, Mn, O and N together max 5%.
Porosity:
max 10 %
Pore size:
the thickness of the coating.
unetched 200 : 1
Particle hardness*:
yellow phase: average 200 - 500 HV 0.05
270 - 420 HV 0.5
Strength:
min 35 N/mm2
obtained by dividing max load from tensile test
etched according to Murakami by the specimen cross section (DIN EN 582)
500 : 1

GOE 520.
Coatings
GOE 205 A
Reference: O 6 (MP 96 A) Issue date: 05.02
Material:
molybdenum based powder
Process:
plasma spraying
very high wear resistance and high break-out
resistance for fast running engines
unetched 100 : 1
Mo: 53 - 67 Ni: 20 - 28
Cr: 13 - 19
Fe, Co, O and N together max 5 %
Porosity:
max 10 %
Pore size:
Particle hardness*:
dark phase: average 400 - 800 HV 0:05
yellow phase: average 200 - 500 HV 0.05
320 - 470 HV 0.5
Strength:
min 30 N/mm2
obtained by dividing max load from tensile test by the
etched according to Murakami specimen cross section (DIN EN 582)
500 : 1

GOE 520.
Coatings
GOE 210 A
Reference: MKJet 502 Issue date: 05.2006
Coating Material:
Powder material composed of a metal matrix and
carbides based on chromium and tungsten.
Coating Process:
High Velocity Oxy-Fuel Spraying (HVOF)
Technological Properties:
Very high wear resistance
Low cylinder wear
unetched 200 : 1
High thermal loading capacity
Coating Structure:
2-phase structure of CrC- and WC-phase
Chemical Composition (w.-%):

W: 42.8 – 52.8 Cr: 32.2 – 39.4
C: 5.5 – 7.5 Ni: 11.2 – 13.7
Mo: 1.0 – 2.0
rest: max. 5 %
Coating Porosity:
max. 7 %
etched (Murakami) 200 : 1
Only pores larger than 5 µm are considered.
Pore Size:
98 % of all pore diameters must be no larger than 15 µm.
Sporadic pore diameters up to 20 µm are allowable.
Coating Hardness*:
average 700 - 1150 HV1
average 650 - 1350 HV0.5
average 650 - 1550 HV0.1
Bonding Strength**:
min. 30 N/mm²
etched (Murakami) 500 : 1
Note:
* For coating thickness ≤ 100µm determination of HV0.5, ≤ 50 µm determination of HV0.1
** Adhesion test according to DIN EN 582
Information about test and evaluation procedure as well sample preparation are defined in GOE 520.
Coatings
GOE 230 A
Reference: O 30 (CKS 36) Issue date: 10.2002
Material:
chromium and aluminium oxide
Process:
electrochemical deposition
Technological properties::
high wear resistance
lower cylinder wear
Running surface 200 : 1
high thermal loading capacity

Coating structure:
chromium coating with aluminium oxide (Al2O3)
Microcrack density:
40 – 100 cracks/mm
Percentage of Al2O3 - particles in the coating:

2 – 6 % by volume
Running surface 1000 : 1 Size of Al2O3 - particles:

0.5 – 5 µm
900 – 1200 HV 0.1
Note: Guidelines for assessment of the coating are contained in Material Specification GOE 530.
Coatings
GOE 231 A
Reference: CKS 38 Issue date: 01.00
Material:
chromium and aluminium oxide
Process:
Technological propertiesn:
low cylinder wear
Transverse section 100 : 1

Coating structure:
graduated coating:
1. chromium coating without implanted hard particles
2. chromium coating with aluminium oxide
chromium coating with aluminium oxide
≥ 5/8 of the total coating
Microcrack density:
80 - 120 cracks/mm (chromium coating without implanted
hard particles)
Running surface** 200 : 1 40 - 100 cracks/mm (chromium coating with aluminium oxide)
Percentage of Al2O3 particles in the coating

with implanted hard particles:
2 - 6% by volume
Size of Al2O3 particles:

0.5 - 5 µm
Hardness of Al2O3 particles:

2200 - 3000 HV 0.025*
Running surface** 1000 : 1

900 - 1200 HV 0.1
* hardness values from literature sources

** area of coating with implanted hard particles
Coatings
GOE 232 A
Reference: GDC 50 Issue date: 11.01
Material:
chromium and diamond
Process:
extremely high wear resistance
low cylinder wear

Coating structure:
chromium coating with diamond (C)
Microcrack density:
40 - 100 cracks/mm
Percentage of diamond particles in the coating:

0.5 - 2.0 % by volume
Running surface 1000 : 1 Size of diamond particles:

0.1 - 2.0 μm
900 - 1200 HV 0.1
Coatings
GOE 233 A
Reference: GDC 52 Issue date: 11.01
Material:
chromium and diamond
Process:
low cylinder wear
Transverse section 200 : 1

Coating structure:
graduated coating:
1. chromium coating without implanted hard particles
2. chromium coating with implanted diamond
chromium coating with diamond ≥ 5/8 of the total coating
Microcrack density:
80 - 120 cracks/mm (chromium coating without implanted
hard particles)
40 - 100 cracks/mm (chromium coating with diamond)
Running surface* 200 : 1
Percentage of diamond particles in the coating with
implanted diamond:
0.5 - 2.0 % by volume
Size of diamond particles:

0.1 - 2.0 µm
900 - 1200 HV 0.1
* area of coating with implanted hard particles

Coatings
GOE 234 A
Reference: CKS 37 Issue date: 05.02
Coating materials:
chrome and aluminium oxid
Coating process:
low cylinder wear
low liability to crack

Coating structure:
chromium coating with aluminium oxide (Al2O3)
Microcrack density:
50 - 100 cracks/mm
Percentage of Al2O3 particles in the coating:

5 - 12 % by volume
Size of Al2O3 particles:
0.5 - 5 µm
Hardness of Al2O3 particles:

2200 - 3000 HV 0.025*
Coating hardness:
800 - 1200 HV 0.1
* hardness values from literature sources

Note: Guidelines for assessment of the coating are contained in material specification GOE 530.
Coatings
GOE 240 A
Reference: PT-13 Issue date: 09.2006
Material:
PVD – coating CrN [O]
Process:
Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD)
High wear resistant coating

Crystal structure:
CrN predominant (200) orientated 1)
Oxygen content:
O: 3 – 15 wt % 2)
Coating hardness:
1500 – 2200 HV 0.1 3)
1)
Measured by X-Ray Diffractometer
2)
Measured by Electron Probe Micro Analyser
3)
Measured from the surface, load depending on coating thickness. Penetration depth of indentor should not
exceed 10% of the coating thickness.
Coatings
GOE 242 A
Material:
PVD – coating CrN
Process:
High wear resistant coating

Crystal structure:
Coating hardness:
800 – 1400 HV 0.1 2)

1)
Measured from the surface, load depending on coating thickness.

2)
Penetration depth of indentor should not exceed 10% of the coating thickness.
Coatings
GOE 243 A
Material:
PVD – coating CrN [O]
Process:
High wear and scuff resistant coating

Crystal structure:
Oxygen content:
O: 3 – 15 wt % 2)
Coating hardness:
1400 – 2200 HV 0.1 3)
1)
2)
Measured by Electron Probe Micro Analyser
3)
Measured from the surface, load depending on coating thickness. Penetration depth of indentor should not
exceed 10% of the coating thickness
Coatings
GOE 245 A
Reference: Issue date: 12.2007
Material:
DLC coating
Process:
Low friction, high scuff resistant coating

etched with HNO3
Coating type: *
a-C:H:Me
Note: * Coating type according to VDI 2840 Carbon films

Coatings
GOE 250 A
Reference: O 25, RES-M/525 Issue date: 01.00
Coating designation:
NT
Process:
nitriding and nitrocarburizing
of alloyed steels
Nitrided case depth:

Nht 700 HV 0.1:
etched with HNO3 30 : 1
as per drawing
etched with HNO3 500 : 1
Typical hardness curve

HV 0,1
1200
1000
800
GH
600
400
200
Nitrided case depth
Note: The nitrided case depth is determined according to DIN 50190 part 3.
AUTOMOTIVE APPLICATIONS
A
Issue date: 11.02
Testing Instructions
Designation Reference Coverage Scope

modulus of elasticity
quality testing (all
GOE 504 B 14 bending strength
material specifications)
diametral force
hardness testing
bending strength
quality testing (all
GOE 505 B 15 structure testing
material specifications)
thermal testing
hot hardness
preparation
thermal spray coatings
GOE 520 B 24 coating characterization
(GOE 200 - 205, 210)
coating hardness
electrochemically preparation
GOE 530 B 27 deposited hard chromium coating characterization
(GOE 230 - 234) coating hardness
Piston Rings
GOE 504 A
Reference: B 14 Issue date: 11.02
Quality Control of Piston Rings

- Formulae -
d
Ft ( a -1)
3
modulus of elasticity E in MPa E = 14.14 *)

m.h
Ft = tangential force in N
d = ring nominal diameter in mm
a = radial wall thickness in mm
h = axial width in mm
m = free gap in mm
*) valid for rectangular rings
(6d - 5a)
bending strength σ bB in MPa σ bB = FbB *)
FbB h . a2
FbB = breaking load in N
d = ring nominal diameter in mm
a = radial wall thickness in mm
h = axial width in mm
*) valid for rectangular rings

FbB
diametral force Fd in N
related to nominal diameter:
Fd = 2.05 · Ft for untreated and hardened + tempered

grey cast irons
Fd = 2.15 · Ft for nodular cast irons
These are empirically determined values.
The theoretical correlation between tangential force Ft (measured with flexible steel
band) and diametral force Fd at nominal diameter is determined by:
Fd = 2.21 · Ft
Piston Rings
GOE 505 A
Issue date: 11.02
Quality Testing of Piston Rings

- Test Methods -
Hardness Test (as detailed in the applicable specifications)
Base Materials:
HRB to DIN EN ISO 6508-1 on cast irons,
HB to DIN EN ISO 6506-1 on cast irons,
HRC to DIN EN ISO 6508-1 on harder materials (e.g. steel),
HV 30 to DIN EN ISO 6507/1 on rings with high hardness and small wall thickness,
HV 5 to DIN EN ISO 6507/1 on rings with high hardness and small wall thickness.
The hardness data are averages of three measurements on a single ring: 1st measurement at gap;
2nd measurement 90° from gap; 3rd measurement diametrically opposite the gap.
Material evaluations must be based entirely on measured values; values obtained by conversion are only
approximate.
Coatings:
HV 1 to DIN EN ISO 6507/2: Coating hardness of plasma spray coatings,
HV 0.05 to DIN EN ISO 6507/3: Particle hardness of multi-phase spray coatings,
HV 0.1 to DIN EN ISO 6507/3: Coating hardness of chromium and molybdenum coatings.
Bending Strength Test

The piston rings are stretched open tangentially at a rate of between 0.5 and 1.0 m/min until they break.
On ductile materials the bending strength cannot be determined accurately using this method.
Structure Test
Base materials:
Cross-section about 90° from the gap, evaluation zone is mainly the outer third of the section, structure is
rated according to the applicable specification or the classification chart.
Scales of magnification for structural examination: Graphite structure 100 : 1

Matrix 500 : 1
Phosphide eutectic 20 : 1
Thermal spray coatings: see specification GOE 520

Electrochemically deposited chromium coatings: see specification GOE 530
Thermal Test
on piston rings: annealing temperature 300°C, time 3 h
on spring loaded rings: annealing temperature 250°C, time 5 h
on steel oil control rings: annealing temperature 220°C, time 5 h
Tangential force loss after heating under installation stress, as per DIN ISO 6621, Part 5.
Hot Hardness
Annealing temperatures: 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600°C
Hardness indentations HB 2.5/187.5 at each of the annealing temperatures, measurement of indentations
at room temperature, hot hardness stated as the average of 6 tests at each temperature level.
GOE 520
A
Testing Guidelines for Spray Coatings on Piston Rings
For determining the material data of spray coatings on piston rings the procedures employed in specimen preparation
and testing are vitally important. It is therefore necessary to establish testing guidelines for spray coatings, so that
reproducible material data can be obtained. Quality evaluations of spray coatings are permissible only on non enginerun
rings; examinations of engine-run coatings primarily yield information on performance in engine operation.
Spray coatings are tested by destructive and non-destructive methods. Destructive testing comprises an analytical
test (e.g. chemical analysis) and a metallographic investigation. The non-destructive procedure consists, for example,
of visual inspection, surface crack testing and measurement of the coating thickness.
1 Metallographic Preparation
The specimens used in the metallographic examination of spray coatings and in hardness testing require
meticulous preparation. The procedure to be used depends on the type of spray coating. For plasma, flame
and HVOF coatings the following procedure is standard:
1.1 The ring of interest is cut radially at several points around the circumference using an abrasive wheel. In order
to prevent the ring from heating at the cutting point, a wet cutting process must be used and the rate of
advance should not be too fast. The cut must always be made working from the coating towards the base
material.
1.2 The cut ring segments are mounted on-end in a plastic compound such that the coated running face of each
segment rests as tightly as possible against the inside face of its neighbouring segment (see sketch below).
The ring pieces may be lined up in several adjacent rows. To protect the spray coating of ring segments which
are so large that they can only be mounted singly, a piece of cast iron or steel is placed in front of the coating
and is cast in together with the ring segment.
For reasons of economy, hot mounting is often preferred to cold mounting. In the case of plasma and flame
sprayed coatings the specimen temperature when using a hot mounting press should not exceed 140°C.
HVOF sprayed coatings may be mounted within a range of 160°C-170°C. Generally it is useful to allow a
warm-up phase of 2 - 3 mins before pressing. After removing the specimens, they must be clearly inscribed
on the back or outer surface!
1.3 The specimens must always be ground such that the abrasive grain presses the spray coating against the
substrate metal. Whenever possible an automatic preparation machine should be used in preference to manual
preparation. It should be remembered that the polishing agents and cloths supplied by different manufactur-
ers vary in quality and the quality of the cloths changes with length of use. Where there is doubt, polishing
agents and new cloths from the same manufacturer must be used and the polishing must be carried out on
an automatic machine.
The procedure for plasma and flame sprayed coatings is as follows:
First, 2 to 3 mm of the specimen should be removed by wet grinding in order to take off any damage caused
in the cutting operation. This rough grinding is performed with 60 or 80 grit (average grain size 260 or 196
μm) ensuring that no heat is generated.
Rough grinding is followed by the actual grinding procedure using wet-quality silicon carbide abrasive paper
in a diameter of 230 or 250 mm in the following sequence:
Grit 180
Grit 220
Grit 320
Grit 1000
Grit 1200
The maximum permitted speed of the grinding wheels is 560 rpm up to 1000 grit and 280 rpm with 1200 grit.
The specimens must be ground with each grade of paper until the abrasive marks from the previous grinding
operation have been removed.
1.4 After superfine grinding, the section must be cleaned in the ultrasonic bath for a short time, max 2 minutes.
1.5 The section is polished with diamond, the following guide data being important for obtaining a mark-free
polished section:
flame sprayed molybdenum coatings

grain size 3 μm, polishing time about 5 mins.
metallic and metal-ceramic plasma coatings

grain size 3 μm, polishing time about 5 mins, then ultrasonic cleaning and
grain size 1/4 μm, polishing time about 7 mins.
1.6 After final polishing, the specimen should first be washed under running water to remove remains of polishing
medium and then rinsed in alcohol and dried in warm air.
1.7 The etching of the specimen in order to differentiate different phases is carried out with a suitable etchant.
All-molybdenum and high-molybdenum coatings are etched by the Murakami method using an aqueous
solution with the following composition:
0.2 g potassium ferricyanide

0.2 g potassium hydroxide
40 ml distilled water.
The etchant must be freshly prepared before use and must not be warmed.
The procedure for metal-ceramic HVOF spray coatings, while heeding the preceding remarks, is as follows:
1.8 If the section was cut slowly and with cooling fluid it will be sufficient to grind off 1-1.5 mm with the wet abrasive
wheel (60 or 80 grit) in order to remove any damage caused by cutting. As HVOF coatings are harder and
more brittle, this grinding operation must be carried out with extreme care since damage to the surface of the
specimen, with effects deeper down, can occur at this early stage.
1.9 The subsequent grinding operation covers the following steps in the stated sequence:

Grit 220
Grit 320
Grit 800
Grit 1200
Grit 4000
The abrasive wheel speed should be 300 rpm and the contact pressure should be 200 N for 4 specimens. The
specimens must be ground with each grade of paper for 45 sec. The 220 grade is used twice, all other grades
once. The best grinding results are obtained if the specimen mount contains 4 specimens and the grinding
is performed automatically. If necessary dummy specimens should be used to make up the number.
1.10 After superfine grinding, the section must be cleaned in the ultrasonic bath for a short time, max 2 minutes,
using e.g. ethyl alcohol.
1.11 Polishing is best performed using napped cloths and observing the following guide data:

grain size 1 μm, polishing time about 1.5 min, 150 rpm, 100 N for 4 specimens.
1.12 Etching may be carried out using the same procedure as in 1.7. The concentration of the Murakami formula
may vary, in which case the etching times will change accordingly. The chromium carbide-containing phase
is not etched, while the tungsten carbide-containing phase is strongly etched and takes on a dark tone in the
optical microscope.
2 Quality Characteristics
The following quality characteristics of spray coatings are tested:
2.1 Chemical Composition
2.2 Coating Porosity
2.3 Pore Size
2.4 Microstructure and Phase Distribution
2.5 Unmelted Particles and Reaction Products
2.6 Microcracks and Fissures
2.7 Coating Hardness
2.8 Particle and Phase Hardness
2.9 Running Face Porosity, Voids, Cracks, Bond Defects between Coating and Inlay Groove Land
(on Inlaid Rings)
2.10 Coating Thickness

The following must be considered when testing the stated quality characteristics
2.1 Chemical Composition
The spray coating is removed from the ring for analysis by stretching the ends of the ring apart or striking it
until the coating comes free. The coating is then crushed. If the coating is contaminated with base material
the analysis must be suitably corrected. The analysis is performed using analytical procedures (e.g. AAS)
appropriate to the elements being tested.
2.2 Coating Porosity
The porosity of spray coatings is evaluated on the unetched microsection. It is important for the evaluation
to be carried out on representative areas of the coating. In the case of inlaid spray coatings the areas near
to the inlay groove walls are not to be considered as representative because in these regions turbulence is
generated in the spray jet during spraying and this can result in greater porosity.
The specifications define maximum values for the porosity of representative areas of coating on full-face
sprayed, half-inlaid and fully inlaid piston rings.
The porosity in the inlay groove wall region may be twice the value of the representative area. The size of
the inlay groove wall region y is defined by the function y = cx, where c is an empirically determined constant
and x the actual coating thickness.
For the inlay groove wall designs used up to now the value for c is 1.25.
The coating porosity can be determined by 2 methods:
2.2.1 The pores in the coating areas are measured with a quantitative image analyzer. The surface area of all
measured pores is set in relation to the area of the measurement field. The average of 30 measurement fields
with a cumulative area of about 1.5 mm² is calculated for each ring.
2.2.2 The pores in the coating areas are estimated by comparing them against a classification chart containing
photomicrographs of known porosities.
2.3 Pore Size
Pore sizes are stated as a size distribution percentage. All pores in representative measurement fields are
measured for size in the unetched section and placed into size classes. The measurements are best
performed by quantitative image analysis as in 2.2.1.
The number of all measured pores is set equal to 100%. The material specifications for the respective spray
coatings state the percentage of pores smaller than a specific value. An additional value is stated for the
maximum size of individual pores.
The specification further states the maximum pore size in the radial direction relative to the coating
thickness.
2.4 Microstructure and Phase Distribution
The microstructure and the phase distribution of spray coatings are assessed on the etched microsection.
As these variables are difficult to quantify, the evaluation is performed by means of comparison against a
classification chart for the spray coating concerned.
The photomicrographs contained in the specifications represent only „averages“.
2.5 Unmelted Particles and Reaction Products
As a result of the spray process, plasma and flame sprayed coatings contain unmelted or only partially melted
spray particles as well as reaction products usually of an oxidic nature.
Unmelted particles are recognizable as more or less round inclusions in the coating structure; reaction products
can be present as thin layers between the coating lamellae. The permissible size and number of unmelted
particles per sectional area is stated. The permissible shape and amount of reaction products is defined with
the aid of reference micrographs (classification chart).
In the case of HVOF sprayed coatings it is the specific aim not to melt the spray powder but rather to compact
the softened particles. Therefore unmelted particles in HVOF spray coatings are not a negative quality
characteristic.
2.6 Microcracks and Fissures
Microcracks in the structure of spray coatings are short cracks discernible at 100x or greater magnification
running between the coating lamellae or transversely across them. Fissures are lengthy cracks within fairly
large coating areas or between the coating and the substrate metal.
The evaluation of spray coatings for microcracks and fissures is carried out on the unetched microsection.
Microcracks are allowable, fissures are not.
Note: A ghost line at the coating to base material interface may be caused by relief formation during
specimen preparation and will prevent a clear evaluation of the adhesion of the coating to the base
material. If there is any doubt, the section must be suitably illuminated at an angle or an SEM
micrograph taken in order to discriminate between a ghost line and a genuine fissure.
2.7 Coating Hardness
The coating hardness is measured according to Vickers as defined in DIN ISO 4516 and is stated as the
average of 10 useful individual measurements per ring. The average must lie within the tolerance stated in
the appropriate coating specification.
Measurements are carried out on the cross-section prepared as in 1.1 to 1.6 above. If the test area is too
small, several sections may be necessary.
The test force applied is dictated by the type and thickness of the coating. As the coating hardness is an
integral quantity, the test force chosen should be such that the indentation will preferably extend over several
spray lamellae or structure phases.
The test forces to be applied are stated in the respective coating specifications.
2.8 Particle and Phase Hardness
The hardness of individual particles and phases is measured on the etched section usually with HV 0.05. For
very small particles and narrow phases it may be necessary to use a lower test force.
In accordance with DIN ISO 4516 the test force is applied with an impact velocity of the indentor onto the
specimen of 15-70 μm/sec. The equipment setting must not be altered for the duration of the test. The test
force is allowed to act for 10 to 15 sec during which time no jolts or vibrations must be permitted to interfere
with the applied force.
The average of 10 useful indentations is taken for each phase. The averages must lie within the tolerances
stated in the specification.
2.9 Running Face Porosity, Voids, Cracks, Bond Defects between Coating and Inlay Groove Land
(on Inlaid Rings)
These features, distinguishable on the running face, are influenced by the coating quality and above all by the
machining. Such running face defects are tested by visual inspection, if appropriate with magnification.
Guide values are laid down in DIN ISO 6621-5 for the evaluation of porosity and voids in the running face
and for assessment of the running face edges and the outer edges at the ring gap.
Macroscopic cracks in the running face are not permissible. If there is any doubt, a decision is made based
on a suitable crack testing procedure.
There must be no bond defects visible on the running face in the form of fissures between the coating and
inlay groove land. However, allowance must be made for the occurrence of a partly discontinuous bond as
a result of the unavoidably greater porosity of the coating structure caused by turbulence in the spray jet in
the inlay groove wall region.
2.10 Coating Thickness
The thickness of spray coatings is determined with a device for measuring non-ferromagnetic coatings on
ferromagnetic base materials (e.g. Permaskop). Standard reference values for different ring designs (full-
face sprayed or inlaid) are obtained based on microscopic coating thickness measurements on radial cross-
sections.
The coating thickness is measured in the middle of the coating at three points around the ring circumference in
accordance with DIN ISO 6621-2 and -4. The measured values must correspond to the drawing specification,
with permissible tolerances stated in DIN ISO 6621-5.
The piston rings must be sufficiently demagnetized prior to measuring.

If there is any doubt, the coating thickness must be determined on the radial cross-section.
Classification Chart for Porosity Evaluation
of Thermal Spray Coatings
(Appendix to section 2.2 of the Guidelines)
Percentage Porosity
approx. 2 %
approx. 5 %
approx. 10 %
approx. 15 %
approx. 20 %
unetched 200 : 1
Inspection Instructions
GOE 530 A
Guidelines for Assessment of Electrochemically Deposited Hard Chromium Coatings

Reinforced with Hard Particles
1 Scope
The specification describes inspection procedures for determining parameters of the material specifications
GOE 230 (CKS 36), GOE 234 (CKS 37), GOE 231 (CKS 38), GOE 232 (GDC 50) and GOE 233 (GDC 52).
2 Parameters
The following parameters are assessed:

• Microcrack density of the coating containing hard particles
• Proportion of hard particles in the coating
• Grain size of the hard particles
• Coating hardness
• Structure of the graduated coating
For assessment of the stated parameters the following procedures must be observed:
2.1 Microcrack density of the coating containing hard particles
The crack density is determined on running face specimens of ring segments prepared according to the
following guidelines:
2.1.1 Sampling
A segment is cut from any desired part of each ring using a wet cutting machine.
2.1.2 Mounting
The cut segments are placed into the mounting mould with their running face on the base of the mould.
To protect the coating, a piece of cast iron or steel is placed in front of the segments and cast-in together
with them (see sketch).
In the case of hot mounting, the specimen temperature must not exceed 170°C.
Depending on the size of the ring and specimens, from 1 to 4 segments can be mounted and prepared
simultaneously.
2.1.3 Grinding
The grinding must be carried out with SiC wet-grinding paper using the following grades in succession:
Grit 220
Grit 320
Grit 600
Grit 1200
Grit 4000
In order to expose the whole structure of the coating the coarsest grade of paper is used until the base material
becomes just visible (see sketch).
2.1.4 Polishing
Polishing is carried out using a 1μm diamond suspension until the specimens are free from scratch marks
and the contours of the hard particles are sharply defined.
2.1.5 Etching
For determining the crack density the microcrack network is made more visible by means of electrolytic
etching using 5% NaOH at room temperature with a current density of 30 A/dm².
2.1.6 Determining the microcrack density

Two 50 mm-long diagonally intersecting straight lines are placed in the image window at 100x magnification.
The microcrack density is determined from the sum of the number of cracks intersected by the two
straight lines.
The crack density can also be determined using an image analyzer with a suitable evaluation program.
2.2 Proportion of hard particles in the coating
The proportions of hard particles in the coating are analyzed by wet chemical means and converted to %
by volume. For the conversion from percent by volume to percent by weight the following specific weights
must be applied:
Cr : 7.0 g/cm3
Al2O3 : 3.94 g/cm3
Diamond : 3.5 g/cm3
2.3 Grain size of the hard particles
The size of the hard particles is assessed microscopically at 1000x magnification on the unetched speci-
men.
2.4 Coating hardness
The coating hardness HV 0.1 is determined as the average of 5 measurements on the polished running face
in accordance with DIN EN ISO 6507/3.
2.5 Structure of the graduated coating
The structure of the coating is examined on the cross-section prepared in the same manner as the running
face section described in 2.1. The coating thicknesses are measured under the optical microscope at 100x
magnification. The measured thickness of the coating containing hard particles is stated in relation to the
overall coating thickness.
3 Other coating features
3.1 Running face porosity
Microporosity on the running face is typical for the process and the type of coating.
Pores with a diameter > 150 μm are not permissible.
International Piston Ring Standards ISO 6621-1 ... ISO 6627
( Overview: April 2008 )
ISO - Desig. Edition Title (concise description) S t a t u s Remarks

Standard is ...
ISO 6621-1 11 / 2007 Vocabulary current edition

ISO 6621-2 11 / 2003 Inspection measuring principles current edition
ISO 6621-3 09 / 2000 Material specifications current edition
ISO 6621-4 10 / 2003 General specifications current edition
ISO 6621-5 12 / 2005 Quality requirements current edition
ISO 6622-1 12 / 2003 Rectangular rings made of cast iron current edition
ISO 6622-1 10 / 2003 Rectangular rings made of steel current editione
ISO 6623 02 / 2004 Scraper rings made of cast iron being revise edition ca. 2009
ISO 6624-1 08 / 2001 Keystone rings made of cast iron current edition
ISO 6624-2 10 / 2003 Half keystone rings made of cast iron current edition
ISO 6624-3 08 / 2001 Keystone rings made of steel acurrent edition
ISO 6624-4 10 / 2003 Half keystone rings made of steel current edition
ISO 6625 12 / 1986 Oil control rings current edition
ISO 6626 07 / 1989 Coil spring loaded oil control rings current edition
ISO 6626-2 10 / 2004 Coil spring loaded oil control rings current edition
of narrow width made of cast iron
ISO 6626-3 neu Coil spring loaded oil control rings in preparation edition ca. 2008
made of steel
ISO 6627 09 / 2000 Expander / segment oil control rings being revised edition ca. 2009

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korihandbook.federalmogul.com/en/toc.

SEARCH Piston Ring Handbook

Piston Ring Handbook

As a leading global supplier of powertrain technologies, Federal-Mogul Corporation is

Burscheid, August 2008

Contents next page >>

Axial ring width h in mm

Bending moment M in N/mm

Closure stress σb in N/mm2

Modulus of elasticity E in N/mm2

Gas pressure pz in N/mm2

Piston ring parameter k -

Radius of curvature of the open ring (ring in free state) ρ1 in mm

Radius of curvature of the closed ring (ring at nominal ρ2 in mm

Total free gap m in mm

Radial wall thickness a in mm

Radius at outside diameter r in mm

Radius of ring centre line rm in mm

Moment of inertia l in mm4

Assembly stress: tangential opening σbüT in N/mm2

Assembly stress: opening by means of a sleeve σbüH in N/mm2

To achieve this the piston rings must be in

Gas pressure in the combustion chamber

The operational characteristics of piston rings,

Measurement of the contact pressure is

For the case when p is constant, e.g. the ring is

The bending moment M can also be expressed

(2) Fig. 4: Relationship between

From (1) and (2)

The contact pressure of compression rings on account of their inherent tension

Fd = 2,15 F t for spheroidal graphite cast irons

(see GOE 504, P. 120)

The exact mathematical correlation is

and in terms of the tangential force by

and in terms of the tangential force by

(for rectangular (10a)

or expressed in terms of the constant contact pressure p

with a moment of inertia

(for rectangular (10c)

or expressed in terms of the total free gap m

Based on the mathematically exact relationship

σ = the stress in the outermost element

The following applies to rings of rectangular cross section:

and k = piston ring parameter (equation 10)

2. Opening the piston ring by means of a sleeve:

k = piston ring parameter (equation 10)

The following applies to slotted oil control rings:

lu = moment of inertia of the unslotted cross section

x 2 = twice the distance between centre of gravity and inside diameter

Given that the moment of inertia l of an uncoated ring with rectangular

The conformability opposite the ring gap (see also

ui = radial deformation of the cylinder by the "i"th

Since with increasing i the conformability

It should be noted that the simplified theory only

Conformability is improved by the gas pressure p z

Spring backed rings have a very uniform

Accordingly, for a spring loaded ring:

Fig. 7: Radial Pressure

Fig. 8: Radial Pressure