Ex ante Impact Assessment

of IFRS 16
22 February 2017

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Contents
Abstract ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 1
1 Executive Summary....................................................................................................................................................... 2
1.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................... 2
1.2 Our approach ........................................................................................................................................................ 2
1.3 The current leasing landscape............................................................................................................................ 2
1.4 Impact analysis ....................................................................................................................................................... 3
1.5 Overall views on the costs and benefits of IFRS 16 ..................................................................................... 8
2 Introduction.................................................................................................................................................................... 9
2.1 Background and scope of the study ................................................................................................................. 9
2.2 How IFRS 16 might affect economic behaviour .......................................................................................... 10
2.3 Introduction to our report............................................................................................................................... 11
3 Methodology ................................................................................................................................................................ 12
3.1 What questions we are seeking to answer? ................................................................................................. 12
3.2 The methodology adopted to answer these questions ............................................................................. 12
3.3 Methodological challenges and caveats.......................................................................................................... 15
4 Defining the Counterfactual and the Current Leasing Landscape ................................................................... 16
4.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................................................... 16
4.2 The European leasing landscape ...................................................................................................................... 16
4.3 The importance of operating leases to listed companies .......................................................................... 20
4.4 The importance of leasing by listed companies to the leasing industry................................................. 23
4.5 The importance of leasing for SMEs ............................................................................................................... 24
4.6 Other aspects of the leasing and financing landscape relevant to the counterfactual ........................ 27
5 Impact Analysis ............................................................................................................................................................ 31
5.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................................................... 31
5.2 Analysis of adjustment to financial statements ............................................................................................ 31
5.3 Analysis of direct compliance costs................................................................................................................ 35
5.4 Analysis of benefits ............................................................................................................................................. 44
5.5 Behavioural changes and potential unintended consequences................................................................. 53
5.6 Wider impacts ..................................................................................................................................................... 62
5.7 Overall conclusions ............................................................................................................................................ 70
6 Appendix: Methodology Adopted in Yield Analysis............................................................................................ 73
6.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................................................... 73
6.2 Sample ................................................................................................................................................................... 75
6.3 Models for non-financial sectors ..................................................................................................................... 77
6.4 Results ................................................................................................................................................................... 79
6.5 Conclusions .......................................................................................................................................................... 82
7 Appendix: Approach to Accounting Adjustment ................................................................................................ 83
7.1 Sub-population used in simulation .................................................................................................................. 83
7.2 Methodology and assumptions ........................................................................................................................ 85
7.3 Results ................................................................................................................................................................... 87
Abstract

Abstract
The current accounting treatment for operating leases is to treat them like rental expenditure. Leasing
obligations do not appear as liabilities, and thus are often described as off-balance sheet financing. IFRS 16
would mean that lessees need to treat such leases similarly to how a standard loan is treated now. This means
that recorded assets and liabilities would expand, very materially in many retailers and airlines. There may
also be temporary profit and loss account effects.
Europe Economics has investigated the expected economic and behavioural impacts. We found the main
driver of compliance costs to be changes to lessees’ IT and accounting systems. Users of financial reports
would benefit due to increased transparency and comparability, but these would be limited in scope since
most public capital market users and, to a lesser extent, users at lenders / lessors already undertake work
similar to IFRS 16’s expected effect. We also find that a small minority of lessees can be expected to seek
amendments to leasing contracts to maintain the existing off-balance sheet treatment.
Any consequent reduction in demand for leasing from listed companies should not be significant. We have
not found a credible pathway by which unlisted companies, such as SMEs, would be affected by the
implementation of IFRS 16 Leases on listed companies.

The information and views set out in this report are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the
views or opinion of EFRAG. EFRAG does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this report.
EFRAG may not be held responsible for the use which may be made of the information contained therein.
EFRAG receives financial support of the European Union - DG Financial Stability, Financial Services and Capital
Markets Union. The contents of this document is the sole responsibility of the author(s) and can under no
circumstances be regarded as reflecting the position of the European Union.

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Executive Summary

1 Executive Summary
1.1 Introduction
Currently, there is a distinction between a finance lease and an operating lease. The former is treated similarly
to a standard loan and has to be accounted for in the company’s balance sheet. Operating leases, on the
other hand, are treated like rental expenditure. As such, they do not appear as liabilities in standard financial
statements, and thus are often described as off-balance sheet financing.
IFRS 16 would eliminate, for lessees, the classification of leases as either finance or operating, and treat nearly
all leases similarly to how finance leases are treated currently (there are exceptions around leases of low-
value assets or agreements with less than one year to run). This means that the assets and liabilities recorded
on balance sheets will expand. There may also be temporary profit and loss account effects.
The role of Europe Economics, an independent economics consultancy, has been to provide economic and
behavioural expertise to the European Financial Reporting Advisory Group (EFRAG) in its ex ante impact
analysis of IFRS 16 Leases. This will be an input to EFRAG’s endorsement advice to the European Commission
on whether endorsement of IFRS 16 would be conducive to the European public good.

1.2 Our approach

EFRAG is required to consider whether it would be conducive to the European public good to endorse IFRS
16. This study was commissioned to contribute to this determination. In particular, it is intended to contribute
to answering the following questions:
 What impact could IFRS 16 have on the behaviour of lessees listed on Regulated Markets, investors and
lenders and the impact of any anticipated behavioural changes on the European Union (EU) economy?
 What economic costs and benefits could arise from the endorsement of IFRS 16?
 What is the potential impact of endorsing IFRS 16 on the European Union leasing industry?
 How could the implementation of IFRS 16 impact upon the financing available to unlisted SMEs?
 What other unintended consequences could arise due to the implementation of IFRS 16?
Our approach to answering these questions has involved desktop research, primary data gathering, and data
analysis. The primary data gathering involved YouGov’s market research (with 186 lessees and 90 lenders /
lessors interviewed) and additional stakeholder interviews conducted by Europe Economics. We used
financial reporting and capital market data to describe the scale of accounting adjustments (i.e. estimating
how balance sheets and profitability could be affected by IFRS 16) and also to test the current debt capital
market treatment of operating leases.
All these components have been subsequently synthesised to bring all the evidence strands together. The
outcome is an ex ante cost and benefit analysis of IFRS 16, including the analysis of wider impacts and potential
behavioural changes.

1.3 The current leasing landscape

Leasing and hire purchase agreements are common methods of business financing in Europe in the broadest
sense (not just the EU and European Economic Area, EEA, countries). In particular, leasing is used to finance
a wide range of assets, including cars, trucks, industrial machinery and equipment, IT and other office
equipment, planes, and real estate to name but a few. In the global leasing landscape defined in its widest

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Executive Summary

sense (i.e. including hire purchase), Europe plays a major role, accounting for 38 per cent of total volume,
with Germany and UK being the largest markets.
Across the EEA, the estimated total value for new leasing agreements was €216 billion across all types of
client in 2015, with outstanding lease obligations standing at €566 billion at the end of that year.1 The largest
markets for leasing — again across all clients — are Germany and France. About ninety per cent (by value)
of lease issuance in a year relates to plant and equipment, including vehicles. Real estate leases have a longer
duration such that operating leases related to property account for about 35 per cent of the value of
outstanding lease obligations.
Leasing companies can be banks, bank-owned subsidiaries, independent companies or the financing arms of
manufacturing companies, known as captive lessors. Although bank owned leasing companies are the major
players in Europe, the large variety of parties involved in the market results in a range of business models
that differ according to the leasing company’s strategy and market position, as well as corresponding
distribution channels. The most popular distribution channels used by European leasing companies are direct
sales and the banking networks. The vendor channel is also particularly used for small companies. Other
channels include dealer point-of-sale and brokers.
When we consider only listed companies, those with headquarters in the UK, Germany and France have the
largest operating lease obligations currently outstanding. In aggregate, we believe that companies with a
primary listing in the EEA account for at least half of the new leases entered into in Europe.
Amongst the different types of leases, operating leases are particularly important within the overall European
leasing context, not least for listed companies. Companies in the Airlines, Telecommunications and Retail
sectors are substantially more reliant on operating leasing than other sectors. Companies enter into leases
for a mix of reasons. Balance sheet presentation is an important factor for at least some lessees. Indeed, it
was cited as the single most important factor for using operating leasing by 13 per cent of those with a
property lease and eight per cent of those with a plant and equipment lease. Operational flexibility was the
most frequently cited single most important factor for leasing plant and equipment (23 per cent of lessees),
with risk sharing being the most commonly identified such factor in property leasing (16 per cent of property
lessees).

1.4 Impact analysis

1.4.1 Accounting impacts

The main impact of IFRS 16 will be to bring assets held under operating leases and the lease liabilities onto
balance sheets. Profitability and leverage ratios would also be affected. We have simulated these effects on
EU / EEA companies listed on a Regulated Market in the EU / EEA, as if they applied IFRS 16 in 2015 to their
existing leases. We stress that there are limitations inherent in the nature of this simulation, e.g. around the
length of asset lives, that could materially affect these results — i.e. this is not a prediction, rather a tool for
assessing the approximate potential scale of impacts, and the number of companies that could be affected.
The total simulated lease liability of these companies is around €576 billion, representing 15 per cent of total
debt of lessees if we exclude banks, insurance and financial services companies.2 Amongst the three most
operating lease-intensive sectors (i.e. Airlines, Retail and Travel & Leisure), the simulated liabilities represent
at least 40 per cent of total debt. The associated right of use (ROU) asset value for the lessees in our

1
The value of new lease agreements reaches €229 billion (€592 billion in outstanding value) including also Switzerland.
2
The total debt variable is defined by Bloomberg LLP. It includes both short-term and long-term debt.

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Executive Summary

simulation is €528-551 billion,3 representing 14-15 per cent of the total net book value (NBV) of property,
plant and equipment.
Over the life of a lease there should be no profitability impact due to IFRS 16. However this need not hold
in any given year. Hence, all profit impacts simulated are indicative only of potential short-term changes. We
considered different profitability measures to gain a holistic picture on the overall impact, and results confirm
our hypothesis:
 Around 26 per cent of companies has an EBT/turnover impact above one per cent.
 The overall EBITDA impact on current lessees is an increase of around 10 per cent. In total, 55 per
cent of companies experience an EBITDA increase of less than ten percent.
There are wide sector variations. For instance, amongst the Airlines industry, one-third of companies in our
simulation experience an EBITDA impact larger than 100 per cent. The proportion is lower for other
operating-lease-intensive industry (around 10 per cent). Those with a significant deterioration in profitability
— and without automatic mechanisms to adjust for the change in IFRS — are likely, for example, to have
more significant dialogue around revising remuneration schemes and/or debt covenants.
Figure 1.1: EBITDA impact by sector

Source: Bloomberg LLP and Europe Economics calculations.

Leverage ratios are used together with other financial metrics to assess a company’s ability to meet its
financial obligations. Overall, leverage ratios are expected to increase slightly. The Debt/Equity ratio has
increased from 0.8 to 1 and Debt/Asset ratio increased from 28 per cent to 32 per cent.4 Again, the increase
is the most significant in the Airlines, Retail and Travel & Leisure industries. This could trigger the
renegotiation of financial covenants, or even — if a user of the financial statements had not appreciated the
significance of operating leases — reports change perceptions of a company’s creditworthiness. We return
to both these issues below.

1.4.2 Direct compliance costs

To understand the burden of compliance due to IFRS 16, we have analysed possible impacts on lessees and
lessors / lenders. We have constructed cost models which estimate the total one-off implementation cost of
compliance in the EEA as €182–221 million and the annual ongoing costs as € 40–46 million (directly borne

3
The simulated assets are sensitive to asset life assumptions. For details, see Appendix 7.
4
Aggregate results exclude banks, insurance and financial services sectors for reasons of comparability.

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Executive Summary

by the approximately 2,300 lessees reporting operating lease commitments in the EEA). This is almost
negligible compared to these companies’ aggregate profit before tax, being 0.05 per cent of the pre-tax
income. We note that a few large companies have commented that delays in the endorsement would increase
the cost of implementation significantly.
The majority of these costs would be incurred by lessees. Table 1.1 shows the breakdown of the one-off and
ongoing costs for lessees.
Table 1.1: One-off and ongoing costs of compliance on lessees

Average one- Average

Number Total
off costs per ongoing costs Total one-off
of ongoing
company per company costs (€m)
companies costs (€m)
(€000) (€000)
Turnover band
Less than €500m 1248 13-16 2-3 16-20 3-4
€500m-€5bn 746 75-91 19-22 56-68 14-16
Above €5bn 300 337-404 76-88 101-120 23-26
Total 173-208 40-46
Breakdown by category
Accounting systems 162-186 40-46
Renegotiation of debt 7-8 NA
Remuneration schemes 5-15 NA
Total 173-208 40-46
Source: Europe Economics.

For lessees, IT and accounting system implementation accounts for around 90 per cent of the total one-off
compliance costs. The main one-off costs are expected to relate to the analysis of existing contracts, the
purchase of additional IT systems, and potential process changes. This equates to €162–€186 million across
all lessees. We found that the expected cost varies significantly between companies. This stems from the
diversity in the number and type of operating leases and differences in the current IT systems and processes.
Companies with more operating leases would need more time to incorporate their contracts onto their new
system. Similarly, if the lease portfolio contains dissimilar assets and / or variant terms and conditions,
companies would need to spend more time in establishing processes and valuation methodologies for each
type, which could increase the cost of implementation, and likely trigger increased reliance on external
expertise.
The average ongoing cost for lessees is smaller than the implementation cost. This is to be expected as
subsequent to the actual implementation, the revised processes can be absorbed into business-as-usual.
Similarly, the objective of at least some of the one-off spending is to achieve process automation, i.e.
promoting a lower incremental ongoing cost. Indeed, about one-fifth of the lessees did not expect to incur
additional ongoing costs due to IFRS 16. The main driver for ongoing costs is the monitoring of capitalised
operating leases and any IT maintenance costs. The ongoing costs are likely to be higher for lessees that have
more frequent lease changes. These changes would trigger the need to reassess and re-measure the lease
liability and ROU assets. We estimate the total ongoing costs for lessees to be around €40-46 million.
In terms of renegotiation of debt covenants, we expect about 30 per cent of lessees to be involved in the
renegotiation of existing debt covenants to adjust for changed accounting metrics. The majority of these
expect a relatively trivial exercise — but a notable minority of this group anticipate that this process would
be significant. The cost of renegotiation would depend on the number of lease contracts, the terms of these
contracts (e.g. whether or not there is an automatic adjustment), and the significance of changes in affected
financial metrics. Such costs have been considered from both the lessees’ and lenders’ perspective. Overall
the total one-off cost of renegotiating debt covenants for the lessees is expected to be around €6.8–7.8

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million. Although the direct cost of renegotiation is low, any such debt renegotiation would be important to
a company to ensure that its operational headroom is not compromised.
IFRS 16 would change companies’ profitability and leverage ratios, some more than others. The more
significant changes are likely to trigger renegotiations of remuneration incentive schemes and/or debt
covenants. We have quantified the cost of each of these in turn. About 69 per cent of lessees who are familiar
with IFRS 16 said that they are likely to renegotiate their remuneration schemes in consequence of its
implementation. We have constructed a model to quantify the cost of reviewing employment contracts and
communicating the changes to the relevant employees. Based on our assumptions, the total one-off cost of
this knock-on effect would be around €5–€15 million. Given that there will be a transitional period of up to
two years before companies are obliged to implement IFRS 16, some of these costs may be capable of being
spread over a longer time period, and perhaps, in part, avoided altogether.
Implementation costs for lenders and lessors are expected to be much lower than for lessees. This is because
most lenders are already making adjustments for operating leases when evaluating a company’s
creditworthiness. We found that the total one-off IT implementation cost would be around €5.6–€8.9 million.
Interestingly, of those who are currently making adjustments, about half indicated that they would either
cease to make adjustments or do so with less intensity. However, this does not mean that costs incurred to
analyse client creditworthiness will change in a material way. Given that research and adjusted data relating
to operating leases only constitute a small proportion of all the research and adjustments credit agencies
make, most credit agencies we interviewed do not expect there to be significant cost reductions in the short
run. Based on the proportion of lessees who need to renegotiate terms, we estimated that the renegotiation
cost to lenders would be around €3.2–€4.0 million, slightly less than that for lessees (with a total combined
cost for this activity, across both lessees and lenders, of €10.0–€11.8 million).

1.4.3 Benefits
To the extent that operating leases (with the exception of short-term and low value leases) are similar in
nature to debt obligations, bringing them on to the face of the financial statements is likely to have a number
of benefits for users of financial statements:
 It could facilitate any assessment of a lessee’s financial position and credit risk.
 It would limit companies’ ability to manipulate the lease contracts to some extent so that they are
classified as off-balance sheet debt.
 Finally, including the information on operating leases on the balance sheet and income statement would
mean that this information would be easily available to all investors to enable accurate estimation of a
company’s liabilities and not only to the more sophisticated investors.
Lessees do anticipate enhanced investor sentiment as a result of the altered financial statements. Our
research indicates that the current practice of equity analysts in many markets is to make adjustments to
approximate the capitalisation of operating leases, at least for the larger listed companies — in which case,
changes in actual investor sentiment should be limited (i.e. the net benefit is likely to be small). The
expectations of lessees around improving investor sentiment are negatively correlated with size, i.e. smaller
lessees are more likely to expect an improvement in investor sentiment.
In corporate bond markets, analysts at the major credit rating agencies also make numerous adjustments to
the financial statements of corporate issuers to increase comparability and to better reflect credit risks.
Analysis of corporate bond yields further confirms that fixed income markets are largely cognisant of the
economics of operating leases, and therefore the benefit in terms of enhanced understanding by capital
markets or improved comparability will be limited. On the other hand, it also indicates that the scope for
unpleasant surprises around the creditworthiness of lessees is also quite limited.

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Executive Summary

In private capital markets, a majority of lessors and lenders expect benefits to arise in terms of enhanced
comparability and reduced subjectivity. All these outcomes suggest that IFRS 16 could contribute towards
fairer competition in the market — with easier and more equal access to the relevant information about the
way lease contracts are structured. The extent to which these benefits materialise depends on whether
market participants are currently inefficient or limited in estimating the effect of off-balance sheet obligations.
As we have described in Chapter 4, there is a substantial minority for whom IFRS 16 would represent a
material change in approach. A cautionary note is that some stakeholders are concerned that IFRS 16 may
introduce some elements of subjectivity due to differences in the approach adopted by lessees in determining
lease term, etc.
A further possibility is that, if IFRS 16 reduces any information asymmetry between borrowers and lenders,
then pricing risk (i.e. the risk of pricing a loan incorrectly) could be reduced. The above findings, particularly
round reducing subjectivity, show that some contribution to reducing information asymmetry is anticipated
by a majority of lenders — albeit with a substantial minority that do not expect this (and may even anticipate
a worsening situation, e.g. because of regulatory arbitrage around revised leasing terms).

1.4.4 Behavioural effects and wider impacts

In addition to these compliance costs we have also identified how:
 A non-negligible proportion of lessees could be willing to switch to short-term or variable payment types
of leases despite a higher cost associated with these types of leases. This might represent about 2–3 per
cent of plant and equipment lessees, and 11–13 per cent of property lessees — amongst those required
to implement IFRS 16 — being motivated to switch a substantial part of their leasing portfolios to
(sufficiently) shorter-term leases or leases incorporating variable payment structures — and also to be
likely to find a willing lessor. The increase in financing costs associated with these is not large, €2.3–€5.1
million but the trend towards forms of lease that remain off-balance sheet under IFRS 16 could limit the
benefits experienced by the users of financial statements.
 The one-off compliance costs are expected to be treated as a sunk cost and we do not expect companies
to take these into account when making financing decisions. However, the ongoing cost may be
considered together with other factors affecting the cost of financing of leases, at least to some extent.
In consequence, listed lessee companies could seek more competitive lease pricing or seek to substitute
other debt products for leasing in order to compensate for the additional compliance costs incurred.
 We do not expect this to have materially deleterious impacts on the leasing industry, or on its
sustainability. Bearing in mind that the majority of the leasing industry is owned by larger banking groups,
any effects would seem likely to be experienced most by independent or niche operators.
 In terms of unlisted SMEs, there could be minor knock-on effects on the availability or the pricing, of
leasing to other lessees. First, if the there is a small reduction in demand by listed companies for leasing,
then we would expect lessors to adopt a mix of strategies, potentially including price changes for some
other lessees — including but not limited to — SMEs. The volume of leasing that lessors were willing to
make available to SMEs would as likely increase (to a small extent) as fall. Second, if there is increased
pricing pressure from listed lessees, we would expect lessors to seek to recoup additional revenues from
other clients. This may well require additional efforts at market segmentation by lessors. SME demand
for leasing could adjust in such circumstances, dependent on the availability of substitutes. However, given
that our analysis suggests that any increase (or a decrease) in the cost of operating leases would most
likely be a few basis points, at worst, then the impact on the overall cost of capital should be negligible.
Our analysis shows that, as long as the ongoing compliance costs are fully reflected in the cost of operating
leases, we can expect an increase in the cost of financing via operating leases to be in the range of 3-3.5bps.
Given the magnitude of the increase, lessors and lenders might choose to absorb all or part of this increase
in operating costs as overheads. This implies an ongoing cost of up to €46 million. Alternatively, lessors and

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Executive Summary

lenders might decide to pass this additional cost on lessees. The survey responses suggested that some lessees
might be sensitive to such price change. Accounting for differences between plant & equipment and property
lessees in terms of price sensitivity and the value of annual operating lease obligations, we estimated that
overall up to 5 per cent of leases would be switched to an alternative funding option.

1.5 Overall views on the costs and benefits of IFRS 16

We found the main driver of compliance costs to be changes to lessees’ IT and accounting systems. Users of
financial reports would benefit due to increased transparency and comparability, but these would be limited
in scope since most public capital market users and, to a lesser extent, users at lenders / lessors already
undertake work similar to IFRS 16’s expected effect. We also find that a small minority of lessees can be
expected to seek amendments to leasing contracts to maintain the existing off-balance sheet treatment.
It is common in any policy change for there to be some incremental costs and indirect market effects. In this
case we are not able to quantify the associated benefits of IFRS 16, although as we have set out in 5.4 these
are likely to be somewhat limited in public capital markets (and regulatory arbitrage activity by lessees could
limit these further), but do appear to be tangible in private capital markets. We consider the overall trade-
off between the benefits identified and the costs, and other impacts, to be a fine one.

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Introduction

2 Introduction
2.1 Background and scope of the study
Currently, there is a distinction between a finance lease and an operating lease. The former is treated similarly
to a standard loan and has to be accounted for in the company’s balance sheet. Operating leases, on the
other hand, are treated like rental expenditure. As such, they do not appear as liabilities in standard financial
statements, and thus are often described as off-balance sheet financing.
IFRS 16 would eliminate the classification of leases as either finance or operating, and treat nearly all leases
similarly to how finance leases are treated currently (there are exceptions around small-value leases or
agreements with less than one year to run). As a result, all the liabilities (and the associated assets) related
to operating leases would have to be reported in the financial statements along with the finance leases. For
companies with substantial amounts of operating leases, this would mean a significant increase in their assets
and liabilities as reported in the balance sheets. An entity shall apply IFRS 16 for annual periods beginning on
or after 1 January 2019. Earlier application is permitted for entities that apply IFRS 15 ‘Revenue from
Contracts with Customers’ at or before the date of initial application of IFRS 16.
Moreover, the IFRS 16 would also change the treatment of operating leases in a company’s income statement.
Under the current IAS 17 standard, lease obligations are reported as straight-line operating expenses.
According to the IFRS 16 proposal, these expenses would be reported in a way analogous to finance leases,
i.e. as depreciation and an interest expense. As a result the company’s operating costs would decline and the
earnings before interest tax depreciation and amortisation (EBITDA) would increase. The fact that the
reported depreciation would increase implies that the operating profit (EBIT) would also be higher than
under the previous reporting standard. While depreciation charges are often even (i.e. calculated on a straight
line basis) interest expenses are normally higher at the beginning of the lease agreement and would decline
over the life of the lease as the payments are made. This implies a more front-loaded profile of finance costs.
The role of Europe Economics is to provide economic and behavioural expertise to EFRAG in its ex ante
impact analysis of IFRS 16 Leases. This will be an input to EFRAG’s endorsement advice to the EC on whether
IFRS 16 would be conducive to the European public good.
As we have noted above, our focus is upon how the implementation of IFRS 16 would impact upon those
companies under an obligation to apply all IFRS. In a European context this is essentially those companies
with a listing on a Regulated Market (certain Multilateral Trading Facilities (MTFs) have listing rules that also
require the application of extant IFRS to financial reporting). During the course of our work, several
stakeholders have put forward pathways by which SMEs could still be affected by IFRS 16. In brief, these are
of two types:
 First, the idea that national standard setters may well adopt IFRS 16 into local GAAP either independently
or following some future adaptation of IFRS for SMEs.
 Second, that lessors, banks or other lenders would either encourage SMEs (or, at least, larger unlisted
companies) to adopt IFRS 16 or else seek to treat them (in say assessing creditworthiness) as if they had
adopted it. The latter approach already applies to a majority, but not all, lenders.
Whilst the first pathway is clearly out of our scope, and the second arguably so, we do discuss both
possibilities in Chapter 5 below.

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Introduction

2.2 How IFRS 16 might affect economic behaviour

An important element in an economic analysis is to understand how the behaviour of market participants
might change or evolve in consequence of the policy change. There is an argument that if information on
operating leases is publically available to all relevant market participants then a change in the financial reporting
of past transactions should not have any real effects on the economic behaviour of lessors or lessees. This is
because the fundamental cash flows would not be changed.
In reality, however, access to the necessary information is subject to frictions. For example, the existing
disclosure on operating leases (the prior year’s cost and commitments aggregated according to a few
duration-based bands) could limit the transparency of the underlying effects. There are a number of possible
economic impacts:
 Effects related to debt capital. As the balance sheet and profit and loss account adjust, so lenders
(including but not limited to lessors) could re-evaluate the risk and creditworthiness of the companies.
In an immediate way, pre-existing financial covenants (e.g. interest cover, gearing) would need to be
adjusted, potentially re-negotiated. Loan agreements may have automatic adjustment mechanisms or
“frozen GAAP” clauses to cater for accounting policy changes. There is also empirical evidence, e.g. from
the USA, that lenders (particularly larger lenders) price in the effect of operating leases in sophisticated
ways that largely pre-empt the effects of capitalisation.5 Similarly, credit rating agencies seem to make
these adjustments.6 If the change in the accounting standard affects the quality of information available to
market participants, companies might face either higher or lower borrowing costs as lenders would be
able to better assess the risk associated with the transaction (although any risk premium related to
uncertainty about the true position should reduce or even be eliminated). A further impact here could
be that debt choice adjusts (e.g. more companies prefer asset purchase to leasing than previously). This
could simply be a distributional effect, but even so could incur transitional costs (e.g. from the
renegotiation of outstanding leases). A possible positive effect on lessees is that by putting all leases on
the balance sheet it will make lessees focus more on the real cost of leasing vis-à-vis other financing
options because it would level the playing field increasing focus on the pecuniary cost without more
subjective consideration of the value of balance sheet presentation.
 Effects on capital investment. If the incentives to use leases instead of other sources of financing change
such that the marginal cost of debt increases, the marginal capital investment could also change (although
modern finance theory indicates otherwise, i.e. the weighted average cost of capital should be unchanged,
at least absent frictions). Companies relying on leases due to limited access to other types of financing
might not be able to finance all their planned investments.
 Effects related to management incentives and remuneration schemes. The impacts on the reported
financial performance of some companies could, in turn, impact upon remuneration schemes and
incentive arrangements if these do not have suitable adjustment mechanisms built in. If not, then some
element of re-negotiation or re-statement could be necessary.
 Effects related to investor perspectives. If investors do not fully understand the impact of the financing
decisions on reporting outcomes, then this could result in a realignment of views on a company’s worth.
There is evidence from bond markets that operating leases are treated by bond investors, for example,
in an equivalent way to finance leases.7 There could be a (positive) level playing effect. Whilst there is
evidence that some investment analysts are adjusting performance outcomes to account for leasing

5
Altamuro et al. (2014) "Operating leases and credit assessments".
6
Cotten, Brett D. and Schneider, Douglas K. and McCarthy, Mark G. (2013) "Capitalisation of Operating Leases and
Credit Ratings" Journal of Applied Research in Accounting and Finance (JARAF), Vol. 8, No. 1, 2013.
7
Sengupta, P and Z Wang (2011) “Pricing of off-balance sheet debt: how do bond market participants use the footnote
disclosures on operating leases and postretirement benefit plans?”

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Introduction

commitments, this is not universal. It might be, for example, that retail investors are less likely to do this.
Improved decision-making could result.
The economic analysis of these effects is not straight-forward. We set out our methodology for achieving
this in the next chapter.

2.3 Introduction to our report

This is our final report to EFRAG assessing the potential economic impacts of the implementation of IFRS 16
in the EU. The remainder of this report is structured as follows:
 Chapter 3 sets out our methodology for conducting our work.
 Chapter 4 describes the existing leasing landscape and also sets out relevant elements of the
counterfactual against which we will assess the potential impacts of implementing IFRS 16.
 Chapter 5 describes the economic and behavioural impacts expected to arise due to the endorsement
of IFRS 16.
 Appendix 6 describes empirical analysis undertake testing how operating leases are incorporated into the
pricing of corporate bonds by capital markets.
 Appendix 7 provides a detailed analysis of how we estimate IFRS 16 would impact upon the financial
statements of lessee companies with a primary listing on a European exchange.

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Methodology

3 Methodology
3.1 What questions we are seeking to answer?
EFRAG is required to consider whether it would be conducive to the European public good to endorse IFRS
16. This study was commissioned to contribute to this determination. In particular, it is intended to contribute
to answering the following questions:
 What impact IFRS 16 might have on the behaviour of lessees, investors and lenders and what the impact
of any anticipated behavioural changes might be on the European economy?
 What economic costs and benefits could arise from the endorsement of IFRS 16?
 What is the potential impact of endorsing IFRS 16 on the European leasing industry?
 How could the implementation of IFRS 16 impact upon the financing available to unlisted SMEs?
 What, if any, other unintended consequences could arise due to the implementation of IFRS 16?
EFRAG has also asked the ECB to consider whether IFRS 16 is likely to endanger financial stability in Europe.

3.2 The methodology adopted to answer these questions

We set out below an overview of our approach for the study.
Figure 3.1: Overview of our Methodology

Our approach consists of three main components, i.e. desktop research, primary data gathering, and data
analysis. The purpose of the desktop research is to provide the context of our analysis of the expected effects
of IFRS 16. The objective was to understand the EU-wide leasing landscape, as well as to develop the
counterfactual and scope how IFRS 16 could have economic impacts on different participants (i.e. develop
mechanisms of effect — chains of reasoning as to why we might expect to see particular behaviours).
The primary data gathering comprises YouGov’s market research and some additional stakeholder interviews
conducted by Europe Economics. These are described further below.
We used financial reporting and capital market data to describe the scale of accounting adjustment (i.e.
estimating how balance sheets and profitability could be affected by IFRS 16) and also to test the current debt
capital market treatment of operating leases.

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Methodology

All these components have been subsequently synthesised to bring all the evidence strands together. The
outcome is an ex ante cost and benefit analysis of IFRS 16, including the analysis of wider impacts and
behavioural changes.

3.2.1 Evidence base — YouGov’s sampling and surveying methodology

Europe Economics designed surveys for lessees and lessors/ lenders with input from YouGov and EFRAG.
These designs drew on the mechanisms of effect developed based upon the desk-top research with the
intention of confirming or rejecting the hypotheses developed.
There was a soft launch of the surveys to test answerability with the interviews going live between 14
October and 18 November 2016, with an additional 30 lessee interviews held between 3–20 January.8 The
interviews were conducted by telephone with senior executives.9 There were a total of 276 respondents,
186 lessees and 90 lenders / lessors, which were distributed as set out below.
Figure 3.2: Summary of YouGov’s sample

Source: YouGov.

The lessees in the sample were selected at random by YouGov from all of the listed companies identified as
having outstanding operating lease obligations in the market sectors selected for the exercise. The motivation
for choosing the sectors was twofold: first, sectors were chosen where the intensity of operating lease use
was highest (e.g. Retail, Airlines) and, second, those sectors that had, in aggregate, the largest outstanding
operating lease obligations (e.g. Telecommunications). The companies in the sectors chosen for the survey
have together about 70 per cent of the outstanding value of operating leases of the whole population
(described in Chapter 7). As noted, the lessees in the sample were chosen from a restricted set of industries.

8
There were two main motivations for the extension in sample. First, a desire to capture more large lessees (whilst
the lessees interviewed in October–November 2016 were randomly selected they displayed a greater weight
towards smaller companies than the overall population. Second, a desire to extend the geographic scope to include
at least some Italian lessees.
9
The typical interviewee at lessees was a Chief Financial Officer (or equivalents such as Finance Director or Head of
Finance), these titles representing two-thirds of lessee respondents. The modal interviewee at lenders and lessors
was the Head of Corporate Lending / Leasing respectively (54 per cent of these respondents).

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Methodology

The proportion of the sample drawn from the Industrials Goods & Services segment was restricted so that
we could better consider intra-sectoral differences. This meant that for most sectors, we had data from 20–
30 companies (Airlines were an important exception, where we had six interviewees out of the 15 companies
in the overall population). The key conclusion from this analysis was that whilst the size of the company was
a significant important driver of the impacts, the sector from which it was drawn was not per se.
Figure 3.3: Comparison of industry of lessee companies in the sample to overall population

Note: The proportions for the population are calculated relative to the total number of companies in the eight sectors we focus our analysis, rather
than the total number of companies across all industries.
Source: YouGov and Europe Economics analysis.

Notwithstanding the fact that the sample was drawn from only part of the population, the lessees in the
sample from these Member States have a broadly similar profile in terms of turnover to the overall population
(from across all of the EU). Even so, in most of our analysis we have segmented the sample and population
by company size when calculating and extrapolating potential impacts, increasing the representative validity
of the sample.
Figure 3.4: Comparison of turnover of lessee companies in the sample to overall population

Source: YouGov and Europe Economics analysis.

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Methodology

In the sample, 143 companies made substantial use of operating leases related to property and 74 made
substantial use of operating leases on plant and equipment acquisitions (with over 30 doing both).

3.2.2 Evidence base — other fieldwork and data accessed

Europe Economics conducted interviews with credit and investment analysts, leasing associations, and SME
trade bodies are intended to complement this and complete the fieldwork undertaken by YouGov.
The financial reporting and bond market data were obtained via our Bloomberg LLP subscription. The base
population covers all EU companies with non-zero operating lease obligations based on the data reported
for 2015. Where appropriate, our analysis is based on a selected sample of the population.

3.3 Methodological challenges and caveats

There were two main challenges in the conduct of this study. First, as in any ex ante study, there is a risk that
the information gathered from market participants is prone to biases, and based on insufficient or inadequate
information. To mitigate this risk, where possible we strived to cross-check the information obtained in
primary data gathering exercises with other primary or secondary sources utilised in this study. In addition,
in the survey, we ascertained the degree of prior familiarity of the respondents with IFRS 16 so that we could
assess whether this was an influence on the results obtained.
Second, the views and opinions provided by the respondents in primary data gathering exercises, are not
always fully compatible (at least superficially). The challenge then is to synthesise the internally inconsistent
responses based on the evidence from other strands of the study and more in-depth data analysis.
As any research, our study also has some caveats. Primary data is only obtained from a sample of market
participants. As such, there is a risk that the responses we obtained are a reflection of the views in this
particular sample rather than the population. That said, the YouGov’s research covers a substantial
proportion of the population in terms of lease obligations — the sample of lessors captures about 20 per
cent of the leasing obligations outstanding in Europe, while the sample of lessees covers about eight per cent
of the population. The confidence intervals applied to the quantifications in Chapter 5 are calculated at a 95
per cent significance level.10 In addition, our econometrics analysis is based on a sample of bonds issued by
companies with non-zero operating lease obligations. We limited the number of bonds per company to five
bonds, which were selected randomly. As with the YouGov’s survey, there is a risk that the results are
reflecting the phenomena particular for the sample rather than the population. That said, random sampling
usually ensures that the results are representative of the population the sample was drawn from. Finally, as
we note elsewhere, our analysis of the scale of the accounting changes is based upon a number of assumptions
and, as such, is only a rough guide to the expected changes not an exact prediction of what will happen.

10
This means that the actual ± interval itself varies dependent upon the number of responses obtained on any given
topic.

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Defining the Counterfactual and the Current Leasing Landscape

4 Defining the Counterfactual and the

Current Leasing Landscape
4.1 Introduction
An impact assessment is conducted against a counterfactual. For the purpose of this study, we need to
consider the state of the market and market participants’ behaviour as it currently stands, and any expected
evolution of these that could be expected in the absence of IFRS 16. This would involve assessing the current
use of leasing (and other forms of finance) by the relevant companies, i.e. listed companies using IFRS. The
major change is the recognition of assets and liabilities for leases currently accounted for as operating leases
under IAS 17.
In order to understand to what extent changes to IFRS are going to affect the economic behaviour of market
participants, we need to clearly identify and describe the leasing and financing landscape in Europe, and the
interaction between this and the listed companies that will need to apply IFRS 16.
In this chapter we describe the main characteristics of the European leasing industry such as its size,
geographic coverage and main players involved. Within the European leasing market, we then identify those
sectors and countries where operating leases obligations are more relevant. We also consider the extent to
which SMEs are reliant on leasing as a source of finance as well as whether they use leasing proportionality
more or less than larger companies. Finally, we consider certain other aspects of the leasing and financing
landscape, such as the treatment by lenders and lessors of operating leases in establishing the client
creditworthiness.

4.2 The European leasing landscape

Leasing and hire purchase agreements are common methods of business financing. Europe accounts for about
38 per cent of global leasing volume and 28 European countries feature in the world’s top 50 countries for
new leasing business. The largest EU markets for leasing defined in its widest sense (i.e. including hire
purchase) are Germany and the UK. These two together account for 42 per cent of the European market
and 16 per cent of the world market, taking into consideration both listed and unlisted companies (The White
Clarke Group, 2015).11

4.2.1 Market size across all clients

IFRS 16 impacts primarily on companies listed on a Regulated Market in the EEA. However, we also need to
understand the context, in particular the scale of the leasing industry across all types of client — e.g. unlisted
companies and retail consumers, as well as listed companies.

11
White Clarke Group (2015) “Global Leasing Report 2015”.

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Defining the Counterfactual and the Current Leasing Landscape

We estimate (using data from Leaseurope12) that, across all customer types in 2015,13 EU28 countries
accounted for €282 billion-worth of new leasing and hire purchase agreements, and €661 billion in terms of
the outstanding value of leased assets. The respective figures for EU / EEA countries were €287 billion and
€674 billion.14
If we consider leasing defined in its widest sense (i.e. including hire purchase, finance leases and operating
leases), the UK is the largest European market in 2015, with new volume worth around €81 billion, followed
by Germany and France. The majority of European leasing markets experienced good growth in 2015
compared to 2014, although, Norway and Greece were among the countries where the new volumes stalled
or saw a downturn (Leaseurope 2016).
Now focusing only on the leasing element (i.e. excluding hire purchase, but including some finance leasing and
other rental agreements) — but still considering all types of customer — and assuming that leasing is defined
consistently with IAS 17, the EU had new leasing agreements of about €211 billion in 2015 (with €553 billion
outstanding).15 For the EEA group of countries, the estimated total value for new leasing agreements was
€216 billion in 2015 and outstanding lease obligations stood at €566 billion at the end of that year, of which
€368 billion was for plant and equipment leases (65 per cent).16 The geographic distribution of outstanding
lease obligations across the EEA countries is shown in Figure 4.1 below. This order of magnitude for the
European leasing market is confirmed by other recent publications.17 The most important markets in terms
of new lease obligations were Germany (€52 billion of new leasing agreements in 2015), France (€44 billion),
Italy (€21 billion) and the UK (€17 billion).

12
Leaseurope is the European Federation of Leasing Company Associations and brings together 46 member
associations in 34 European countries representing the leasing, long term and/or short term automotive rental
industries.
13
Leaseurope (2016) “Annual Survey 2015”.
14
The reported figures are adjusted for the fact that — as per Leaseurope’s estimates — its membership represented
approximately 93.4 per cent of the European hire purchase and equipment leasing market. Therefore, we scaled the
raw numbers provided in Leaseurope (2016) by the approximate market share of Leaseurope’s members in each
country. This applies to all the subsequent figures attributed to Leaseurope. Leaseurope defines new business /
volumes as the total lease production for that year excluding VAT and finance charges. Outstanding leasing obligations
are defined as the initial value of assets minus depreciation to date or, if unavailable, amount of outstanding capital
due on contracts. Because of missing data in Leaseurope for 2015, figures related to EU28 members do not include
Croatia, Cyprus, Hungary, Ireland and Luxemburg, while the EEA figures do not include Lichtenstein and Iceland.
15
Leasurope’s EU members wrote new business worth €201 billion in 2015 (with €523 billion outstanding at the end
of that year). We have applied the market shares by Member State identified by Leaseurope for its member
organisations to generate the total estimated values. We note that the only market shares disclosed are for leasing
and hire purchase.
16
The value of new lease agreements reaches €229 billion (€592 billion in outstanding value) including also Switzerland.
17
White Clarke Group (2015) estimates new business volumes of €247 billion in Europe in 2014.

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Defining the Counterfactual and the Current Leasing Landscape

Figure 4.1: Total outstanding lease obligations by country

140
120
100
€ billion

80
60
40
20
-
ES
ES
EE

GR

NL
NL
NO
IT

MA
LT
LV
AT

CH
CZ

FI

UK
BE
BE
BG

DE

FR
FR

PT
DK

PL

RO
SE
SI
SK
Source: Leaseurope (2016), Europe Economics calculations.

EU lessors granted new equipment leases to an estimated value of €282 billion (including hire purchase) in
2015. We estimate the leasing element only of those equipment leases at around €196 billion in EU and €202
billion in the EEA in 2015. The value of new real estate leases was €17 billion in 2015.18 The duration of real
estate leases is substantially longer, such that the total outstanding lease values are less far apart (i.e.
outstanding values are split about 65:35 in favour of plant and equipment, against 90:10 for the value of new
leases per annum).
In terms of client categories, about three quarters of new equipment leasing volume (including vehicles) was
made to the private sector, particularly to the service sector that accounted for nearly half of the lease
agreements in 2014, and the manufacturing sector (23 per cent). Another 23 per cent was granted to
consumers, a client category that has been steadily increasing since 2010, and three per cent to public
authorities, as shown in Figure 4.2.
Figure 4.2: New equipment leasing volumes per client category in 2014

Source: Leaseurope (2014).

This indicates that the corporate leasing market would be approximately 73 per cent of the total for plant
and equipment, implying new corporate leasing agreements in the EU at about €143 billion and €147 billion
in the EEA.

18
It is not clear whether the proportion of the total leasing market covered by Leaseurope’s membership is in similar
proportions in plant & equipment leasing and in property leasing. We have assumed this to be the case.

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Defining the Counterfactual and the Current Leasing Landscape

4.2.2 Market structure

The member associations comprising Leaseurope include about 1,400 leasing companies and 500 short term
rental companies. Leasing companies can be banks, bank-owned subsidiaries, independent companies (also
known as third party lessors) or the financing arms of manufacturing companies, known as captive lessors.
According to Leaseurope and KPMG (2012),19 50 per cent of European leasing companies were bank related,
18 per cent captives, and 32 per cent independent in 2010.20 However, in terms of the share in new
production volume, about 90 per cent of the European leasing market is in the hands of bank-owned leasing
companies.21
Bank-owned or independent lessors typically work with a range of asset suppliers, either with manufacturers
or with their distribution networks and dealers. They generally develop a close partnership that enables
mutual added-value exchanges, such as information on asset values for the lessor, or back-office functions
such as collections management for the suppliers. Lessor-vendor relationships often generate bulk discounts
or subsidies for the lessors from manufacturers, which can in turn be passed to clients in the form of lower
rentals.
Captive leasing companies are subsidiaries or divisions of manufacturers with over 50 per cent of the asset
base generated through financing products of the parent. They support their parent company’s sales, and can
cooperate with third party leasing companies for the provision of certain services, including funding, if that
will better suits their clients’ needs (Deloitte & Leaseurope, 2012).22
The large variety of parties involved in the leasing industry results in a range of business models that differ
according to the leasing company’s strategy and market position, as well as the corresponding distribution
channels. This is summarised in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1: Business models within the European leasing industry

Basic business Function Features Distribution

model channel
Specialised finance Alternative source of Independent finance companies or Direct/Brokers
finance to banks/ bank bank owned leasing companies
loans
Vendor Supports manufacturer Leasing company (independent or Point of sale
sales bank owned) accompanies the
development of their manufacturer
and dealer clients by providing sales
finance support
Product Additional service for Leasing is part of a range of financial Banking networks
bank clients solutions provided by a bank to its
clients, when this is the product that
best suits the clients financing needs
Captive Support a brand Financing arm of a manufacturer Point of sale
Asset specialist Specialises in asset risk Focuses its businesses on specific Direct/Point of sale
managements asset categories, building asset
expertise and taking on residual value
risk
Source: Deloitte & Leaseurope (2012).

19
Leaseurope and KPMG (2012), European Leasing, New Edition 2012.
http://www.leaseurope.org/uploads/EuropeanLeasing_extract(secured)%20(3).pdf.
20
Percentage of European leasing companies according to shareholder type.
21
Mignerey J.M. (2012), Banking Regulation, A “EUR 50 billion leasing crunch” for SMEs in Europe, Leaseurope inside,
no. 16, 13 April 2012.
22
Deloitte & Leaseurope (2012), “European leasing: An Industry ‘Prospectus’”.

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Defining the Counterfactual and the Current Leasing Landscape

This mix of business models, as well as the leasing companies’ capacity to combine them, should allow
matching of product offers to client needs in very flexible way. Moreover, lessors can decide to focus on
leasing specific assets, such as vehicles or IT equipment, or rather remain generalists and provide a wide range
of assets.
The most popular distribution channels used by European leasing companies are the direct sales and banking
networks, with the vendor channel particularly used for dealing with small companies. Other channels include
dealer point of sale and brokers. These different distribution channels can be grouped into a more general
categorization of channels through which customers access leasing:
 The vendor channel. A potential lessee approaches the manufacturer of (or dealer in) an asset and
accesses the lease through it. The manufacturer (or dealer) may have an arrangement with a third party
lessor, or may provide the finance directly itself. The lessee accesses the lease at the point of sale.
 The customer channel. This involves initiating contact between the lessee and the provider of the lease
in a number of ways, e.g. through the bank branch of the customer, directly through the sales network
of a lessor or through a broker that may provide a range of financial services, including leasing.

4.3 The importance of operating leases to listed companies

The previous section explored the prevalence of operating leases within the overall EU leasing context. We
now focus on the use of operating leases by companies listed on a Regulated Market. Specifically, we identify
the sectors with a relatively high level of operating leases (e.g. total commitments relative to total assets) and
the most important factors driving the use of operating leasing in these sectors.
There are almost 2,300 listed companies in Europe that reported operating lease obligations in their 2015
accounts.23 Combined, these companies have €755 billion in outstanding lease obligations.24 Our calculated
present value (PV) of operating leases to total borrowings (including this PV) ratio ranges from 44 per cent
in the Airline sector, to less than one per cent in the Banking sector. Companies in the Energy (€97.8 billion
in outstanding lease obligations, or 13 per cent of the total of the 2,300 listed companies of interest),
Telecommunications (€70.6 billion, 9 per cent) and Retail (€135.6 billion, 18 per cent) sectors have
substantially higher levels of aggregate lease obligations compared to other sectors (Table 4.2).
Bloomberg LLP’s figures on outstanding leases obligations are not directly comparable with Leaseurope’s
statistics because of differences in the calculation of the present value. However, the order of magnitude of
figures in Table 4.2 already shows that listed companies account for a significant portion of the EU leasing
market.25 Nonetheless, the role played by unlisted companies, in particular SMEs, in shaping the European
leasing landscape needs to be further investigated as they ae the backbone of Europe's economy, and
representing 99 per cent of all businesses in the EU.

23
Based on Bloomberg LLP data.
24
Bloomberg LLP reports the outstanding lease obligations as the total of the Future Minimum Operating Lease
Obligations (Year 1 + Year 2 + Year 3 + Year 4 + Year 5 + Beyond Year 5 – sublease income).
25
The data we accessed from Bloomberg LLP related to listed companies whose headquarters is located in the EU, i.e.
it excludes companies with a primary listing or headquarters location outside of the EU.

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Defining the Counterfactual and the Current Leasing Landscape

Table 4.2: Operating leases obligations by sector (2015)

PV of operating leases Number of Aggregate operating

Sector
to total borrowing companies lease obligations (€m)
Airlines 44% 15 33,502
Retail 43% 114 135,581
Travel & Leisure 41% 101 58,694
Personal & Household Goods 23% 141 46,508
Industrial Goods & Services 18% 466 84,612
Technology 18% 232 12,056
Media 15% 93 21,909
Real Estate 15% 130 28,513
Health Care 15% 162 29,058
Telecommunications 13% 39 70,595
Energy 10% 150 97,833
Construction & Materials 9% 116 16,242
Food & Beverage 7% 114 14,546
Chemicals 7% 65 8,988
Insurance 7% 39 12,598
Financial Services 4% 129 12,161
Basic Resources 4% 71 9,966
Automobiles & Parts 3% 42 17,477
Banks 1% 75 40,986
Total 8% 2,294 751,827
Note: The sectoral classification is based on ICB classification.
Source: Bloomberg LLP, Europe Economics’ calculations.

Similarly, data on the country of domicile can be used to determine the geographical distribution of the
companies that are likely to be more affected by changes to IFRS 16. Data reported in Table 4.3 confirm that
the largest aggregate lease obligations amongst companies with a listing on a Regulated Market in the EU are
those headquartered in the UK, France and Germany. Companies domiciled in these three countries account
for about 71 per cent of total outstanding commitments (Table 4.3). Lessees based in the Member States
included in the YouGov survey work represent over 80 per cent of the total.

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Defining the Counterfactual and the Current Leasing Landscape

Table 4.3: Operating leases obligations by country of headquarters (2015)

Country Number of Aggregate lease Average lease

companies obligations (€m) obligations (€m)
United Kingdom 496 287,616 580
France 234 127,889 547
Germany 367 122,763 335
Sweden 238 40,391 170
Norway 120 34,246 285
Netherlands 88 29,417 334
Spain 71 27,960 394
Italy 42 17,742 422
Denmark 90 17,467 194
Finland 113 10,929 97
Poland 122 5,878 48
Belgium 61 5,806 95
Portugal 19 5,626 296
Greece 84 5,336 64
Ireland 17 4,691 276
Austria 46 4,230 92
Others 86 3,839 45
Total 2,294 751,827 328
Source: Bloomberg, Europe Economics’ calculations.

For the purpose of this study, the YouGov survey directly looked into the use of operating leases by listed
companies. The lessees interviewed (all of them using operating leasing) report that they are more likely to
use operating leasing for property (74 per cent) than plant and equipment (40 per cent). Specifically, two
thirds of lessees using operating leases for property report that 100 per cent of expenditure on property is
financed by operating leases, while this happens for under half of those using operating leases for plant and
equipment.
The factors most frequently cited as being important for currently deciding (i.e. pre-IFRS 16) to use operating
leases for property are balance sheet presentation and operational flexibility, whereas for those using such
leases for plant and equipment, operational flexibility stands out as by far the most commonly identified
decision variable. Figure 4.3(a) shows lessees’ views about all the factors they consider important for using
operating leasing while Figure 4.3(b) shows lessees’ preferences about the most important factor (i.e. a single
factor was identified). Whilst balance sheet presentation is the factor most directly affected by IFRS 16,
lessees regard it as only one of a range of important factors that have an influence on the use of operating
leases and in terms of absolute relevance, being less commonly cited than risk-sharing for those using leasing
for property.
We have also tested whether lessees who identify balance sheet presentation as being important are more
or less price sensitive than those who do not identify balance sheet presentation as an important factor.26
We found that those who identify balance sheet presentation as an important — or the most important —
decision factor are statistically more price sensitive than those who do not. This is somewhat counterintuitive
as we would expect those who identify balance sheet presentation as an important motivation for choosing
leasing as an option (i.e. they “value” it most) to be more willing to pay a higher price for maintaining the
current off balance-sheet presentation compared to those who do not. However, the survey results indicate
that those who place importance on balance sheet presentation tend to place less (rather than more)
economic value on maintaining access to such an accounting treatment.

26
In the survey, we obtained data on what scale of price movement would persuade a lessee to reconsider its current
(i.e. pre-IFRS 16) financing choice from an operating lease to the next best source of finance. This exercise was
repeated for both property and plant and equipment operating leases.

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Defining the Counterfactual and the Current Leasing Landscape

Figure 4.3: Important factors for using operating leases

(a) All important factors for using operating (b) The single most important factor for using
leases operating leases

Source: YouGov.
Note: Percentages do not sum up to 100% because alternatives are not mutually exclusive.

4.4 The importance of leasing by listed companies to the leasing industry

The other side of this is the importance of leasing by listed companies to the leasing industry. The production
and outstanding operating lease values by the European leasing industry are reasonably well-defined, as
discussed above at 4.2. On the lessee side it is more complex. Whilst we know the total leasing obligations
of listed companies based in the countries identified above, some of these leases will be entered into outside
of Europe. Similarly, there will (presumably) also be leases entered into locally (i.e. in Europe) by subsidiaries
of companies listed outside of the EU.
As a first order approximation, if we take the new corporate leasing production figure of €141 billion for
plant and equipment and €18 billion as an estimate of the new property leasing in a year, we have a combined
figure of approximately €159 billion. Considering those listed companies with a European headquarters,
approximately €128 billion in operating lease obligations fall due within one year. This would imply a share
of 75 per cent, i.e. listed companies are of very considerable significance. However, operating leases are often

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Defining the Counterfactual and the Current Leasing Landscape

entered into locally and we have therefore explored segmental reporting data from lessees. This indicates
that about 65 per cent of activity is located within Europe.27 This implies about €83 billion in annual leasing
demand from listed companies — i.e. about 52 per cent of total corporate leasing.
We also note that in the YouGov survey participating lessors’ SME clients were about 40-45 per cent of the
total number of customers, with a corresponding share of aggregate value outstanding of leases of around 10
per cent of the total. Whilst the sample of lessors was only 56 (i.e. only about four per cent of the total), this
number is not inconsistent with the above (larger, unlisted companies would also be expected to have a
substantive share in the leasing market).

4.5 The importance of leasing for SMEs

The importance of SMEs to the European economy is widely acknowledged as well as the fact that most of
these companies finance themselves, to a significant extent, through internal sources such as the business
owner’s funds or using retained profits. Many SMEs, however, use external financing sources like debt and
equity capital to finance their activities.
According to a recent survey prepared for Leaseurope, no single reason stands out particularly in explaining
the choice of SMEs in using leasing.28 Nonetheless, the price of financing an asset via leasing relative to other
forms of finance seems to be the most popular reason to use leasing in 2013. Better cash flow management,
ability to adapt the length of the contract and transparency of lease payments also rank as important benefits.
Overall, the survey shows that some of the benefits of leasing are valued across all industrial sectors, in
particular price competiveness and, to a large extent, cash flow management benefits, but at the national level
attitudes appear somewhat different.
A number of surveys on access to finance point out that bank loans and overdrafts are the most widespread
debt financing methods for SMEs, even though alternative methods like leasing and factoring have become
more common, especially in recent years. The intrinsic value of leasing lies in it being a readily accessible form
of finance, particularly for SMEs, as the lessor retains ownership of the asset and thus does not require any
additional collateral. This advantage of leasing for young SMEs and other enterprises that are considered to
have comparably high credit risk is stressed by low rejection rates. Despite an increase during the period
2007-2010, leasing remained the financing source with the lowest rate of unsuccessful applications, especially
for the so called gazelles, i.e. the young high-growth enterprises, and all SMEs (OECD 2012).29
According to a European Commission survey on access to finance in 2015, EU28 SMEs identify bank credit
lines or overdraft and bank loans as the most relevant sources of external financing, whilst leasing and hire
purchase are considered to be third most relevant.30 In particular, 49 per cent of surveyed SMEs mentioned
leasing as relevant for their financing in 2015, while credit lines or overdrafts and bank loans are mentioned
by more than half of the respondents. Figure 4.4 presents the percentage of surveyed enterprises that actually
used the different types of financing in the six months previous to the survey (April-September 2015).

27
Segmental reporting on turnover is available for about 1600 companies, and on assets for a much smaller sample.
However, the European share is not dissimilar at about 50 per cent. If we assume that the remaining companies’
activities are largely local (i.e. segmental reporting on geography is not material and hence not required) then our
analysis indicates about 65 per cent of activity is within Europe.
28
Oxford Economics & Leaseurope (2015) “The Use of Leasing Amongst European SMEs”. The report is based on a
survey about the use of leasing conducted amongst almost 3,000 SMEs across eight EU Member States and nine
industrial sectors in July 2011. The eight countries (France, Germany, Italy, Netherlands, Poland, Sweden, Spain and
the UK) represent 78% of new leasing volumes in 2010. The split of companies across countries, sectors and size
classes was intended to correspond to the industrial structure of the SME sector in each of these countries.
29
OECD (2012) “Entrepreneurship at a glance 2012” OECD Publishing, 6 June 2012.
30
European Commission (2015) “SME’s Access to Finance Survey 2015”. This report is based on a survey of about
17,000 companies randomly selected according to three main criteria: country (28 EU member states); enterprise
size (micro, small, medium-size and large); sector of industry (Industry, Construction, Trade, Services).

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Defining the Counterfactual and the Current Leasing Landscape

Specifically, 37 per cent of all EU28 SMEs used credit line, bank overdraft or credit cards overdraft in the past
six months. Leasing or hire-purchase (23 per cent) and trade credit (20 per cent) were the second and third
most often used type of financing. Bank loans were used by 19 per cent of the SMEs.
Figure 4.4: Different sources of financing for SMEs in the EU28 (2015)

Source: EC (2015). Q4 of the survey: Are the following sources of financing relevant to your enterprise that is, have you used them in the past or considered
using them in the future? Have you obtained new financing of this type in the past six months?

Figure 4.5 shows a breakdown of the results by economic sector and enterprise size. Between April and
September 2015, SMEs in industry most often used leasing or hire-purchase while SMEs in trade used this
type of financing the least often. The use of leasing or hire-purchase varies greatly by size. Use is most
prevalent among medium (50 to 249 employees) and large enterprises (with at least 250 employees), and
lowest among micro enterprises (1 to 9 employees).
Figure 4.5: Use of leasing or hire-purchase for large companies and SMEs in the EU28 in 2015, by
sector and size

Source: EC (2015).

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Defining the Counterfactual and the Current Leasing Landscape

The relatively high importance of leasing and hire purchase for the external financing of SMEs is also confirmed
by Leaseurope’s survey. Overall, 42.5 per cent of the SMEs surveyed used leasing in 2013 (50.7 per cent
estimated for 2014).31 However, they also show that the share of investments actually financed by leasing was
18.9 per cent in 2013, whereas bank loans of all maturities plus other forms of bank loans financed the largest
portion of SMEs’ investments (32.8 per cent, Figure 4.6).
Figure 4.6: SMEs’ fixed asset investment financed by different sources (2014)

Source: Oxford Economics & Leaseurope (2015).

According to Leaseurope, SMEs overall leasing volume across Europe is estimated at €103.6bn in 2013,32
about half of total leasing to businesses (Leaseurope 2013) with about 9.2 million European SMEs using
leasing.33 The estimated leasing volumes display significant differences across countries, with the larger
economies being naturally the main markets for SME leasing. In particular, Germany and France held the
leading positions in 2013 with an estimated new SME leasing volume of about €19–20 billion each, followed
by the UK with about €16 billion (Figure 4.7).
In terms of distribution channels, Leaseurope survey also shows that the vendor channel is the most popular
one for SMEs (78.6 per cent in 2013). This channel turns out to be particularly important for micro companies,
where the use of vendor leasing increased significantly in 2013. Access to leasing directly from the vendor
reached 40.4 per cent, while the use of the banking channel by SMEs remained stable at 58.6 per cent in
2013.34

31
Differences between Oxford Economics & Leaseurope (2015) and EC (2015) can be attributed to the different size
of the sample, the country base and definitions of the financial variables considered in the analysis. However, the
main findings concerning the relative importance of the leasing industry are similar.
32
Oxford Economics & Leaseurope (2015) estimated a total value of leasing of €73.6 billion (6.6 million SMEs) in the
8 countries surveyed, with a large proportion accounted for by micro firms’ leasing activity. According to Eurostat,
the 8 countries covered by their survey account for 71 per cent of investment in the EU, so they scaled their estimate
up to the EU level assuming that the penetration rate for Europe-8 is applicable to the remaining 29 per cent of
investment from other countries.
33
Leaseurope (2013) “Annual Survey 2013”. They reported a total value of new leasing volumes of €252 billion in
2013. As such, SME leasing accounted for 41 per cent of EU total leasing in 2013, or 50 per cent when adjusted to
exclude leasing to consumers and the public sector.
34
Percentages do not sum up to 100 per cent because preferences over channel alternatives are not mutually exclusive.

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Defining the Counterfactual and the Current Leasing Landscape

Figure 4.7: Estimated new SME leasing volumes by country in 2013 (billion €)

Source: Oxford Economics & Leaseurope (2015).

4.6 Other aspects of the leasing and financing landscape relevant to the
counterfactual

4.6.1 Treatment of operating leases by lenders and lessors

The majority of lenders and lessors make adjustments to financial information to reflect the de facto
capitalisation of operating leases. Overall, this is the case for 77 per cent of surveyed lenders/lessors (i.e. 69
out of 90). Figure 4.8 provides a breakdown between lessors and lessees. The most commonly used methods
were proprietary methods based on internal management information and methods based on discretionary
management decisions.

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Defining the Counterfactual and the Current Leasing Landscape

Figure 4.8: Methods used for treating operating leases

(a) Lessors (b) Lenders

Note: Percentages do not sum up to 100 per cent because alternatives are not mutually exclusive.
Source: YouGov.

The majority of lenders that make adjustments reflect all the outstanding obligations reported in the clients’
financial statements. However, there are significant minorities of lenders that do not apply the adjustments
homogenously to all outstanding obligations, e.g. make them either only for obligations due within five years
or only for the largest customers (Figure 4.9).

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Defining the Counterfactual and the Current Leasing Landscape

Figure 4.9: Did adjustments reflect all outstanding obligations?

Source: YouGov.

Those lenders and lessors not currently making adjustments tend to be smaller in terms of outstanding leasing
obligations while the largest ones making such adjustments. Specifically, 95 per cent of those not making
adjustments have less than €2bn of outstanding obligations, 70 per cent of which have loan books below
€0.5bn. Overall, about 13 per cent of the total loan/leasing book relates to lessors not making any type of
adjustments.
Notwithstanding this, a mix of different adjustment approaches is adopted by lenders / lessors, i.e. there is
scope for information asymmetries currently existing with smaller clients and more leasing-reliant companies
in atypical sectors here — as well as with clients of those lenders/ lessors not currently making adjustments.
There is no clear relation between the proportion of SME clients and the likelihood of making an adjustment.
Debt agreements can incorporate “frozen GAAP” clauses, or “automatic” adjustment mechanisms, in order
to reflect an updated GAAP. The size of the loan book is a notable influence on the lenders’ approach here,
e.g. those with loan books above €1bn tend to have automatic adjustment mechanisms, or expect no effect.

4.6.2 Current usage of short-term, low value or variable payment leasing

The current penetration of short-term, low value or variable payment leasing is low. In particular, the YouGov
survey shows that around three in five lessees report that none of their operating leases has a term of less
than one year, relates to low value assets or incorporates variable payment elements. However, Table 4.4
shows that a substantial minority of lessees have at least some experience with short-term/ variable payment
leases, albeit mostly at a low level.

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Defining the Counterfactual and the Current Leasing Landscape

Table 4.4: Penetration of short term, low value and variable payment operating leases

% of operating leases that have % of operating leases that % of operating leases that
a term of less than one year at relate to low value assets incorporate a variable
inception payment element

Source: YouGov.

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Impact Analysis

5 Impact Analysis
5.1 Introduction
IFRS 16 could have a major impact on a lessee’s balance sheet and income statement. Under the new standard,
liabilities (and the associated assets) related to operating leases would have to be reported on-balance sheet,
subject to exceptions such as for short-term leases and leases of low value assets. This treatment of operating
leases would largely mirror that currently employed for finance leases. For companies with substantial
financing through operating leases, this would mean a significant increase in both their reported assets and
liabilities. Moreover, the annual rental cost would be replaced by an interest expense and a depreciation
charge for the leased assets in a company’s income statement. As a result the company’s earnings before
interest, tax, depreciation and amortisation (EBITDA) and earnings before interest and tax (EBIT) would
increase compared to accounting under the previous standard (IAS 17). While depreciation charges may be
evenly spread (i.e. calculated on a straight line basis), the calculated interest expense is expected to be higher
at the beginning of the lease agreement, declining over the life of the lease as payments are made. This implies
a profile of finance costs that is front-loaded.35 This means that, whilst over the life of an individual lease there
should be little or no profit impact under IFRS 16 relative to IAS 17, in any given year there could be.
In this chapter we set out our findings on the behavioural and economic impacts expected to arise due to
the implementation of IFRS 16 by listed lessees. The main sections into which it is divided are:
 An analysis of the expected adjustment to financial statements implied by IFRS 16.
 An analysis of the compliance costs expected to be incurred by the different stakeholders, mainly lessees,
lessors and lenders. This includes a description of the mechanisms of effect through which we expect
economic impacts to be realised, the relevant evidence from YouGov and elsewhere, as well as our
analysis.
 An analysis of the expected benefits arising due to IFRS 16.
 An analysis of the wider effects and possible unintended consequences implied by IFRS 16.

5.2 Analysis of adjustment to financial statements

The main impact of IFRS 16 will be to bring assets held under operating leases and the lease liabilities onto
balance sheets. In this section we describe the exercise we undertook to estimate the nature and scale of
the impact of this on the financial statements of lessees as if they had applied IFRS 16 in 2015. Further details
are available at Appendix 7.

5.2.1 European companies with operating lease obligations

We identified around 2,300 European-headquartered listed companies with outstanding leasing obligations at
the end of 2015. Of these, we were able to identify complete disclosure data on 2212 companies, with, in
aggregate, disclosed operating lease obligations equal to €745 billion. This accounts for 99 per cent of the
total operating lease obligations of the full population.

35
The front-loading of interest is more likely to have a material impact on companies with only a small number of large
leases. For lessees with numerous lease contracts, the differences in expense associated with individual leases might
well even out across the portfolio of leases, at least if the asset / lease acquisition profile is relatively stable.

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Impact Analysis

Table 5.1 shows the sector coverage of our sample. In to our sample, Airlines, Retail and Travel & Leisure
are the most operating-lease-intensive industries. These sectors are most likely to experience significant
impacts from IFRS 16.
Table 5.1: Sector coverage of the sample

Average Total operating

Coverage
operating lease Number of lease
Sector (restricted
obligations to companies obligations
sample/sample)
total assets (€m)
Airlines 71.3% 15 33,502 100.0%
Retail 46.2% 112 135,548 100.0%
Travel & Leisure 39.5% 98 58,689 100.0%
Health Care 19.3% 154 29,019 99.9%
Personal & Household
136 46,467 99.9%
Goods 14.4%
Real Estate 13.9% 125 28,264 99.1%
Industrial Goods & Services 10.1% 448 84,011 99.3%
Technology 9.2% 226 12,026 99.7%
Media 8.5% 90 21,892 99.9%
Telecommunications 8.0% 38 70,595 100.0%
Food & Beverage 4.4% 111 14,340 98.6%
Automobiles & Parts 4.7% 40 17,476 100.0%
Energy 6.3% 147 97,797 100.0%
Construction & Materials 3.9% 112 15,986 98.4%
Chemicals 3.0% 63 8,988 100.0%
Financial Services 4.0% 119 12,044 99.0%
Basic Resources 3.1% 70 9,966 100.0%
Insurance 1.1% 37 12,541 99.5%
Banks 0.4% 71 35,617 86.9%
Total 12.4% 2,212 744,766 99.1%
Source: Bloomberg LLP and Europe Economics calculations.

We then constructed a model to simulate the impact of IFRS 16 on lessees’ balance sheet, profitability and
on key financial metrics (e.g. debt / EBITDA). The underlying assumptions drew on a literature review and
also analysis of the available information on our sample. In this section, we will briefly summarise the key
findings. Further details of our methodology, sensitivity analysis and results can be found in Appendix 7.

5.2.2 Results
Balance sheet impacts
The total simulated lease liability is around €574 billion, representing 8 per cent of total debt, or 15 per cent
if we exclude banks, insurance and financial services companies.36 However, the total does not capture the
wide range of impacts. The company-specific impact depends on the existing debt level and the intensity of
use of operating leases. For companies with little debt, the balance sheet impact would be much larger than
those with significant amount of debt. Equally, the balance sheet impact would be bigger for companies with
more operating leases. Amongst the three operating-lease-intensive sectors we identified (i.e. Airlines, Retail
and Travel & Leisure), the simulated liabilities represent at least 40 per cent of total debt.
The associated right of use (ROU) asset value is €526–549 billion37, representing approximately15 per cent
of the total net book value (NBV) of property, plant and equipment. The value of ROU assets is around 91-

36
The total debt variable is defined by Bloomberg LLP. It includes both short-term and long-term debts. The total debt
variable referred to in this section includes capitalised operating leases.
37
The simulated assets are sensitive to asset life assumptions. For details, see Appendix 7.

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Impact Analysis

96 per cent of the value of simulated liabilities. Again, operating lease intensive sectors are affected more
than others.
Profitability impacts
Over the life of a lease, there should not be a profitability impact due to IFRS 16, i.e. the rental expense
should equal the depreciation and interest cost. However, this need not be true in any given year of the lease
under IFRS 16, e.g. because the financing cost will tend to be higher earlier in the lease — nor need it be the
case looking across any given company’s total leasing portfolio.
Our simulation results confirm this hypothesis. The overall EBITDA impact on current lessees is around 10.5
per cent. The apparent EBT impact is estimated to be between -0.6 per cent and 2.6 per cent. In total, 55
per cent of companies experience an EBITDA impact less than ten percent. However, there are wide sector
variations. Amongst the Airlines industry, one third of companies experience an EBITDA impact larger than
100 per cent. The proportion is lower for other operating-lease-intensive industry: 13 per cent and 9 per
cent respectively for Retail and Travel & Leisure industries respectively. Table 5.2 shows the EBITDA impact
by sector. According to our model, about 25 per cent of lessees would experience EBITDA impact larger
than 25 per cent. If these lessees’ whose remuneration are linked to EBITDA, they might require some
renegotiation. We have excluded Financial Services, Banks and Insurance companies from Figure 5.2:.
Bloomberg does not typically report EBITDA data on the companies in these sectors as the nature of the
business undertaken makes it a less meaningful metric.
Table 5.2: EBITDA impact by sector

Sector 0-10% 10-25% 25-50% 50-100% >100%

Airlines 7% 36% 7% 21% 29%
Automobiles & Parts 83% 10% 5% 0% 3%
Basic Resources 83% 10% 3% 1% 3%
Chemicals 88% 8% 2% 2% 0%
Construction & Materials 64% 23% 7% 4% 2%
Energy 70% 11% 7% 5% 7%
Food & Beverage 77% 15% 6% 0% 2%
Health Care 64% 18% 7% 7% 4%
Industrial Goods & Se 49% 26% 13% 7% 5%
Media 53% 26% 10% 6% 6%
Personal & Household 50% 18% 16% 9% 7%
Real Estate 64% 4% 13% 6% 13%
Retail 17% 15% 30% 24% 13%
Technology 36% 32% 20% 6% 6%
Telecommunications 66% 26% 8% 0% 0%
Travel & Leisure 45% 15% 19% 13% 9%
Total 55% 20% 12% 7% 6%
Source: Bloomberg LLP and Europe Economics calculations.

We can also consider profitability in relative terms. For instance, one can look at EBT as a percentage of
turnover, or purely the change in in EBT in percentage terms. Figure 5.1: shows the change in pre-tax income
divided by total turnover on the y-axis. Each dot represents one company. For the majority of companies,
the impact is less than one per cent. Around 26 per cent of companies are simulated to have a profitability
impact above this level. We emphasize that the EBT impact is highly sensitive to assumptions made about the
blend and maturity of lease portfolio. In addition, some companies display large variations in this ratio because
they have low turnover, so even a small absolute change may be a large percentage change. That said, we
have investigated the ‘outliers’ carefully, and have reasons to believe at least for some companies, perhaps
only a handful, the change (enhancement or deterioration) is likely to be material.
It needs to be borne in mind that such profit changes relative to the current accounting treatment are
essentially timing differences, not changes in long-run profitability. Even so, companies may need to educate

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Impact Analysis

investors in advance of IFRS 16 taking effect. Likewise, if these companies do not have automatic mechanisms
to adjust for the change in IFRS, they would be likely, for example, to have more significant dialogue around
revising debt covenants.
Figure 5.1: Percentage change in EBT / turnover

Source: Bloomberg LLP and Europe Economics calculations.

Debt financing capacity impact

Leverage ratios are used together with other financial metrics to assess a company’s ability to meet its
financial obligations. Overall, leverage ratios are expected to increase slightly. The Debt/Equity ratio has
increased from 0.8 to 1 and Debt/Asset ratio increased from 28 per cent to 32 per cent.38
The increase in leverage ratios (measured by debt to asset and debt to equity) is the most significant in
Airlines, Retail and Travel & Leisure industries. Typically, a debt to equity ratio greater than 2.0 is considered
risky by investors. While most industries do not hit the 2.0 benchmark, for Airlines, the adjustment increases
the debt to equity ratio from 1.6 to 3.0. We expect some airlines to experience significant impacts due to
IFRS 16.
The change in debt level would affect borderline companies most. For example, if a company previously had
a debt / EBITDA ratio of 3, and post-IFRS 16 this increased to 8, then, superficially at least and to the extent
that some lenders do not factor in lease obligations, this could have an impact on the company’s ability to
borrow. Figure 5.2: plots the old debt to EBITDA ratio on the vertical axis and the new ratio on the horizontal
axis. Any points below the 45 degree line represent an increase in the ratio (highlighted with light pink
triangle). Amongst these companies, those that cross some threshold in terms of external perceptions of
creditworthiness are likely to be more affected. For instance, say, if a lender’s debt/EBTIDA threshold is set

38
Aggregate results exclude banks, insurance and financial services sectors.

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Impact Analysis

around four, then, the companies that are most likely to be affected are those dots circled in dark pink below.
There are approximately 40 companies in this category.
Figure 5.2: Scatterplot of change in Debt/EBITDA ratio

Source: Bloomberg LLP and Europe Economics calculations.

In conclusion, the simulated accounting adjustment shows that there would be an increase in the on-balance
sheet liabilities and assets. EBITDA will change significantly. However, since there is no change to the
company’s fundamental cash flow, the profitability impact must be zero in the long run. Nevertheless, there
is likely to be short-run impacts on EBT, particularly in operating lease intensive industries such as Airlines,
Retail and Travel and Leisure.

5.3 Analysis of direct compliance costs

There are a number of ways in which lessees, lessors and lenders could be directly affected by the adoption
of IFRS 16.
 IFRS 16 will require implementation into the accounting system of lessees. This may involve one-off costs
(e.g. reviewing existing lease agreements) and also acquiring or modifying accounting systems (which
could generate both one-off and ongoing costs).
 Lessees’ remuneration and incentive schemes could be affected, and require renegotiation and / or
amendment.
 More significantly, perhaps, some lessees expect the covenants on other borrowings to require
renegotiation due to changes in reporting (this also being anticipated by lenders).
 Lenders and lessors will likely need to mend their records and systems to reflect the change.
This section assesses the direct compliance costs associated with the implementation of IFRS 16. We first
describe the mechanisms of effects qualitatively. We then discuss main cost components and factors affecting
each of the above items. Where data is available, we would also provide quantifications of these costs.
Numbers were aggregated up to obtain the total direct cost of implementation for the whole industry.

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Impact Analysis

5.3.1 Mechanisms of effect for compliance costs

The changes proposed in IFRS 16 would mostly affect lessees. The higher the ratio of assets held under
operating leases against total assets, or the greater the dependence on operating leases for financing, the
larger the impact is likely to be. This means that sectors more heavily relying on operating leases, such as
retail or aviation, would be expected to be affected the most. We give such sectors particular attention in
our analysis.
The IFRS 16 requirements could be expected to impose some compliance costs, mostly on lessees. The costs
may have to cover one-off setting up of systems and processes, communication and education of staff, and
developing and implementing on an ongoing basis procedures for identifying contracts containing leases,
separating between lease and non-lease components (such as services),39 determining the term of each lease
contract and the appropriate discount rate. An important driver here could be the scale of pre-existing
experience of finance leases by the lessee. Since the accounting rules are mostly unchanged for lessors, any
significant direct costs are unlikely to arise. (There could be costs related to reporting and providing
information on a lessors’ exposure to asset risk.)
It should also be noted that the IFRS 16 rules inevitably would require some judgement from lessees in terms
of identifying which contracts contain leases, separating between lease and non-lease components of each
contract, determining the term of a lease, and setting the appropriate discount rate to measure the value of
a lease. On the one hand, the ability to apply some judgement enables companies to apply the new rules in a
manner that better reflects their own circumstances (e.g. by providing flexibility to not to separate the service
component of the contract including a lease). On the other hand, rules that require judgement might increase
the complexity and thus costs for lessees as more senior staff might have to be involved. Furthermore, too
much flexibility in the rules could hinder effectiveness as well as increase monitoring costs to competent
authorities. It is worth keeping in mind that while judgement might be required when applying some of the
IFRS 16 rules, it will be no longer required to distinguish operating leases from finance leases. In addition, the
application of IAS 17 and related Interpretations also requires judgement in the areas mentioned – albeit
perhaps to a different extent.
The new accounting rules, even though not related to any fundamental changes in a company’s financing (i.e.
its financing cash flows should be unchanged), could impact on the market and the leasing industry. First, they
would affect a range of financial ratios, including leverage and any metrics calculated relative to total assets,
EBIT or EBITDA. In response, market participants would have to revisit their analytical approaches. For
lessors and other debt providers that could mean inefficiencies and increased costs in the short term. In the
longer term, as market participants adjust, those costs are likely to fade away. The required adjustments and
associated costs would be more substantial for those market participants which currently do not make
capitalisation-style adjustments for operating lease obligations in assessing a company’s creditworthiness. For
instance, to the extent that regulatory capital requirements are based on financial statements (rather than
defined independently), the relevant competent authorities (i.e. regulators and supervisors) might have to
adjust their policies affected by the new accounting standard when monitoring financial institutions with
substantial operating leases (e.g. a bank that held much of its branch network under operating leases).40
In debt capital markets, if the methodologies used by credit rating agencies are not capturing off-balance sheet
financing well, the change in the accounting standard might ultimately affect the lessee’s credit rating (and

39
In the context of separating between lease and non-lease components, Ernst & Young (2016) argued that the kind
of information lessees would require from lessors to achieve that could be proprietary and thus not disclosed by
the lessors. This would increase the costs to lessees as well as introduce some inefficiencies in the new accounting
standard.
40
However, IFRS Foundation (2016) notes that, based on a sample of 20 European banks, IASB estimated the effect of
IFRS 16 on reported equity. For all banks in the sample the decline in equity was less than 0.5 per cent, and for
almost half of the sample it was less than 0.2 per cent.

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Impact Analysis

thus the cost of borrowing). Similarly, in equity capital markets, whilst the listed company’s cash flows are
unchanged (pending any future behavioural shifts), its reported financial metrics may alter. Analysts and
investors that do not currently make adjustments for such off-balance sheet financing may have to reflect
upon whether the accounting changes add to their information set on the respective company’s prospective
performance.
Second, the increase in balance sheet liabilities might result in a breach of some debt covenants, or at least
revision of covenants such that the degree of headroom remains broadly equivalent (this is important to the
operational flexibility of the companies with the leases and loans). However, this would apply only to those
covenants which are directly based on financial statements, and which do not include measures such as
“frozen GAAP”41 or clauses requiring automatic renegotiation of covenants when accounting standards
change. The downside of “frozen GAAP” is that the lessee will need to keep two sets of records (one for
the purpose of financial statements, and one for the purpose of satisfying covenant agreements).42
A somewhat similar effect is possible with incentive schemes, if these are linked to key performance ratios.
If the agreement’s wording does not adequately allow for change, such agreements could require re-
negotiation.
IFRS 16 could also have tax implications. PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC) (2016)43 argue that there could be
consequences on applicable depreciation rules, specific rules limiting the tax deductibility of interest, and
existing transfer pricing agreements, sales/indirect taxes and existing leasing tax structures. The specific
impact would vary from one tax jurisdiction to another. If any of the tax implications were to materialise, the
affected jurisdictions might elect to review their tax treatment of leases, interest and depreciation in light of
the new accounting standard.

5.3.2 Direct compliance costs — accounting and IT systems

We consider the implied changes and costs in the accounting and IT systems costs for lessees and, separately,
for lessors and lenders.
Lessees
The main one-off costs for lessees are expected to relate to the analysis of existing contracts, the purchase
of additional IT systems, and potential process changes.
 Analysis of existing contracts. Companies need to understand the implication of IFRS 16 for their existing
leases thoroughly before deciding on the strategy of implementation. Indeed, all cost components
ultimately relate to this analysis. The survey data show that 55 per cent of lessees expect that “time spent
investigating existing operating leases” will drive additional costs when IFRS 16 is implemented.44
 IT costs. About 36 per cent of survey respondents indicate that IT costs would constitute a majority of
their one-off costs.45 Such costs include the purchase and / or development, implementation and testing
of new IT tools. For larger companies with multiple systems, additional interfaces may be required to
facilitate communication between systems. Where sufficiently detailed contract data are not currently
available (or at least not available in suitable format in the relevant accounting and reporting department),

41
“Frozen GAAP” refers to the agreement where financial covenants are based on the accounting principles applying
at the time of negotiation.
42
Reinhart Law (2016) “Got leases? New Accounting Standard Could Trigger Breaches of Bank Covenants”,
http://www.reinhartlaw.com/knowledge/got-leases-new-accounting-standard-trigger-breaches-bank-covenants/.
Accessed 28 September 2016.
43
PwC (2016) “IFRS 16: The leases standard is changing. Are you ready?” January 2016.
44
YouGov lessee survey.
45
YouGov lessee survey.

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Impact Analysis

companies would also need to spend time collecting and entering data related to operating leases. The
scale of such IT costs are likely to be influenced by the length of time available for transition and the
strength of (internal) competition for IT resources at particular companies.
 Potential process changes. 48 per cent of lessees in our sample identified process change as a significant
driver for one-off costs.46 This could include costs incurred when trying to determine new processes
related to controls, valuation and lease management. In addition, some companies may incur higher audit
fees as a result of auditors reviewing companies’ valuation assumptions for items which come onto the
system for the first time. The need to employ external consultants (other than auditors) may further
increase this cost.
The implementation costs for lessees have a very wide range. YouGov’s data indicate a range of €0–
€700,000.47 The upper limit appears to be somewhat higher than this. Several lessees responding to EFRAG’s
consultation (which closed in early December 2016) expected the implementation of IFRS 16 to cost a few
million euros. This is higher than the YouGov survey results. Our interpretation of this is that whilst there
are some large companies that will likely incur such costs, the absence of such findings in the survey indicate
that this is not typical. Our final range estimate reflects various factors that may affect the cost of
implementation:
 Number and type of operating leases. The number and complexity of existing contracts will naturally
make it more costly to analyse these contracts and on-board them to the new systems. Based on the
YouGov data, it appears that the number of leases held is usually higher for companies who only use
operating leases for plant and equipment (P&E), the cost of implementation is also likely to be higher. In
the YouGov dataset, the average cost of implementation for lessees with only P&E leases is €19,500,
while the average cost for lessees with only property leases is €8,600. Companies which use operating
leases for both P&E and properties have the highest average cost, €77,500. These differences are
statistically significant, and — as a proxy for complexity —is in our sample at least as an important driver
of higher expected costs than company size alone. (In our modelling of costs below we seek to take into
account both such scale and complexity effects). Similarly, if the lease portfolio contains dissimilar assets
and / or variant terms and conditions, companies would need to spend more time in establishing
processes and valuation methodologies for each type, which could increase the cost of implementation,
and likely trigger increased reliance on external expertise. Where lease contracts contain both lease and
service terms it may cause further complexity in the decision-making around the applicability of IFRS 16.
 Structure of the IT system and processes. Companies with decentralised and discretionary lease logging
systems and processes are likely to incur extra manual implementation costs than those with already
highly centralised operations. Half of the lessee respondents considered that “centralising treatment of
operating leases” would drive additional costs.48 Where lease contract data are available in sufficient
detail in a pre-existing electronic format, the cost of implementation could be lower than those which
require manual conversion. Last, if the choice of IT providers is curtailed in one way or another (e.g.
because lessees consider themselves unable to replicate what is available from external vendors), it would
reduce bargaining power and increase costs.
 Timeline. The cost of implementation also depends crucially on the timeline. A tighter timeline means
more external resources need to be employed. This often implies that if there is any delay in the
endorsement of IFRS, the industry may need to incur higher costs of implementation.
Our analysis of the implementation costs strongly suggests two broad groups: the majority (66 per cent) of
lessees expecting a “straight-forward” implementation — characterised by low costs — and a minority

46
YouGov lessee survey.
47
This is based on quantitative estimates from 91 lessees.
48
YouGov lessee survey.

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Impact Analysis

expecting a more complex transition — characterised by much higher costs, that are also notably
heterogeneous.
Figure 5.3: One-off implementation costs

Source: YouGov Survey and Europe Economics analysis (based on 90 observations).

Therefore we modelled two scenarios for lessees’ expected implementation costs, drawing on the survey
data. The first is a higher-impact scenario where companies incur a substantial cost due to the heterogenous
characteristics described above. A simple linear regression was used for this group of companies. We found
that the turnover band is a significant factor that influences the level of cost and the regression acts so as to
extrapolate the costs based on company sizes. The second is a lower-impact (standard) scenario where
companies’ implementation costs are relatively homogeneous and lower. Given the relatively homogeneous
nature, costs are estimated by taking the median within each turnover band.49
The results are shown in Table 5.3 below. In recognition of the consultation responses received by EFRAG,
we have substituted €0.9–€1 million in the complex impact scenario for the largest companies, i.e. those with
annual turnover above €5 billion (replacing €0.8–€0.9 million).50
Table 5.3: Estimated one-off costs for standard and complex impact scenarios

Turnover Standard impact (€) Complex impact (€)

< 500m (revenue category 1) 1,700 – 1,900 29,000 – 33,000
500 - 1000m (revenue category 2) 2,200 – 2,600 82,000 – 95,000
1 - 5bn (revenue category 3) 3,500 – 4,100 269,000 – 310,000
> 5bn (revenue category 4) 12,000 – 13,000 908,000 – 1,045,000
Source: YouGov Survey (based on 90 observations) and Europe Economics calculations.

To estimate the impact across all European lessees, we have scaled these by the number of companies in
each of these turnover bands (see Chapters 4 and 7). This gives a total one-off cost of €162-186 million.

49
In this case, the mean and median are very similar.
50
The replacement estimate incorporates the consultation responses into our calculations by assuming that the very
high impact cases identified in the consultation represent about 10 per cent of the high-impact population for
companies with turnover larger than €5bn, and with an average cost equal to €2m. For the rest of the 90 per cent
of such high-impact companies, the average cost is what we have estimated using our regression model, i.e. €863,000.
The complex estimate used combines both in the appropriate proportion.

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Impact Analysis

These results are of course sensitive to the proportions of companies experiencing standard or complex
impacts. For instance, if we assume the proportion of the standard scenario is around 75 per cent, then the
total one-off costs would be between €121-140 million. On the other hand, a 60 per cent assumption would
yield a total cost of €189-218 million.
The main driver for ongoing costs is the monitoring of capitalised operating leases and any IT maintenance
costs. The ongoing costs are likely to be higher for lessees that have more frequent changes in leases. These
changes would trigger the need to reassess and re-measure the lease liability and ROU assets.
The average ongoing cost is smaller than that of one-off costs. This is expected as subsequent to the actual
implementation, such processes can be absorbed into business-as-usual. Similarly, the objective of at least
some of the one-off spending is to achieve automation of these processes, i.e. promoting a lower incremental
ongoing cost. Indeed, 21 percent of the lessees did not expect to incur additional ongoing costs due to IFRS
16. We have conducted a similar exercise for ongoing costs as we did for one-off costs. This takes into
account those companies who do not expect to incur any ongoing costs. Under the complex impact scenario,
on average, the ongoing cost is about 20 per cent of the one-off cost.
Table 5.4: Estimated ongoing costs for standard and complex impact scenarios

Turnover Standard impact (€) Complex impact (€)

< 500m 110 - 130 6,000 – 7,000
500 - 1000m 450 - 510 19,000 – 21,000
1 - 5bn 1,100 – 1,300 61,000 – 71,000
> 5bn 3,500 - 4,100 186,000 – 214,000
Source: YouGov Survey (90 observations) and Europe Economics calculations.

Scaling these estimates up (in terms of ongoing costs, a greater proportion of companies expect a non-
standard cost effect, 40 per cent), the total annual ongoing cost is €40–€46 million.
Fully 97 per cent of lessees in the YouGov data do not expect any cost savings as a result of IFRS 16.51 This
is not surprising as the process of lease capitalisation cannot be automated to the same extent as the process
of current operating lease accounting. There are also more parameters which require analysis and
judgement.52 The presence of these manual elements significantly limits the potential cost saving in the future.
Lessors and lenders
Lenders and lessors may also incur transitional IT costs and staff costs due to the adoption of IFRS 16. These
should be on a much reduced scale relative to lessees. Most lenders are already making adjustments for
operating leases when evaluating a company’s creditworthiness, be it via proprietary methods, discretionary
decisions or outsourced solutions. We also discuss below the scope for lessors and lenders effecting a
reduction in such expenditure.
About 75–80 per cent of lessors and lenders would be affected by a need to update client records to reflect
the revised treatment of operating leases under IFRS 16 (the remainder believed that their existing record-
keeping approach would be fully adequate already). The majority considered manual adjustment (through
own or outsourced staff) to be the preferred route to updating records (albeit some re-design of IT systems
could also be necessary in some cases). To capture the effect of IFRS 16, we assume that 2–3 days per client
would be required at each lender / lessor in order to update such records and to process any impact of this.
This implies (assuming each listed company would have a relationship with 1.5 banks and 2.5 lessors) that the
associated one-off cost would be €5.6–€8.9 million.
Lessors and lenders invest considerable resource in external systems to support their analysis of
creditworthiness, and ultimately assist the fundamental task of making credit decisions. These systems

51
YouGov lessor / lender survey.
52
EFRAG Consultation Response.

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Impact Analysis

combine data from financial reports with data from other sources to provide a consistent “house view” of
clients’ financials.
Table 5.5: Current costs of maintaining systems to support analysis of client creditworthiness

Lessors Lenders
Up to €250k pa 78% 53%
251-500k pa 7% 35%
501-€1m pa 15% 12%
Source: YouGov (44 observations).

Of those lessors making adjustments to client’s financial information with respect to operating leases when
considering its creditworthiness, about 25 per cent considered it likely they would cease to make such
adjustments subsequent to the implementation of IFRS 16. A further 25 per cent would continue to do, but
at a reduced level. The situation is similar with lenders, with again half expecting to continue with the same
resource intensity in terms of analysing operating leases, and with 30 per cent expecting to discontinue such
effort — and 20 per cent expecting to reduce intensity.
However, this does not mean that the costs incurred to analyse client creditworthiness will change in a
material way — these systems are making adjustments for multiple business and financial elements at the
clients. Data, at least on listed companies, may be accessed through credit rating agencies which are again
making multiple adjustments (e.g. for pension scheme liabilities). Accordingly researching and adjusting data
related to operating leases makes only a marginal contribution. Credit rating analysts interviewed by Europe
Economics did not expect to reduce the intensity of effort applied to understanding operating leases for
several years post-IFRS 16, i.e. they would wish to wait until it was suitably bedded down before making a
judgement whether or not to curtail such efforts. Therefore, any reduction in such costs would, at best, be
only realisable at relatively remote future date.

5.3.3 Direct compliance costs — lessees’ remuneration and incentive schemes

One of the potential impacts that we identified was a potential need to adjust or even renegotiate
remuneration and incentive schemes. The survey results indicate a sizeable proportion indeed expected IFRS
16 changes to have such further consequences on remuneration policies or incentive schemes. On average
53 per cent lessees reported such impacts as likely to occur.53 Interestingly, the percentage was much higher
(69 per cent) among those respondents who were most familiar with the proposed IFRS 16 changes. Those
who started the CAT interviews as being most aware of the proposed changes are likely to have a better
grasp of the full extent of potential consequences. This suggests that the knock-on effects might in fact apply
to more than 53 per cent, but simply some of the companies are not aware of this yet. We cannot reject the
possibility that companies which are more familiar with IFRS 16 are those which — ex ante —were more
likely to be affected, it does seem unlikely that it was concerns around remuneration/incentive policies that
drove the process of becoming familiar with the IFRS 16 proposals.
We designed a simple model to estimate the potential cost arising from the need to review employment
contracts and communicate the changes to the relevant employees. We note that not all employment
contracts involve incentive schemes and thus not all would have to be reviewed after the IFRS 16
implementation. In general, senior staff (company managers, executives and board members) are more likely
to have variable remuneration elements in their contracts.
Since there is no comprehensive publicly available data regarding the number of senior management functions
in each company, we made the following assumptions in order to estimate the size of this group. First, the
number of company managers, executives and board members is broadly proportional to the total number

53
Six per cent said such impacts are very likely, and 47 per cent said they are quite likely.

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Impact Analysis

of employees with the exception of smaller companies where the proportion is likely to be higher. We
assumed that the maximum number of contracts to review (i.e. the maximum number of company managers,
executives and board members) is 250.54 For the remaining companies, we scaled the number of contracts
to be reviewed by the number of employees so that the proportion of management functions to the number
of employees remained constant. For companies for which this number was smaller than the number of board
members / executives55 (obtained via Bloomberg LLP) we used the number of board members / executives
as the basis for our further analysis. Based on the above assumptions this indicates around 17,500 such
contracts across the EU. Our past work gives an estimated cost of redesigning and revising a single scheme
(and communicating those changes) of €475–€550, which would roughly correspond with one day of work.56
The responses to YouGov survey suggest that the time required might be slightly higher —the median is two
person-days, which would translate into the cost of €950-€1100. However we also note that this was based
only on 12 lessees’ views.
If we take the proportion of companies affected to be 62–76 per cent, then the total one-off cost of this
knock-on effect would be between €5.2million (with the cost of €475 per contract and 62 per cent of lessees
affected) and €14.6 million (with the cost of €1100 per contract and 76 per cent of lessees affected).
Given that there will be a transitional period of up to two years before companies are obliged to implement
IFRS 16, some of these costs may be capable of being spread over a longer time period, and perhaps, in some
part, avoided. We do not envisage any incremental ongoing cost.
This impact only affect lessees.

5.3.4 Direct compliance costs — renegotiation of covenants

By bringing previously off-balance sheet items onto the balance sheet, various key ratios and metrics (e.g.
EBITDA, leverage ratios) may be affected. As we note at 4.6, loan agreements can incorporate automatic
adjustment mechanisms or apply frozen GAAP formulae such that the commercial basis of the loan is
unaffected. Even so, this does not cover all situations, so changed accounting metrics may trigger a need for
the renegotiation of existing debt covenants. Equally, companies may need to put in place the capacity to
generate adjusted data (i.e. data that adjusts what is available for financial reporting purposes).

54
This assumption is informed by data Europe Economics collected in relation to a different study in 2014 undertaken
for the UK’s Financial Conduct Authority, “Cost Benefit Analysis of the New Regime for Individual Accountability
and Remuneration”.
55
For each company we collected information on the number of executives / company managers, and the size of the
board. The two numbers are not always identical, and depending on the management model for some the board size
is larger than the number of executives while for others it is the other way around. The analysis is based on the
larger of the two.
56
Europe Economics (2014) “Cost Benefit Analysis of the New Regime for Individual Accountability and
Remuneration”.

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Impact Analysis

Figure 5.4: The importance of debt covenant renegotiation

Source: YouGov Survey (186 observations) and Europe Economics calculations.

About 25 per cent of lessees in the survey expect to have to renegotiate existing debt covenants to adjust
for changed accounting metrics (with a further group uncertain). The majority of these expect a relatively
trivial exercise — but a notable minority of this group anticipate that this process would be significant, and
important to get right. We have seen in the accounting adjustment exercise that a small minority of companies
will likely see very significant changes in some metrics. Most of these companies are focused in particular
sectors (e.g. retail), but this is not exclusively the case. Where such more affected companies also have to
renegotiate covenants (due to the absence of suitable automatic adjustment mechanisms), it is clearly very
important to obtain equivalent operational leeway within such new covenants as with those that would be
replaced. (It is worth noting, of course, that such companies (and, indeed, the bankers of such companies)
have some time before IFRS 16’s expected implementation in January 2019 to consider how best to adjust.)
Whilst IFRS 16 would not change the fundamental cash flows of a company, a lender could use this as an
opportunity to renegotiate contracts with riskier companies to its favour (particularly if its appreciation of
the leasing obligations was not complete). We believe the extent of this actually resulting in the withdrawal
of facilities is likely to be very limited — again, because the cash flows do not change: operating leases are
off-balance sheet, not off-financial statements.
The cost of renegotiation would depend on the number of lease contracts, the terms of these contracts (e.g.
if there is automatic adjustment), and the significance of changes in financial metrics. Such costs are considered
from both the lessees’ and lenders’ perspective.
Lessees
Amongst respondents to YouGov’s survey, 36 per cent of lenders expect to renegotiate at least some
covenants manually. This is not necessarily in contradiction to the lessees own estimate (i.e. that 25 per cent
would need to re-negotiate), however, considering both lessee and lender perspectives we have preferred an
estimate that 30 per cent of lessees will be affected. We have estimated the expected cost of renegotiating
debt covenants for lessees based on the survey results.
Similar to the analysis of implementation costs, two scenarios, high (one-third of those affected) and low
impact (two-thirds), were constructed, distinguishing between companies with turnover less and more than
€500 million. The median days required for renegotiation was used.57 It would only take 4-6 days to
renegotiate the debt covenant in the low cost scenario and 27.5 to 120 days in the high cost scenario.
(Respondents have provided a wide range of estimates for the person-days required for covenants

57
In any event, the mean is not significantly different from the median.

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Impact Analysis

renegotiation, from as low as 2 days to as high as 1,000 days.) Assuming a cost per man day equal to €400,
this only amounts to a one-off cost of €16,000 under the high cost scenario even for large companies.
Table 5.6: Debt covenant renegotiations for lessees

Total renegotiation costs

Company size Number of days
per lessee
Low < 500m 4 € 1,600
> 500m 6 € 2,400
High < 500m 27.5 € 11,000
> 500m 120 € 48,000
Source: YouGov Survey (42 observations) and Europe Economics calculations.

Overall the one-off cost of renegotiation debt covenants for the lessees is expected to be around €6.8–7.8
million. Although the direct cost of renegotiation is very low, the consequence of debt renegotiation for an
individual company could be material for it if the terms of its covenants deteriorate such that its degree of
operational headroom is affected. This would depend on the company’s financial situation, bargaining power
and the lenders’ risk appetite — but it is also worth recalling that the accounting implementation of IFRS 16
would not affect a company’s actual underlying cash flows.
Lessors and lenders
Our estimate that 30 percent of lessees would need to renegotiate terms implies that almost 700 companies
would be affected. Typically, a smaller company would need only one lender, whereas larger companies may
have multiple facilities with a panel of banks. On average, we assume each lessee has 1.5 lenders, i.e. there
would be approximately 1,000 debt renegotiations. The lender survey suggests an average eight-ten days
spent with a typical customers on covenant renegotiation, i.e. equivalent to 8,000 man days in total. Under
the same day-rate assumption (i.e. €400 per man-day), the cost to lenders amount of €3.2–€4.0 million,
which is not dissimilar to that for lessors.
Overall, the one-off cost of renegotiation across both sides would be €10.0–€11.8 million.

5.4 Analysis of benefits

To the extent that operating leases (with the exception of short-term and low value leases) are similar in
nature to debt obligations, bringing them onto the balance sheet is likely to have a number of benefits for
users.
It might facilitate any assessment of a lessee’s financial position and credit risk. Investors and analysts should
be able to assess the company’s financial position more accurately, using less time and resources to do so
than previously. While information on operating leases is already available in financial statements, and is
commonly taken into account by market analysts, the method of incorporating this data might be inaccurate
and is not consistent across market participants. As such, there might be scope for new information to
become available after IFRS 16 implementation. Moreover, since there would be no need to estimate the
assets and liabilities associated with operating leases, the comparison between different companies is likely
to be easier.
Another potential benefit of the IFRS 16 rules would be that it would limit companies’ ability to manipulate
the lease contracts so that they are classified as off-balance sheet debt.58

58
Franzen et al. (2009) argue that the remarkable increase in off-balance sheet financing over the last 27 years is
“consistent with the contentions of regulators and popular press that companies intentionally structure leases to
qualify for OBS accounting treatment.” See Franzen et al. (2009) “Capital Structure and the Changing Role of Off-
Balance-Sheet Lease Financing” August 2009.

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Impact Analysis

Finally, including the information on operating leases on the balance sheet would mean that not only the more
sophisticated investors can accurately estimate the scale of company’s liabilities — this information would be
easily available to all investors.

5.4.1 Mechanisms of effect for benefits

The main rationale for introducing the new rules is to increase the transparency and accuracy of financial
statements. A survey conducted by Beattie et al. (2006) indicated that both users and preparers of financial
statements “agreed that the current standard was open to manipulation, lacked uniformity, did not portray
the substance of transactions, was incomplete, inconsistent and lacked clarity”.59 On top of that, users “agreed
significantly more strongly than preparers that users’ assessments of companies would be improved”.60
To the extent that operating leases (with the exception of short-term and low value leases) are similar in
nature to debt obligations, bringing them to the face of the financial statements is likely to have a number of
benefits:
 It would facilitate any assessment of a lessee’s financial position and credit risk. Investors and analysts
should be able to assess the company’s financial position more accurately, using less time and resources
to do so than previously.
 The new rules would limit companies’ ability to manipulate the lease contracts so that they are classified
as off-balance sheet debt.61
 Finally, including the information on operating leases on the balance sheet would mean that not only the
more sophisticated investors can accurately estimate the scale of a company’s liabilities — this
information would be easily available to all investors.
All these outcomes could contribute to fair competition in the market — with investors having easier and
more equal access to the relevant information. Also, the way lease contracts are structured would be less
important. The extent to which these benefits materialise would depend on whether the market and its
participants are currently inefficient or limited in estimating the off-balance sheet obligations.
Existing research provides somewhat mixed results. Some papers suggest that credit rating agencies, as well
as the market as a whole (captured, for example, by the stock market prices), incorporate operating leases
in their analyses of equity risk.62 On the other hand, as noted by Goodacre (2003), the studies up to the date

59
Beattie et al. (2006) “International lease-accounting reform and economic consequences: The views of U.K. users
and preparers” The International Journal of Accounting, 41 (2006) 75-103.
60
See also Goodacre (2003) for a review of literature on this topic.
61
Franzen et al. (2009) argue that the remarkable increase in off-balance sheet financing over the last 27 years is
“consistent with the contentions of regulators and popular press that companies intentionally structure leases to
qualify for OBS accounting treatment.” See Franzen et al. (2009) “Capital Structure and the Changing Role of Off-
Balance-Sheet Lease Financing”.
62
For example, Sengupta & Wang (2011) “Pricing of off-balance sheet debt: how do bond market participants use the
footnote disclosures on operating leases and postretirement benefit plans?” Accounting & Finance, Volume 51, Issue
3, pp 787–808, September 2011; Cotten et al. (2013) “Capitalisation of Operating Leases and Credit Ratings” JARAF,
Volume 8 Issue 1 2013; Andrade et al. (2014) “The Impact of Operating Leases and Purchase Obligations on Credit
Market Prices” Draft: March 2014. Moreover, based on previous studies Goodacre (2003) argued that “there is both
general and lease-specific evidence that users in aggregate (i.e., the stock market) are not misled by such
presentational issues. In particular, there is quite strong evidence for both the UK (Beattie, Goodacre and Thomson,
2000b) and the US (Ely, 1995; Imhoff, Lipe and Wright, 1993) that the market already incorporates footnote
operating lease disclosures in its assessment of equity risk.“ For more details, see Goodacre (2003) “Assessing the
potential impact of lease accounting reform: a review of the empirical evidence” Journal of Property Research, 20(1),
March, 2003, pp. 49-66.

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Impact Analysis

of his work were generally unable to determine whether the size of the adjustment was ‘correct’, i.e.
reflecting the actual obligations as they would have been perceived under perfect information.63
Chu et al. (2007) find that the extent to which banks include operating leases in setting the spreads is
consistent with the amount of lease obligations up to five years out, as reported in the financial statements.
The authors argue that accounting only for the first five years is insufficient, and thus the new rules are likely
to improve the accuracy of the estimates.64 Furthermore, other studies indicate that, even if sophisticated
market participants can estimate off-balance sheet obligations with sufficient precision, other users and
investors may be unable to do that. For example, Ge (2006) shows that controlling for current earnings,
greater off-balance sheet debt is associated with lower future earnings — but investors do not correctly
estimate the implications of off-balance sheet obligations in their assessments of future earnings.65
Improving the transparency of financial reporting (meaning analysts would have access to better quality
information) could also result in costs of corporate borrowing that are more accurately reflective of
underlying creditworthiness. It is not necessarily the case that borrowing costs would increase for companies
with the highest operating lease obligations — depending on the current estimation techniques the actual
obligations could be either higher or lower. Indeed, Deloitte (2016) pointed out that the accuracy of the
techniques used for estimation of the value of lease obligations could vary depending on lessee’s
characteristics. Taking airlines as an example, a 7x multiple method66 — even if a useful heuristic on average
— will overestimate the lease obligations for lessees with shorter-term lease contracts relative to the lease
obligations measured under the new rules. The opposite is true for lessees with longer-term lease contracts.67
IFRS 16 rules should leave less room for manipulating lease contracts so that the obligations could be classified
as off-balance sheet debt. As a result, socially inefficient activities aimed at regulatory arbitrage should be
reduced. (However, there may be scope for such arbitrage with respect to some aspects of the IFRS 16, as
we discuss further below). Furthermore, we might expect increased comparability of companies in terms of
financial ratios and risk exposure, with differences in financial positions that are associated with the actual
obligations rather than the estimation methodology. This could facilitate comparisons of the research output
of different analysts or investors.
For competent authorities (e.g. market regulators and accounting enforcement bodies) a consistent reporting
framework across listed companies might mean better and/or less costly oversight of outstanding liabilities
as well as improved understanding of the developments in the credit market as a whole. Competent
authorities are perhaps more likely to rely on disclosure by credit institutions in any event (where reporting
is essentially unchanged).
Moreover, there could be impacts on capital structure. Some studies have suggested that operating leases
are used in addition to debt rather than as a substitute for it. Goodacre (2003) argues that operating leases
appear to absorb less debt capacity than finance leases.68 If bringing operating leases on the balance sheet

63
Goodacre (2003) “Assessing the potential impact of lease accounting reform: a review of the empirical evidence”
Journal of Property Research, 20(1), March, 2003, pp. 49-66.
64
Chu et al. (2007) “Does the Current Accounting Treatment of Operating Leases Provide Sufficient Information on
the Lease Liabilities?”
65
Ge (2006) “Off-balance sheet activities, earnings persistence and stock prices: Evidence from operating leases”.
66
This multiple method is a way of approximating the total debt relating to current leasing obligations. It is calculated
by multiplying the annual operating lease cost by a factor.
67
Deloitte (2016) “IFRS industry insights: Aviation sector. Implications of the new leasing standard”.
68
Based on previous research Goodacre (2003) argues as follows: “Survey results suggest that managers believe that
overall ‘debt capacity’ can be increased by using leases; (UK: Drury and Braund, 1990; US: Bathala and Mukherjee,
1995; Gopalakrishnan and Parkash, 1996). Further, regression-based analyses confirm that companies behave as if
lease finance is complementary to (US: Ang and Peterson, 1984), or only a partial substitute for debt finance (US:
Marston and Harris, 1988; Krishnan and Moyer, 1994; UK: Adedeji and Stapleton, 1996; Beattie, Goodacre and
Thomson, 2000a; Belgium: Deloof and Verschueren, 1999); in both situations the use of leases allows an increase in

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Impact Analysis

affects lenders’ and/or lessors’ perception of debt capacity, IFRS 16 — all else being equal — might lead to
lower levels of debt for companies which currently heavily rely on off-balance sheet financing.
Similarly, bringing operating leases onto the balance sheet (also resulting in a revised income statement) could
be an opportunity for lessees to re-optimise their financing strategies. Specifically, companies which currently
take on lease obligations in a decentralised manner (i.e. lease contracts are made independently by various
teams or departments) would be able to re-evaluate whether leasing assets is the optimal way of financing
their operations.

5.4.2 Public capital market effects

First, we need to consider how equity and debt capital markets currently take into account a company’s
operating lease obligations, e.g. is there already an established track record of constructive operating lease
capitalisation? We consider investment analysts (as a proxy for equity providers) and credit rating analysts
(as a proxy for public debt capital providers). Our analysis draws on interviews conducted by Europe
Economics with these groups, and for debt capital markets is complemented by analysis of the influence of
operating leases on corporate bond yields.
The current practice of equity analysts in many markets is to make adjustments to approximate the
capitalisation of operating leases, at least for the larger listed companies. The Chartered Financial Analyst
(CFA) Program’s preferred approach has been to capitalise operating leases, and it is supportive of the
principles behind IFRS 16. The CFA’s textbook recommends capitalisation but is not prescriptive about how
this is done, and equity analysts can each have their own approach. We interviewed analysts in the sectors
expected to be most affected, e.g. retail and leisure, and the typical approach — rather than fully capitalise
operating leases — is to multiply the operating lease expense in the financial statements by a given multiple.
Furthermore, this multiple can vary by industry and by analyst.
The primary focus of these adjustments is on the balance sheet impact of operating leases, i.e. how these
effect perceptions of a company’s total indebtedness and key metrics such as Enterprise Value (EV) / EBITDA.
However, making year-to-year adjustments to net profitability are less common (i.e. rental is taken to equal
depreciation and interest expensed).
However we also received views from representatives of small capitalisation listed companies that were much
less supportive of IFRS 16, being concerned with subjectivity in determining asset lives leading to potential —
possibly severe — limitations in comparability between companies and, more generally, questioning the value
of bringing operating leases onto balance sheets. The perceived increasing cost of IFRS 16 was even seen as
a driver to de-list or downgrade to a junior market without an IFRS requirement. This reasoning was partly
attributed to IFRS 16 itself and partly IFRS 16 being the “straw that broke the camel’s back”.
Turning to corporate bonds, analysts at the major credit rating agencies (CRAs) also make numerous
adjustments to the financial statements of corporate issuers to increase comparability and to better reflect
credit risks. This includes long-standing policies at the CRAs to bring operating leases onto adjusted balance
sheets. Similarly other items such as pension liabilities, securitization and factoring arrangements, capitalised
interest, and hybrid capital instruments can be adjusted for by the CRAs. It is also worth noting that data
feeds that incorporate such adjustments are available to market participants on a subscription basis. Whilst
these approaches to operating leases vary, all incorporate a present value of minimum lease commitments
(but with calculation differences and also the use of a multiple of annual rent expense as an alternative

overall ‘borrowing’. In the UK, Adedeji and Stapleton (1996) estimated that £1 of finance leasing displaced about
£0.55 of debt. Most studies have investigated only finance leases, but Beattie, Goodacre and Thomson (2000a) found
that £1 of leases (mainly operating leases) displaced approximately £0.23 of debt for UK companies.” [Italics — EE] See
Goodacre (2003) “Assessing the potential impact of lease accounting reform: a review of the empirical evidence”
Journal of Property Research, 20(1), March, 2003, pp. 49-66.

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Impact Analysis

measure). As with the equity analysts, reclassification of the rent expense is to interest and depreciation
expense (with zero net effect in each year).
The credit rating agency analysts that we interviewed saw IFRS 16 as being conceptually similar to the existing
analytical adjustments made. As such, opinions of a company’s underlying creditworthiness would generally
not be expected to change in response to the adoption of IFRS 16. The main differences expected between
IFRS 16 and the existing analytical adjustments are first that IFRS 16 will affect reported profit and loss (P&L)
(i.e. depreciation and the interest expense need not equal the rental expense), and second that IFRS 16 will
align approaches.
Standard financial metrics (such as debt / EBITDA, etc.) could change materially. This may take time for
investors to internalise and adjust to. On the other hand, it is worth noting that financial metrics potentially
affected by changes in operating leasing capitalisation account only for a fraction of a company’s rating,
alongside qualitative views on the issuer’s performance, prospects and management. This means even a
material impact in a relevant ratio (e.g. debt / EBITDA) might be insufficient in itself to result in a credit rating
moving a notch.
This suggests that credit ratings largely reflect the impact of operating lease capitalisation already. More
broadly, we examined the bond yields of various companies to assess whether operating leases are a
significant determinant of those yields, and also whether their impact on yields is comparable to the impact
of other forms of debt. Our regression analysis of 760 bonds from over 200 non-financial companies shows
that operating leases are a significant determinant of bond yields. A positive and significantly different than
zero69 coefficient on capitalised operating lease variable indicates that higher operating lease liabilities would,
as expected, be associated with higher bond yields. We set out in Appendix 6 the past academic literature
adopted in this area, and further detail on the conduct of this work. The results are summarized below.
Table 5.7: Summary of yield analysis

Coefficient 95% Confidence Interval

Capitalised operating lease 5.19** 1.95 8.43
Debt 5.97*** 4.51 7.43
Interest coverage -0.01* -0.01 0.00
Margin -0.75** -1.28 -0.21
Sector dummies Jointly significant***
Country dummies Jointly significant***
Bond characteristics Jointly significant ***
Note: * p<0.05, ** p<0.01, *** p<0.001. Number of observations = 732.
Source: Bloomberg, EE’s analysis.

Further, the difference between the coefficients on operating leases and debt is not statistically significant, i.e.
the impact of one unit of operating lease on the yield is equal to the impact of one unit of debt. This can be
taken as indicating that the corporate bond market already reflects the capitalisation of operating leases, and
this has been the finding of at least the more recent academic research in this area (see Appendix 6). On the
other hand, alternative specifications based around current disclosure display similar explanatory power of
the yields, i.e. models which use total operating lease obligations as reported in financial statements instead
of operating leases capitalised in line with IFRS 16 explain the variation in bond yields almost as well as the
above model with capitalised operating leases.
This indicates that fixed income markets are largely cognisant of the economics of operating leases, and
therefore the additional benefit in terms of enhanced understanding by capital markets or improved
comparability will again be limited. On the other hand, it also indicates that the scope for unpleasant surprises

69
We take the standard approach to determining significance, i.e. since the model predicts that with 95 per cent the
coefficient on capitalised operating lease is within 1.95 to 8.43 range, we conclude that it is significantly different than
zero.

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Impact Analysis

around the creditworthiness of lessees is also quite limited. About ninety per cent of lessees expected
unchanged credit ratings as a result of IFRS 16.
A recurrent point stressed both by equity and credit rating analysts relates to the existence of an effective
‘transition period’ between now and the time when new standard would enter into force (i.e. January 2019).
This is expected to give the market some time to settle, and lessees and lessors of different sizes and sectors
to get familiar with IFRS 16 and engage key stakeholders to explain its implications. However, they also agree
about the missed opportunity for a full convergence with US GAAP. Whilst both standards bring operating
leases on balance sheet, US GAAP will retain the distinction in the Income Statement, continuing to recognise
a straight-line rental expense.
Lessees themselves broadly agreed there could be a positive impact from IFRS 16 on investor sentiment (52
per cent agreed or strongly agreed).70 This is shown below. The 13 per cent of lessees who expected a
negative shift in investor sentiment about themselves were relatively evenly spread by sector and country —
all sectors had a net positive standpoint and all countries bar Poland (where there were only five lessees in
the sample, one of whom expected a negative change against the others anticipating no change) also had a
net positive expectation.
Figure 5.5: IFRS 16 benefits — summary of lessees’ view

Lessees (156) “How, if at all, do you expect investor sentiment to change due to changes to financial reporting as a result of IFRS16?”
Source: YouGov survey.

Whilst a slight majority (51 per cent) of lessees did not expect the changes to financial statements implied by
IFRS 16 would be significant enough to require specific explanation to investors, 47 per cent stated that the
changes would be sufficiently material. Positive, neutral and negative expectation regarding investor sentiment
were similarly distributed among those who expect the changes to be material and those who expect them
to be immaterial. Of those companies that foresaw a likely need to explain the changes to investors, less than
20 per cent already had a plan in place to do so.
If many equity analysts are already making relatively accurate adjustments, then changes in actual investor
sentiment should be limited (i.e. the net benefit is likely to be small). The expectations of lessees around
improving investor sentiment are negatively correlated with size, i.e. smaller lessees are more likely to expect
an improvement in investor sentiment. This is illustrated below. It is worth noting that smaller listed
companies are generally subject to less equity research effort than larger ones, and may not be covered by
credit rating agencies at all.

70
Four per cent expect the effect to be very positive, 48 per cent to be quite positive.

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Impact Analysis

Figure 5.6: IFRS 16 benefits — summary of lessees’ views by turnover

Note: Base: Lessees (156) “How, if at all, do you expect investor sentiment to change due to changes to financial reporting as a result of IFRS16?”
Source: Europe Economics / YouGov survey.

Somewhat similarly, there could be a levelling effect whereby retail investors have access to information more
similar to that available to larger, more sophisticated (i.e. institutional) investors. On the other hand, such
investors will still likely have access to less information (i.e. reduced access to analysts’ reports and trading
information). There may also be a need for such investors used to the previous presentation to “re-educate”
themselves (in terms of key metrics, etc.). This may limit — perhaps materially — any benefit experienced
by this group.

5.4.3 Private capital market effects

We have described how the implementation of IFRS 16 could materially affect — at least for a minority of
lessees — ratios that feed into loan covenant calculations and the understanding of credit analysts of a
company’s creditworthiness. Based on the above, corporate bond markets appear well-prepared to take the
transition towards IFRS 16 in their stride. We now turn to private capital markets, particularly banks and
similar non-bank loan providers — specifically whether these anticipate particular benefits to be achievable
through IFRS 16.
Indeed, the survey shows that lessors and lenders broadly agree that the implementation of IFRS 16 will
facilitate comparisons between prospective borrowers (63 per cent agreed or strongly agreed) and create a
more level playing field (61 per cent agreed or strongly agreed). Lessors appeared to be slightly more inclined
to agree with improved comparability than lenders whereas the views of both groups were very similar
regarding creating level playing field.

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Impact Analysis

Figure 5.7: Facilitating comparison

Base: Lessors (57), Lenders (33); “To what extent, if at all, do you either agree or disagree that the implementation of IFRS 16 will alter your
understanding of potential lessees'/borrowers' financial positions in any of the following ways? They will facilitate comparisons.”
Source: YouGov survey.

Moreover, 50 per cent of our respondents (both lenders and lessors) either agreed or strongly agreed with
the statement that IFRS 16 rules will remove subjective elements from operating lease capitalisation. As
illustrated in Figure 5.8, lenders appeared to have stronger opinion in this respect than lessors — 52 per cent
of lenders agreed with the statement but also a relatively large proportion disagreed (30 per cent). Lessors
seemed more uncertain with 37 per cent of lessors stating that they neither agree nor disagree with the
statement (compared to 15 per cent among lenders), but broadly expecting a positive impact (49 per cent
either agreed or strongly agreed).
These results were not strongly linked to the size or SME-focus of lenders and lessors. Similarly, the net view
(i.e. agree less disagree) of lenders and lessors from each Member State covered by the survey was positive.

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Impact Analysis

Figure 5.8: Removing subjective elements from operating lease capitalisation

Base: Lessors (57), Lenders (33); ” To what extent, if at all, do you either agree or disagree that the implementation of IFRS 16 will alter your
understanding of potential lessees'/borrowers' financial positions in any of the following ways? They will remove subjective elements from operating
lease capitalisation.”
Source: YouGov survey.

All these outcomes suggest that IFRS 16 could contribute towards fairer competition in the market — with
easier and more equal access to the relevant information about the way lease contracts are structured. The
extent to which these benefits materialise depends on whether market participants are currently inefficient
or limited in estimating the effect of off-balance sheet obligations. As we have described in Chapter 4, there
is a substantial minority for whom IFRS 16 would represent a material change in approach. A cautionary note
is that some stakeholders are concerned that IFRS 16 may introduce some elements of subjectivity due to
differences in the approach adopted by lessees in determining asset life, etc.
A further possibility is that, if IFRS 16 reduces any information asymmetry between borrowers and lenders,
then pricing risk (i.e. the risk of pricing a loan incorrectly). The above findings, particularly around reducing
subjectivity, showed that some contribution to reducing information asymmetry is anticipated by a majority
of lenders — albeit with a substantial minority that do not expect this (and may even anticipate a worsening
situation).
A lender to a company is not reliant solely on the company’s financial statements. It can access internal
management and financial information, which can complement the existing disclosure around operating leases
already contained in the financial statements. As we have noted elsewhere, operating leases are off-balance
sheet but not off-financial statements. At least as a result of implementation, operating and financing cash
flows will be unchanged by an adjustment in accounting treatment. As such the default risk should be
unchanged. However, when asked directly about the anticipated impact of IFRS 16 upon default risk, a
majority of lenders expected a change with more lenders expecting default risk would increase than reduce.

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Impact Analysis

Figure 5.9 Lenders' perception on the risk of default due to IFRS 16

Base: 33 lenders.
Source: YouGov Survey.

A way of, perhaps, reconciling this with the views expressed by lenders would be to recognise that recognised
earnings would likely be less even under IFRS 16 than now (an advantage of IAS 17 is that the rental expense
is generally relatively stable, whereas the profit and loss impact of leases under IFRS 16 will vary from year
to year — although with sufficient information disclosure the latter variation should be reasonably predictable
by users). This could mean that the lenders perceive there would be an increased likelihood over time of a
technical default (i.e. due to a breach of a covenant) rather than a change in underlying creditworthiness (i.e.
the likelihood of ultimately repaying the debt on time and in full).
We have discussed at 5.3.2 the scope for cost savings to be made by lenders that would no longer consider
adjustments to financial statements to be necessary.

5.5 Behavioural changes and potential unintended consequences

There might be a number of potential changes in a company’s decisions related to leases. For example, current
lessees might prefer to (raise debt and) buy rather than lease an asset going forward. Since both debt and
leases would be treated equally in financial statements, lessees might thus have stronger incentives to own.
However, Beattie et al. (2006) report that preparers seem to disagree with this conclusion. This might suggest
that either operating leases would still be an attractive financing method71 or that companies do not always
have the choice between buying and leasing.
Alternatively, lessees might try to renegotiate the terms of current and future leases so that they are classified
as short-term (which do not have to be reported on the balance sheet). This would mean shifting the risk
towards lessors as they would bear the risk of lessees not renewing the contracts and the relevant assets
not being fully utilised. In their survey, Beattie at al. (2006) report an agreement among users and preparers
that lease terms would shorten to minimise lessees’ balance-sheet obligations. Likewise, lessees could seek

71
IFRS Foundation (2016) argue that there are a number of benefits associated with lease contracts, e.g. financing of
assets without any supplementary guarantees, source of finance independent of bank loans or credit lines, ability to
use assets without legal ownership, a way of sharing risk and profits between a lessee and lessor, operational
flexibility, ability to use an asset for only the needed proportion of the asset’s total economic life. See IFRS Foundation
(2016) “IFRS 16 Leases. Effects Analysis”.

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Impact Analysis

leases which are based on variable payments or which could be interpreted as services, as opposed to asset
leases.
As a result of the above, there could be consequences not only for lessees but for the structure and business
strategies in the broader leasing / business financing market. In this respect, taking the property market as an
example, Goodacre (2003) argues that shorter term and more flexible lease contracts “may result in
increased market rents to compensate landlords for the reduction in the security that long-term leases
currently offer”.72
The distribution of this higher cost between lessees and lessors could depend on the characteristics of the
particular market (in prime sites lessees would be more likely to bear the costs, but where the demand for
property is weaker lessors would have less bargaining power to impose additional costs on lessees).
Moreover, Moore Stephens (2016) argue that the combination of higher gearing and shorter lease terms
could have an adverse impact on the market values of the leased properties.73 Nevertheless, Goodacre (2003)
suggests that in the long-term investors would be compensated for the higher risk with greater returns and,
thus, a material decline in investors’ appetite to invest in real estate is unlikely.
Clearly, lessees would be more incentivised to seek solutions that minimise the value of operating leases
reported in financial statements if the market is not informationally efficient, i.e. if companies take advantage
of market participants failing to adequately account for off-balance sheet debt in their analyses. However, to
some extent, it is also possible that such outcomes would occur in an efficient market as long as lessees
believe that the off-balance sheet information is not processed efficiently by market participants.74
There are two broad ways in which lessee companies might change their future financing behaviour:
 They could seek to maintain off-balance sheet presentation by adjusting leasing terms. Any pricing
premium sought by lessors could act as counterweight to such a move.
 They could accept the balance sheet presentation implied by IFRS 16 but reconsider the residual
advantage of operating leases against other forms of finance. If an alternative is cheaper, then they will
switch.

5.5.1 Adjusting lease terms

A company may enter into an operating lease for a mix of reasons. For example, a company is more likely to
lease (and reap the benefits of the inherent operational flexibility) when its long-term funding needs are
unclear.75 Another important factor is off-balance sheet presentation and IFRS 16 will significantly affect the
latter, by bringing a liability and ROU asset onto the balance sheet.76
As a result, a company’s decision-making may alter. Since both debt and leases would be treated equally in
financial statements, lessees might have stronger incentives to buy rather than lease an asset going forward.

72
Goodacre (2003) “Assessing the potential impact of lease accounting reform: a review of the empirical evidence”
Journal of Property Research, 20(1), pp. 49-66.
73
Moore Stephens (2016) “IFRS 16 Leases — The impact for property investors”,
http://www.moorestephens.co.uk/news-views/february-2016/ifrs-16-leases-the-impact-for-property-investors,
accessed at 23/09/2016.
74
See Goodacre (2003) for further references.
75
In the case of property, for instance, leasing may also allow companies to avoid directly involvement in property
management.
76
Similarly the IFRS Foundation (2016) argue that there are a number of benefits associated with lease contracts, e.g.
financing of assets without any supplementary guarantees, source of finance independent of bank loans or credit
lines, ability to use assets without legal ownership, a way of sharing risk and profits between a lessee and lessor,
operational flexibility, ability to use an asset for only the needed proportion of the asset’s total economic life. See
IFRS Foundation (2016) “IFRS 16 Leases: Effects Analysis”.

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Impact Analysis

The final decision between leasing and purchasing, however, will ultimately depend on the main reason a
company chose to lease. This would be particularly the case where off-balance sheet presentation was an
important variable in the leasing decision, but operating leases would still be an attractive financing method
for companies, e.g. those that have restricted funding sources or else facing some ambiguity surrounding
future asset demand.
However, lessees might seek to retain the off-balance sheet nature of this financing method, by seeking to:
 Modify the terms of current and future leases so that they are classified as short-term. This however
would mean shifting the risk primarily towards lessors as they would be exposed to lessees not renewing
the contracts and thus assets not being fully utilised.77 This could mean lessees benefit from additional
operational flexibility (e.g. leasing plant that is subject to ongoing rapid technological change) but would
also be compensating lessors for this. Even aside from a reduced ability to lock-in favourable prices, such
additional flexibility could equally create planning challenges (particularly with property leasing). Similarly,
Goodacre (2003) argues that shorter term and more flexible lease contracts in the property market
“may result in increased market rents to compensate landlords for the reduction in the security that
long-term leases currently offer”.
 Enter into leases which are based on variable payments, or which could be interpreted as services rather
than as leases. Again, this would affect the risk-sharing implicit in the agreement.
The ultimate aim of the above would be to minimise the impact of IFRS 16. A majority of lessees (i.e. roughly
60 per cent in the YouGov data) were identified as being likely to at least consider such a shift. Some lessors
also have similar expectations, as can be seen in Figure 5.10 and Figure 5.11 below, respectively.
Figure 5.10: Lessors’ expected future demand for variable payment agreements

Source: YouGov.

Figure 5.11: Lessors’ expected demand for shorter lease terms

Source: YouGov.

The above shows that both lessees and lessors anticipate some dialogue around changing lease terms. We
have noted already that any such change in leasing terms would affect the risk-sharing between the lessor

77
In their survey, Beattie at al. (2006) find that users and preparers both agreed that lease terms would shorten to
minimise lessees’ balance-sheet obligations.

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Impact Analysis

and lessee within a lease. We would expect this to be reflected in revised financial terms. We now explore
this, starting with data available from the YouGov survey of lessors.Indeed, the majority of lessors expect to
seek additional compensation for making such changes.
Table 5.8: Number of lessors per anticipated basis point increase

0-5bp 6-10bp 11-20bp + 20bp

Variable payment agreements for plant and machinery 5 7 2 2
Variable payment agreements for property 4 6 2 0
Shorter lease periods for plant and machinery 6 8 2 2
Shorter lease periods for property 5 6 6 3
Source: YouGov.

However, most lessees are — understandably — resistant of price increases (see Figure 5.12 below) and
appear reluctant to pay a premium in order to maintain off-balance sheet financing. We illustrate this through
an exercise based on lessees’ stated preferences around the reduction in the cost difference (between leasing
and the next best source of alternative financing, in terms of basis points) that would be sufficient to trigger
a switch.78 The rationale for this exercise is that we can infer lessees’ sensitivity to the pricing of operating
leases by examining how much cheaper an alternative financing option needs to become in order to trigger
a switch, and compare that sensitivity to the increases suggested to be required by lessors. Where there is
divergence between the preferences of lessees and lessors this suggests that the former may find it difficult
to identify a matching lessor in order to adjust terms and so maintain off balance-sheet presentation.
This is particularly the case for property leases, where nearly half of respondents stated that a reduction in
the price differential compared to alternative financing options of 0-5 basis points would be necessary to
trigger a switch. The stated pricing preferences across lessees and lessors (see Figure 5.12 below) indicate
that many lessees who might wish as a first preference to vary lease terms may find the premium required
by lessors prohibitive.
Figure 5.12: Lessees’ price sensitivity

Source: YouGov.

78
This exercise aims at conducting a high-level analysis of potential dichotomies in lessees’ and lessors’ stated pricing
preferences as reported in the YouGov survey data. As such, it does not account for all the dynamics in the property
and plant & equipment markets.

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Impact Analysis

The higher sensitivity in property leasing is mainly driven by smaller and medium-sized lessees (in the context
of listed companies), with an average turnover of roughly €0.7 billion. In contrast plant & equipment lessees
who would require a 0-5 basis point price change to consider switching away from operating leasing appear
considerably larger in size, with an average turnover of about €2 billion. The fact that smaller property lessees
and larger plant & equipment lessees are more price sensitive will have an impact on the scale of the switching
away from leasing on the leasing industry (see Section 5.5.2).
Figure 5.13: Lessees’ price sensitivity by lessees' average turnover

Source: Europe Economics research based on YouGov survey data.

These results persist when we substitute the PV of all leasing obligations currently recognised by lessees for
lessee turnover (see sections 7.2.1 and 7.3.1 in the Appendix) as an alternative proxy for impact, as can be
seen below:
Figure 5.14: Lessees’ price sensitivity by lessees' average PV leasing

Source: Europe Economics analysis based on YouGov survey data.

In order to further explore lessees’ price sensitivity we engaged in a modelling exercise, combining the above
data from both lessees and lessors. More specifically, the price sensitivity of lessees was combined with their
motivations for having an operating lease, i.e. whether balance sheet presentation was cited as an important

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Impact Analysis

factor in this decision. The main rationale for augmenting the exercise in this way is to see whether there is
a correlation between the extent of lessees’ price sensitivity and the main reason (or reasons) for using
operating leasing in the first place.
We considered various scenarios. We start with those lessees with a property lease, balance sheet
presentation was frequently cited as an important motivation (31 per cent of such lessees) or the single most
important motivation (13 per cent of lessees). The majority of these lessees (i.e. roughly six per cent of all
lessees in the sample) appear willing to switch away from leasing in the event of 0-5bp closing of the gap with
alternative financing options. The majority of lessors on the other hand would require a premium of 6-10bp
and 6-20bp for variable lease payments and shorter terms, respectively.
Figure 5.15: Price sensitivity of property lessees likely to switch and motivated by balance sheet
presentation

Source: Europe Economics analysis based on YouGov survey.

This implies that many of the lessees would find it difficult (or even impossible) to locate a matching lessor
to develop a lease that would enable the continuation of off balance-sheet presentation. On the other hand,
these lessees would clearly be highly motivated to try. We also constructed a scenario capturing the price
sensitivity of property lessees for which the existing balance sheet presentation is among the main but not
the most important reason for operating lease selection. As can be seen in the following figure, the results
are not dissimilar with a majority of such lessees potentially priced out of making such a switch.

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Impact Analysis

Figure 5.16: Price sensitivity of property lessees likely to switch and regarding balance sheet presentation
as primary but not the most important reason for operating lease selection

Source: Europe Economics analysis based on YouGov survey.

By contrast, we now focus on those lessees whose most important reason for operating lease selection is
operational flexibility. These lessees are less numerous, but apparently also less price sensitive than those
motivated by balance sheet presentation, as the majority of respondents (i.e. roughly 4 per cent of all lessees
in the sample) would only consider a switch provided a price shift above 21bp. These lessees clearly would
be able to accommodate the scale of price change anticipated by lessors — but it is not clear that they would
be motivated to do so.
Figure 5.17: Price sensitivity of property lessees likely to switch and motivated by operational flexibility

Source: Europe Economics analysis based on YouGov survey.

Amongst plant and equipment lessees, price sensitivity is generally less marked — as is balance sheet
presentation as a motivating factor. An equivalent exercise considering those lessees at least partly motivated
by balance sheet presentation indicates that most will likely be able to secure some form of re-negotiated
leasing agreements.

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Impact Analysis

Figure 5.18: Price sensitivity of plant and equipment lessees likely to switch and motivated by balance
sheet presentation

Source: Europe Economics analysis based on YouGov survey.

Overall, the results indicate that lessees that engage in operating leases primarily for balance sheet
presentation purposes are not less price sensitive relative to lessees engaging in operating leases primarily
for other reasons. This limits their anticipated appetite to change the basis of their leasing towards terms
that would circumvent IFRS 16. Our analysis suggests that about 2–3 per cent of plant and equipment lessees,
and 11–13 per cent of property lessees would be motivated to switch substantial elements within their leasing
portfolio to shorter-term leases or leases incorporating variable payment structures — and also be likely to
find a willing lessor. This would likely not mean many lessees switching 100 per cent of their leasing portfolio
in this way — on the other hand, nor does it preclude other lessees seeking to alter the terms on a few,
important leases.
Given the above analysis and taking the above estimates as the best available approximation of the overall
effect — and combining these with the total annual operating lease obligations described in Section 4.4 —
then this implies the value of operating leases that would move to short-term or variable payment leases
might be in the range of €3.8–€5.1 billion.79 If we take it that lessors would most likely require a premium of
6-10bps, this switch would cost lessees at least €2.3 million in the best case scenario (i.e. where only €3.8
billion of operating leases switch to short-term/variable terms at a cost of 6bps), and up to €5.1 million
(where €5.1 billion worth of operating leases switch at a cost of 10bps).
It is important to note that, whilst there would be increased financing costs here and also costs on both sides
due to the (re-)negotiation process, these would not be compliance costs as such — as these costs would
be incurred largely for the purpose of regulatory arbitrage (i.e. avoiding compliance).

5.5.2 Switching to other forms of finance

Based on the figures derived in Sections 4.4 and 5.3, we can estimate the increase in the cost of financing
using operating leases. With the total operating lease obligations due within one year being around €128
billion and the total annual ongoing cost being around €40-46 million, then — if these costs are fully attributed
by lessees only to the costs of operating leases — this is equivalent to an increase in the cost of financing via
operating leases in the range of 3-3.5bps. Alternatively, it could be that the lessees treat such ongoing costs
as effectively sunk costs (and, indeed, we already assume that the one-off costs would be treated as sunk
costs, and so not have any effect on the ongoing pricing of the operating lease contracts). This approach

79
€3.8 billion = 2% * €115 billion + 11% * €13 billion; €5.1 billion = 3% * €115 billion + 13% * €13 billion.

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Impact Analysis

assumes that the additional ongoing annual cost would be indeed attributed to the cost of former operating
leases by lessees rather than absorbed as overheads or spread across other business areas as well. This may
be an extreme assumption. It would require the affected companies to monitor and track such additional
accounting costs, rather than absorbing such costs into business-as-usual expenses.
Faced with higher leasing costs, lessees would have various choices other than simply absorbing those costs.
In particular, lessees could seek a compensating price adjustment (i.e. requiring lessors to adjust the cost of
leasing) or to switch to alternative sources of finance. In turn, whilst lessors would clearly prefer the lessees
to bear the additional cost, given the small magnitude of the cost increase, it might be reasonable for lessors
to accept slightly lower margins by increasing lease prices. Alternatively, lessors might be unwilling (or even
unable) to accept a reduction in margin, in which case some volume effect would come into play.
Below we examine these two basic possibilities in four different scenarios — two assuming a pricing impact,
and two analysing a potential volume impact.
 Scenario A — High impact price effect.
 Scenario B — Low impact price effect.
 Scenario C — High impact volume effect.
 Scenario D — Low impact volume effect.
Price effect
Lessors may be willing and able to negotiate compensatory pricing adjustments. These are Scenario A and B,
whereby A reflects a compensating price change broadly equal to €40–46 million (as above) whereas in
Scenario B the price effect is less (e.g. because lessees are viewing the incremental costs as largely sunk). In
both cases, this would transfer cost to the lessors (reducing their margin) but avoid — or at least mitigate
— any demand reduction from listed lessees.
Volume effect
As discussed in the previous section, if lease pricing does not change then a 3-3.5bps price change (relative
to the next most attractive source of finance) might trigger some proportion of lessees to at least consider
switching to a different funding option (see Figure 5.12). In particular, 45 per cent of property lessees and 24
per cent of plant & equipment lessees stated they would consider other funding options if the price advantage
of leasing reduced by 0-5bps. In terms of scale, these represent around 32 per cent of property leasing and
36 per cent of plant & equipment leasing in the YouGov sample.
Since preferences which are simply stated by respondents (as opposed to preferences revealed in market
choices) are subject to biases and may overestimate the actual volume of switching, we can expect that the
number of lessees that would actually switch is lower. In particular, we assume that among those who said
to consider switching as a result of a 0-5 bps price difference, the group that would be most likely to actually
switch are those who also said that the overall cost is an important reason for choosing operating leases.
Based on the survey, the proportion of plant & equipment lessees for whom the overall cost of financing is
an important factor and who would be sensitive to 0-5bps price changes is seven per cent. The equivalent
proportion of property lessees is ten per cent. Part of this group would be those lessees where balance sheet
presentation is an important motivating factor, but which have been too price sensitive to secure an
adjustment in lease terms in the way described at 5.5.1 above. This latter group of lessees may be motivated
to switch, absent any price reduction, once the apparent “advantages” around balance sheet presentation are
removed.
We assume that for some of those respondents a price difference in the range of 3-3.5bps might not be
enough to justify the switch,80 and thus we assume that only half of them would actually switch away from

80
It is more plausible that among those who said that a 0-5bps price difference would trigger a switch to an alternative
finance option, a majority is closer to the upper bound of the 0-5bps range rather than the lower bound.

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Impact Analysis

leasing, i.e. 3.5 per cent of plant & equipment lessees, and five per cent of property lessees. In terms of scale,
these lessees represent 4.5 per cent of plant & equipment leasing and 5.5 per cent of property leasing in the
YouGov sample. These figures are our high impact volume effect scenario (Scenario C).
Given the volume of the total demand from listed companies for operating lease obligations per year being
€115 billion for plant & equipment leases and €13 billion for property leases, this would imply a total decline
in the volume of operating leases around €5.9 billion (€5.2 billion for plant & equipment leases and €0.7
billion for property leases). Since we are predominantly interested in the impact on the EU / EEA leasing
market, we also consider the proportion of the total operating lease obligations that fall within the EU / EEA.
Based on our analysis of the reports segmented by geographic regions available from Bloomberg, we assume
that 65 per cent would be sourced from EU / EEA lessors. This implies that the maximum reduction in
demand from EU / EEA lessors would be €3.8 billion.
In Scenario D (low impact volume effect) we assume that among those who said to consider switching as a
result of a 0-5 bps price difference, a group that would actually switch are those who said that the overall
cost is a single most important reason for choosing operating leases. The analysis of the survey responses
shows that a little over one per cent of plant & equipment lessees and four per cent of property lessees
would be in this group. In terms of scale, these lessees represent 0.05 per cent of plant & equipment leasing
and 0.5 per cent of property leasing. These figures represent our low impact volume effect scenario (Scenario
D). We analyse Scenario D in an analogous way, with the only difference being that we assume 0.5 per cent
of property leases and 0.05 per cent of plant & equipment leases would switch. The overall decline in the
volume of annual operating lease obligations in the EU / EEA would be less than 0.1 per cent.
We note the views of the stakeholders that participated in our fieldwork were that no major changes in the
demand for operating leases were expected. We consider all of the four scenarios outlined above are
consistent with that view.

5.6 Wider impacts

The implementation of IFRS 16 will only directly impact on those companies listed on EU-based Regulated
Markets (and certain MTFs) with operating leases and those financial institutions financing these companies
(i.e. lessors and lenders). Other stakeholders could be indirectly affected.
There could also be level-playing field effects for those companies without operating leases as their financial
statements’ comparability with those using such leases would increase.
A further group that could be affected would be unlisted companies, including SMEs, which use operating
leases as a source of financing. There are a number of ways in which this could work. First, listed companies
account for a significant share of the leasing market. Impacts in that segment of the market could spill-over
to other segments. For example, if listed companies, in aggregate, demanded less leasing, the leasing industry
could deploy various strategies to recoup any lost revenues, if it wished to (it is worth recalling that, as
described in Chapter 4, the majority of leasing in the EU / EEA is through subsidiaries of banks, i.e. probably
the most likely providers of alternative financing). Lessors could seek to substitute this with a greater volume
of leasing with unlisted companies and SMEs (implicitly by reducing prices to those customers). On the other
hand, lessors might reduce pricing with listed customers (to at least recover lost volume) whilst seeking to
increase revenues elsewhere (either again through increased volumes, at more competitive pricing, or
through increased prices — if some form of additional market segmentation is possible). In an extreme case,
if the viability of some lessors were affected, then the availability of leasing as a product could be impacted
(at least in some niche segments such as property or aviation leasing).

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Impact Analysis

We also note that IFRS 16 was developed in collaboration with the US FASB (Financial Accounting Standards
Board).81 While some differences remain, both IASB and FASB agreed on the main proposal to bring operating
leases on the balance sheet and income statement. As a result, IFRS 16 should not create major discrepancies
between the accounting standards in Europe and the US. However, for those companies with multiple listings,
any such difference could add to reporting costs.
The basic scope of the IAS Regulation is to affect the consolidated financial statements of listed companies.
Corporate taxation is normally at the company level, which may apply national GAAP or local tax rules.
However IFRS can be applied in individual accounts and in these caser there could be timing differences for
individual companies in terms of the payment of corporate taxation due. The Anti-Tax Avoidance Directive
(ATAD) includes a group rule where IFRS could be more generally relevant. We discuss this further below.

5.6.1 Wider impacts — impacts on the funding of listed lessees

The overall demand and supply of bank credit in the EU to corporates is currently relatively stable, with signs
of increasing demand, at least from larger corporates. In the Euro Area, the European Central Bank’s (ECB’s)
survey of credit conditions as at Q3 2016 found that credit availability was broadly unchanged from earlier
in the year, with any easing of credit standards applicable only to larger enterprises, and very small in scale.82
This was largely driven by competitive pressure amongst banks (albeit this was experienced unevenly across
the countries comprising the Euro Area). Net demand for loans to enterprises continued to increase in Q3
of 2016. Again, this was not evenly experienced, with net demand increasing in France, the Netherlands and
Germany but decreasing in Spain and Italy. Somewhat similarly, the Bank of England’s Q3 2016 Credit
Conditions survey found credit availability to corporates to be unchanged for the tenth consecutive quarter.
The Bank of England found that whereas credit demand from larger corporates was increasing and expected
to continue to increase, demand from SMEs was declining — and expected to continue to track downwards.
Overall, they do not expect significant changes in capital allocation for lessees. Although IFRS 16 has a clear
impact on the disclosure of total indebtedness, a change in the reporting methods of the existing leases (all
else being equal) should not impact a company’s business operations or risks and hence should not change
the economic cost of capital.

5.6.2 Wider impacts — taxation impacts

Under the IAS Regulation IFRS 16 would apply mainly to consolidated financial statements. Taxes are generally
levied on companies’ individual taxable profits, so a change in the reporting of leases in the consolidated
financial statements should not have a significant taxation impact. Nonetheless some impact are possible and
these are discussed below.
Generally, the tax treatment of operating leases is to allow the rental paid in full as a deductible against profit.
(There are exceptions to this: in the UK, long funding lease provisions result in a hybrid treatment whereby
part of the rent is deductible and part is replaced by the capital allowance system83).
If there is switch towards following the accounting treatment more closely then corporate taxation could be
impacted in two ways. The first way is through timing differences in payment. To illustrate let us compare
the amounts deductible from income for tax purposes each year in two tax treatments of operating leases:
 Scenario A — lessee can deduct the full amount of rental payments each year.

81
EY (2016) “Leases. A summary of IFRS 16 and its effects”.
82
ECB (2016) “The euro area bank lending survey”, downloadable here.
83
This is explained — briefly — in the HMRC’s consultation paper on IFRS 16, downloadable at
https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/544654/Lease_accounting_changes-
tax_response-consultation_document.pdf.

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Impact Analysis

 Scenario B — lessee can deduct the amount based on the accounting entries, i.e. finance element of
rentals and right of use asset depreciation.
Let us assume the asset cost is €60,000, lease term is five years, expected residual value in five years is
€20,000, annual rent is €9,496, and the implicit interest rate is six per cent. In scenario A, a lessee would be
able to deduct €9,496 each year for the lease term. In scenario B, a lessee would be eligible to deduct the
sum of the right of use asset depreciation and finance element of rentals. In our example, that would be
Table 5.9: Scenario B — illustration of tax deductions

Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year5

Right of use asset depreciation 8,000 8,000 8,000 8,000 8,000
Finance element of rentals 2,400 1,974 1,523 1,045 537
Tax deductible 10,400 9,974 9,523 9,045 8,537
Source: HMRC (2016), “Lease Accounting Changes: Tax Response”.

While the total amount deductible from income in both scenarios is the same, but — compared to scenario
A — the tax treatment in scenario B would allow the lessee to pay lower taxes in the first three years and
higher taxes in the following two years. This shows that even if after the implementation of the IFRS 16 the
tax authorities aim to remain neutral in terms of the total amount brought to charge for tax and the total
relief available to lessees, there might be timing differences in payments that could affect both lessees and
lessors.
Second, and again only if and to the extent that tax authorities decided to follow the accounting treatment,
then this could intermesh with proposals that limit debt interest’s deductibility as a business expense. In
response to the OECD’s Base Erosion and Profit Shifting (BEPS) proposals,84 the European Commission has
prepared the ATAD. The ATAD covers all taxpayers that are subject to corporate tax in one or more
Member State with the exemption of fully standalone entities and financial undertakings (including financial
undertakings which are part of a consolidated group). The Directive includes the fixed ratio rule where the
exceeding borrowing costs85 can be deducted up to 30 per cent of EBITDA. The fixed ratio rule would not
apply to companies with “exceeding borrowing costs” up to €3m. The directive also includes two alternative
group rules, which allow group members to deduct interest expenses above the fixed ratio if they satisfy
certain conditions.
 First, based on an equity to total assets ratio. This would allow a group member to fully deduct the net
interest as long as its equity to total assets ratio is no higher than the equivalent ratio for the entire
group, subject to a condition that intragroup interest payments do not exceed 10 per cent of the group’s
total net interest expense.
 Second, based on the ratio of net interest to EBITDA at the group level. This would allow a group
member to deduct exceeding borrowing costs up to the level of the group’s ratio of net interest to
EBITDA. The group’s ratio would be determined by dividing the exceeding borrowing costs of the group
vis-à-vis third-parties over the EBITDA of the group.
There are also some transitional rules. In particular, Member States may exclude from the scope exceeding
borrowing costs incurred on loans concluded before 17 June 2016 and on loans used to fund long-term public
infrastructure projects. The Directive also allows for provisions enabling companies to carry forward and
back exceeding borrowing costs and carry forward unused interest capacity, which cannot be deducted in
the current tax period.

84
OECD (2015) “Limiting Base Erosion Involving Interest Deductions and Other Financial Payments. ACTION 4: 2015
Final Report”.
85
Exceeding borrowing cost is the difference between the deductible borrowing costs and taxable interest revenues
and other economically equivalent taxable revenues.

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Impact Analysis

Whilst IFRS 16 would apply mainly to consolidated financial statements (and, as we have noted already above,
taxes are calculated on the level of individual companies), the group rules available under ATAD might create
an interaction between IFRS 16 and the interest deductibility limits.
IFRS 16 rules might increase the amount companies could deduct from income for tax purposes because of
the impact IFRS 16 would have on EBITDA and total assets. This would critically depend on the tax rules that
would be adopted or already in place86 in each Member State. However, as long as the interest deductibility
limit is defined relative to EBITDA some of the interest expenses which would otherwise fall above the
specified threshold would now become deductible as EBITDA increases as a result of IFRS 16. Similarly, the
impact on total assets might increase the relevance of the group rule included in ATAD. As such, bringing
interest and depreciation into the income statement might create a benefit for companies.
In order to estimate whether there could be any negative consequences of the interaction between IFRS 16
and ATAD, we examined the results of our model illustrating the accounting adjustments necessary to comply
with IFRS 16. It showed that there are only 18 companies (less than one per cent of the population) which
had the interest to EBITDA ratio below 30 per cent in 2015, but would likely see the ratio to grow above 30
per cent after the implementation of IFRS 16 and interest expenses to exceed the €3 million threshold. A
large majority of those companies (16 out of 18) had a negative EBITDA in 2015,87 which indicates that the
implementation of the ATAD is unlikely to pose significant difficulties for the EU companies with non-zero
operating lease obligations.

5.6.3 Wider impacts — impact on the leasing sector

In this section, we discuss how the above could interact with the leasing sector, specifically whether the
latter’s sustainability could be affected.
Potential changes in demand for leasing
The off-balance sheet accounting approach applicable to operating leases is a significant decision variable for
at least some lessees. As we have discussed above, this could drive increased interest in varying lease terms
such that off-balance sheet presentation could be maintained. However, the latter would change the
economic terms of the lease (i.e. lessors would be obliged to take on more risk). Whilst the appetite of
lessors to take this additional risk may be there, any such change would be expected to be reflected in the
pricing of the lease — and this may well restrict how many leases are subject to such variation in reality.
Those lessee companies prioritising other features of leasing (e.g. increased operational flexibility) may be
unconcerned about the new accounting treatment in itself, or at least unwilling to pay any premium to sustain
an off-balance sheet approach. These companies will then be faced with an existing funding option with
broadly the same accounting treatment as any alternative funding options available to it (e.g. bank lending,
and it is worth recalling that the majority of leasing companies are banking subsidiaries, as noted in Chapter
4). This could promote increased competition, at least at the margin, and could see some switching from
leasing towards other funding channels.
It looks likely that leasing of property and the leasing of plant and equipment will experience these pressures
differently. In plant and equipment leasing, balance sheet presentation is — overall — less important than
features such as operational flexibility and, indeed, overall pricing. Balance sheet presentation is more critical
in property leasing (although, given the apparent price sensitivity of lessees here, the appetite to pay a marked
premium for this is quite constrained). In Section 5.5.2, our scenario analysis showed that the expected
reduction in the overall volume of annual operating lease obligations for listed companies in the EU / EEA

86
As in the case of Germany, where interest expense deductibility limit has already been introduced.
87
On aggregate, the pre-tax income of those 18 companies was around -€ 2.15bn in 2015 (i.e. they were loss-making
in aggregate).

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Impact Analysis

could be in the order of 6 per cent, which corresponds to an estimated total reduction in new leasing volume
of €8 billion — or about €5 billion in Europe.
Moreover, we need to consider the impact on the leasing industry (i.e. including lessees such as unlisted
companies, consumers and public bodies — not just corporate leasing). The annual total volume of new
leasing is overall more than double that of listed companies. Therefore, a decline of €5 billion represents
about two per cent of the European leasing industry experiencing a smaller reduction in volumes that is close
to three per cent, and possibly lower.
This should not be a material or significant reduction in volumes in the context of the whole European leasing
industry. (Indeed, as we have noted in the previous section, it is possible that lessors would seek to avoid
any reduction in volume by reducing pricing with affected customers. In this case, of course, we would also
expect lessors to seek compensating price adjustments in other market segments available to them — such
as unlisted lessees).
In terms of the sustainability of the leasing industry, none of the scenarios described at 5.5.2 above would be
likely to affect this in aggregate. The majority of leasing companies are banking subsidiaries, so any switch
from leasing to borrowing would — at least to some extent — be a transfer between different parts of banks,
and not impact on the desirability to the bank of maintaining a leasing business. Even so, lessors — particularly
those that are independently owned — are likely to be differently affected depending on the extent to which
they are “specialist” in either property or plant and equipment. As a result, there could be (likely limited)
pressure for concentration amongst such specialist participants.
Any effects for other market participants might emerge due to a range of potential reactions of lessors even
to a small reduction in demand by listed lessees (ranging from price adjustments to changing willingness to
supply). Evidence in this respect is provided in the Section below.
Strategic response of the leasing industry to change in demand
The survey obtained lessors’ views about what their strategic response would be should the implementation
of IFRS 16 lead to either a small reduction as well as to more a substantial reduction in demand for leasing.
Our estimated reduction in leasing demand is more likely to fall in the former scenario (small reduction)
rather than the latter, or at least in between of the two (depending on the interpretation given by lessors to
“small” and “substantial” reductions).
If there is a small reduction in leasing demand, a mix of strategic responses were identified. As illustrated
below, the most commonly cited responses anticipated by lessors are small upwards price adjustments for
all customers and a mix of small up and down adjustments for particular segments of the market. Any upwards
price change might require additional segmentation of its customer base by any given lessor, or involve some
combination of price increase and additional service offering with the lease. These strategies are not
necessarily mutually exclusive (i.e. a lessor might consider both an across-the-board price adjustment in
conjunction with increased leasing volume available to SMEs and unlisted companies. If lessors were unable
to achieve additional market segmentation, then the emphasis would likely fall more on efforts to reduce
overheads.

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Impact Analysis

Figure 5.19: Business strategies expected to be adopted if the implementation of IFRS 16 led to a small
reduction in demand for leasing by listed lessees (NB Answers are not mutually exclusive, and so do not
sum to 100 per cent)

Source: YouGov.

Larger lessors tended towards targeting a reduction in overheads, whilst smaller lessors were most likely to
contend that a mix of small up and down price adjustments (dependent on market conditions in a given
sector) would be their behavioural response. The share of SME customers in a given lessor’s book was an
influence here.
Likewise, in a scenario where there was a substantial reduction in leasing demand from listed lessees, the
most commonly anticipated business strategies that would be adopted would be through price adjustments
(Figure 5.20). However, we note that we do not consider the possible changes in leasing volume identified
above as substantial.
Figure 5.20: Business strategies expected to be adopted if the implementation of IFRS 16 led to a
substantial reduction in demand for leasing from listed lessees

Source: YouGov.

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Impact Analysis

The implementation of IFRS 16 could also have an effect on innovation in leasing. Post-IFRS16 companies may
re-consider whether and how they lease assets. For example, the penetration of short-term, low value or
variable payment leasing is currently relatively low. As noted above, our fieldwork shows that some lessees
are likely to at least consider renegotiating new / existing leases towards variable payment structures in
response to IFRS 16. This possibility might affect incentives and potentially even divert management resources
away from customer-driven innovation towards innovation driven by regulatory arbitrage). On the other
hand some past innovation has been around arbitrage around the boundary between finance and operating
leases — this should be eliminated.
Our stakeholder interviews highlighted “servitised” or service-based leasing, which is gaining particular
relevance in countries such as the Netherlands, i.e. those countries with a large number of leased cars in
comparison to owned cars. Stakeholders held mixed views as to whether IFRS 16 might promote this trend,
whilst others anticipated a retarding effect on servitisation.

5.6.4 Wider impacts — impact on funding of unlisted SMEs

The impact on funding of unlisted SMEs depends on a range of factors:
 The extent to which lessors would adjust their supply in response to demand reduction.
 The availability of substitute sources of finance.
These are in turn described below.

5.6.5 Scale of expected response from lessors

As we have discussed above, lessors would adopt a “mixed economy” approach in the event that that there
is a decline in demand for leasing from listed companies. This would combine some price changes alongside
volume shifts as lessors aim to recoup lost revenues and profits.
Overall, the survey indicated that lessors would be as likely to respond by increasing the volume available to
SMEs as to reduce it. The scale of any given response was moderated. This makes sense given the focus on a
small reduction in demand from listed lessees (albeit the latter may account for a substantial fraction of the
industry’s overall volume) and given the current low interest rate regime would likely limit any scope for
price adjustments even with increased segmentation of customers (Table 5.10).
Table 5.10: Scale of the anticipated strategic responses in the event of a small reduction in demand for
leasing

Expected 1. Small upwards 2. Reduced 3. Increased 4. Reduction in

increase / price adjustment for volume volume available internal
decrease in all customers available for for SMEs overheads
variables 1–4 SMEs
1-5% 36% 22% 29% 30%
6-10% 32% 39% 41% 48%
11-15% 21% 17% 6% 9%
16-20% 4% 0% 24% 4%
20%+ 4% 11% 0% 0%
Don’t know 4% 11% 0% 9%
100% 100% 100% 100%
Source: YouGov (17–28 observations, dependent on column).

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Impact Analysis

5.6.6 Availability of substitute finance

As we have noted above, the overall supply of bank credit in the EU / EEA to corporates is currently relatively
stable, including to SMEs. Similarly, the majority of the EU28 SMEs surveyed in 2015 by the EC expect to
experience growth in turnover in the next two to three years. Less than half (41 per cent) of SMEs perceive
no limitations in their access to future financing. Those that do perceive such limitations most often cite
insufficient collateral or guarantees, and interest rates and prices of financing being too high.88
Some signs of declining demand for bank credit from SMEs are however present, at least in some countries,
e.g. the UK. If demand from SMEs for finance was generally in decline, clearly the ability of lessors to increase
the volume of leasing available to SMEs may be restricted.

5.6.7 Overall impact on SMEs

The fieldwork conducted by YouGov indicated that SMEs accounted for about 10 per cent of lessors’
outstanding lease obligations. If we take this as the appropriate order of magnitude for the importance of
SMEs, then this means that the capacity to recoup lost revenues and profits only from SMEs would likely be
quite limited, dependent on the availability of substitute finance to the lessee (i.e. lessors would be expected
to make an assessment of their ability to pass-through price changes).
Instead, we see the likeliest corollary for the funding of SMEs due to the implementation of IFRS 16 for listed
companies is as follows:
 First, if the there is a small reduction in demand by listed companies for leasing, then we would expect
lessors to adopt a mix of strategies, potentially including price changes for some other lessees — including
but not limited to — SMEs. The volume of leasing lessors were willing to make available to SMEs would
as likely increase to a small extent as fall.
 Second, if there is increased pricing pressure from listed lessees, we would expect lessors to seek to
recoup additional revenues from other clients. This may well require additional efforts at market
segmentation by lessors. Given the relative scales of the groups, an across-the-board price change of
about two–three basis points would likely compensate for the impacts described in 5.5.2. SME demand
for leasing could adjust in such circumstances, dependent on the availability of substitutes.

5.6.8 Adoption into local GAAP

IFRS is applied by companies listed on Regulated Markets (and some MTFs). The vast majority of unlisted
companies apply local GAAP (although such companies may substitute IFRS for local GAAP on a voluntary
basis in some jurisdictions). As such IFRS 16 will not be generally applicable to such companies as and when
IFRS 16 becomes mandatory. The review of local GAAP is an ongoing process. In the UK, for example, such
adoption into UK GAAP would not be possible prior to 2022 (if it happened at all).
Although there is the potential for some European countries to adopt IFRS accounting standards into local
GAAP or at least to comply with them, our engagement of stakeholders stressed that there are divergent
views on this. Specifically, some of them expect a full compliance after few years while others do not expect
such extended adoption. Notwithstanding, the analysis of this potential effect is out of the scope of our study
and the gathered evidence is not supportive of one specific position.
A number of listed SMEs were included in our sample. However it must be acknowledged that a listed SME
has (or at least is likely to have) a more sophisticated accounting function — at least for financial reporting
— than an unlisted SME. This is because it will be subject to more strict timing publication requirements and

88
European Commission (2015) “SME’s Access to Finance Survey 2015”.

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Impact Analysis

increased disclosure. Therefore, it seems likely that any impacts on listed SMEs should not be interpreted as
reliable guides to the likely impacts on unlisted SMEs.
Another mechanism by which this effect could be achieved is through lessors, banks or other lenders would
either encourage SMEs (or, at least, larger unlisted companies) to adopt IFRS 16 or else seek to treat them
(in say assessing creditworthiness) as if they had adopted it. We have seen no evidence to support this
hypothesis.

5.7 Overall conclusions

In this chapter, we have described the mechanism through which we anticipate the financial reporting changes
described above could have economic consequences. We summarise these below, before describing them in
further detail in the remainder of this section.
Figure 5.21: Summary of mechanisms of effect

Drawing on the evidence collected we have described how these mechanisms would are expected to have
impacts, i.e. compliance costs and benefits that would be expected to result from IFRS 16. We have also
identified how:
 A non-negligible proportion of lessees could be willing to switch to short-term or variable payment types
of leases despite a higher cost associated with these types of leases.
 Listed companies could seek more competitive lease pricing or seek to substitute other debt products
for leasing in order to compensate for the additional compliance costs incurred.
 Whilst we do not expect this to have materially deleterious impacts on the leasing industry. There could
be knock-on effects on the availability or the pricing of leasing to other market participants (including
SMEs). Any change in the cost of capital for SMEs would be proportional to the extent to which these

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Impact Analysis

companies rely on operating leases for funding, and the pricing and availability of substitute sources of
funding. However, given that our analysis suggests that the increase in the cost of using operating leases
would most likely be equal only to a few basis points, at worst, and that operating leases represent only
a fraction of financing sources, then the overall capital cost impact should be negligible.
It is common in any policy change for there to be some incremental costs and indirect market effects. In this
case we are not able to quantify the associated benefits of IFRS 16, although as we have set out in 5.4 these
are likely to be somewhat limited in public capital markets (and regulatory arbitrage activity by lessees could
limit these further), but do appear to be tangible in private capital markets. We consider the trade-off
between the benefits identified and the costs, and other impacts, to be a fine one.

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Impact Analysis

Appendices

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Appendix: Methodology Adopted in Yield Analysis

6 Appendix: Methodology Adopted in

Yield Analysis
6.1 Introduction
Sengupta & Wang (2011)89 examine whether bond yields reflect the de facto capitalisation of operating leases.
The paper answers the following two questions:
 Do rating agencies / bond analysts incorporate information on operating lease obligations?
 Is the treatment of operating lease obligations the same as the treatment of financial leases?
Sengupta & Wang (2011) approach involves regressing bond ratings and bond yields on a measure of operating
lease obligations and a number of control variables. The regressions take the following form:
𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝛼 + 𝛽 ⋅ 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠 + 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝑏𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 = 𝛼 + 𝛽 ⋅ 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠 + 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑠
Control variables, i.e. variables other than leases that affect bond ratings and bond yields, are selected to
account for issuer characteristics, issue characteristics, market conditions and fixed year effects.90 The first
equation is estimated using an ordered probit regression, the second using the standard linear regression.
Testing whether the coefficient on the measure of operating lease obligations (𝛽) is significantly different than
zero provides the answer to the first question. In order to answer the second question a measure of financial
leases is added to the regressions as one of the control variables. Testing whether the coefficients on the
measure of operating leases and on the measure of financial leases are equal indicates whether there is a
difference in the treatment of the two types of leases.
The results of the analysis suggest that operating leases are already priced in and treated in the same way as
financial leases.
The purpose of Cotten et al. (2013)91 is to determine whether operating leases are treated in the same way
as debt by credit rating agencies when assigning the credit rating. To that aim the paper compares the actual
credit rating with two synthetic credit risk measures — “initial synthetic rating”, which is the rating implied
by the reported accounting data, and “adjusted synthetic rating”, which is the rating implied by adjusting the

89
Sengupta & Wang (2011) “Pricing of off-balance sheet debt: how do bond market participants use the footnote
disclosures on operating leases and postretirement benefit plans?” Accounting & Finance, Volume 51, Issue 3, pp 787–
808, September 2011.
90
The control variables where rating is the dependent variable are: log of total assets; book value of long-term debt
divided by total assets; total liabilities excluding long-term debt, divided by total assets; ratio of market value of
common equity to book value of common equity; profit margin (income before extraordinary items divided by net
sales); the sum of pretax income and interest expense, divided by interest expense; standard deviation of daily stock
returns over the fiscal year; research and development expense divided by the market value of common equity; ratio
of free cash flows to sales. The control variables where yield is the dependent variable are: log of size of issue; log
of years to maturity; the years to first call divided by the years to maturity; yield on constant maturity US Treasury
bill of approximately equal maturity to the date of issue; average yield on Moody’s AAA bonds for the month of
issue minus the average yield on 30-year US Treasury bill for the month of issue.
91
Cotten et al. (2013) “Capitalisation of Operating Leases and Credit Ratings”, JARAF, Volume 8 Issue 1 2013.

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Appendix: Methodology Adopted in Yield Analysis

reported accounting data so that it reflects the treatment of operating leases in the lease accounting standard
proposed in FASB (2012)92.
To construct the synthetic credit ratings Cotten et al. (2013) use interest coverage ratios, which are then
linked to numerical equivalents of credit ratings. The actual interest coverage is defined as EBIT divided by
interest expense, while the adjusted interest coverage is calculated using the following formula:
𝐸𝐵𝐼𝑇 − (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑏𝑡 ∗ 𝑃𝑉 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠)
𝐴𝑑𝑗𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐶𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 =
𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑒 + (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑏𝑡 ∗ 𝑃𝑉 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠)
Present value of operating leases is estimated by discounting the operating lease commitments by company’s
cost of debt. For commitments beyond five years (which are reported as a single number), Cotten et al.
(2013) divide the total commitments beyond five years by the average commitments for the first five years.
This gives the number of years across which the average lease commitments would be spread after year five.
The differences between actual and synthetic ratings is tested by using matched-pairs t-tests and Wilcoxon
signed-rank tests.
Cotten et al. (2013) find that the mean and median differences between the actual rating and the initial
synthetic rating are significantly different, and equivalent to a difference of a full rating (i.e. the difference
between A and BBB). This means that reported accounting data cannot fully explain the assigned credit
ratings. The paper also shows that the mean and median differences between the actual rating and the
adjusted synthetic rating, while statistically different, were for practical purposes identical (i.e. would translate
into the same rating). This suggests that credit rating agencies attempt to incorporate the information on off-
balance sheet debt obligations. However, Cotten et al. (2013) argue that given the current reporting
requirements, credit rating agencies are unable to adequately account for the effect of operating leases (as
they have to estimate the size and timing of lease commitments beyond five years).
Kraft (2014)93 analyses the impact of credit rating agency’s adjustments on spreads. The reasoning behind this
analysis is that if the adjustments made by the rating agency improve the accuracy of credit risk assessments,
then the adjustments should be associated with the market’s assessment of credit risk, for example spreads.
Indeed, Kraft (2014) shows that models based on adjusted accounting numbers (which account for a range
of factors, the most substantial of which was the recognition of off-balance sheet debt) better explain credit
spreads than models based on reported numbers.
The following model is estimated in Kraft (2014) using Ordinary Least Squares (OLS):
𝑆𝑝𝑟5𝑦𝑖,𝑡 = 𝛼 + 𝛽𝐴𝐷𝐽𝑖,𝑡 + 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑠 + 𝜖𝑖,𝑡
where 𝑆𝑝𝑟5𝑦 is the logarithm of the 5-year CDS spread, 𝐴𝐷𝐽 is either capturing the net adjustment to total
debt (mostly due to off-balance sheet debt) (OFFBSD), the difference between the actual rating and the
hypothetical rating based on adjusted financials (SOFT), or the difference between the actual rating and the
hypothetical rating based on reported financials (TOTAL). The results of the analysis show that all three types
of adjustments are associated with significantly higher spreads.94
However, Kraft (2015) note that the results could be caused by circularity — first, credit spreads could be a
function of ratings and thus indirectly a function of the adjustments, and second, ratings analysts could use
credit spreads to guide their adjustments.

92
Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) (2012) “Accounting Standards Codification (ASC) 840, Leases”.
93
Kraft (2014) “Rating Agency Adjustments to GAAP Financial Statements and Their Effect on Ratings and Credit
Spreads”.
94
One standard deviation increase in OFFBSD / SOFT / TOTAL is associated with 16 per cent / 39 per cent / 35 per
cent increase in the credit spreads, respectively.

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Appendix: Methodology Adopted in Yield Analysis

The aim of Chu et al. (2007)95 is to test whether banks are able to consider lease obligations to determine
interest rates on new private loans. The main hypothesis in the paper is based on the fact that lease contracts
have higher priority than debt in bankruptcy. This implies that the impact of operating leases should be greater
or at least equal to the impact of long-term debt. Moreover, the authors assume that companies are likely to
continuously engage in leasing. As such, to estimate the present value of lease obligations Chu et al. (2007)
discount the average minimum lease payment to perpetuity.
The estimated model has the following form:
𝐴𝐼𝑆𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖 = 𝛼 + 𝛽 ⋅ 𝐿𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 + 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑠 + 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑢𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑒𝑠 + 𝜖𝑖
where 𝐴𝐼𝑆𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑 is the interest rate on the loan, calculated as basis points above the LIBOR and including
all recurrent and non-recurrent fees, 𝐿𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 is borrower’s leverage ratio prior to the loan. To estimate
the impact on operating leases on spreads Chu et al. (2007) replace 𝐿𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 with either 𝐿𝑒𝑣_𝑑𝑒𝑏𝑡 (which
is defined as long-term debt over assets plus capitalised operating leases), 𝐿𝑒𝑣_𝑐𝑎𝑝 (which is calculated as
the capital lease obligations over assets plus capitalised operating leases), or 𝐿𝑒𝑣_𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟 (which is the calculated
operating lease obligations over total assets plus the operating lease obligations).
The analysis shows that capital lease obligations and long-term debt have a similar impact on the spreads.
However, the impact of operating lease obligations is lower than long-term debt. This suggests that indeed
banks set the spreads as an increasing function of operating leases. However, compared to spreads estimated
in a model with perfect information, they fail to account for the full amount of operating lease obligations.
Furthermore, Chu et al. (2007) also show that the extent to which banks include operating leases in setting
the spreads is consistent with the amount of lease obligations reported in the financial statements (i.e. banks
only account for the leases in the first five years). As a result, Chu et al. (2007) argue that the notes in the
financial statements do not provide sufficient information to allow banks accurately set the spreads.
Andrade et al. (2014)96 show that there is a positive relationship between credit spreads and two types of
contracts: non-cancellable operating leases and unconditional purchase obligations. However, the impact of
operating leases on spreads is larger than the impact of purchase obligations. Andrade et al. (2014) also find
that the impact of increasing leverage due to higher present value of operating leases is identical to that of a
corresponding increase in balance sheet debt.

The analysis is based on panel regressions of 5-year CDS97 spreads on leverage measures. In order to obtain
the present value of operating leases, Andrade et al. (2014) discount future leases using Standard & Poor’s
CreditStats method.98

6.2 Sample
The sample selection process was as follows:
 We extracted the list of all companies currently traded in the EU / EEA with non-zero operating lease
obligations, along with all their associated bonds. This was through our subscription to Bloomberg LLP.
The number of bonds for each company varied significantly with some companies not having any publically

95
Chu et al. (2007) “Does the Current Accounting Treatment of Operating Leases Provide Sufficient Information on
the Lease Liabilities?”
96
Andrade et al. (2014) “The Impact of Operating Leases and Purchase Obligations on Credit Market Prices”, Draft:
March 2014.
97
Andrade et al. (2014) motivate the use of CDS rather than bond yields in the following way: “[…] similar to bond
yield spreads, CDS spreads can be approximated by the probability of default times the expected loss given default.
CDS spreads are particularly useful in empirical studies of credit risk pricing because they are supposedly less affected
by non-default components (for example, liquidity and taxes) than bond yield spreads”.
98
This method is broadly the same as the method used in Sengupta & Wang (2011) and Cotten et al. (2013).

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Appendix: Methodology Adopted in Yield Analysis

traded bonds, and some having a couple hundred different bonds. Since the main variables of interest (e.g.
operating lease obligations, liabilities, etc.) are on a company level we limited the number of bonds per
company to five.
 We excluded bonds which were not rated by any of S&P, Moody’s or Fitch.
 We excluded bonds which would mature in 2016. Given that our analysis is based on average values for
2015, this means that all bonds are analysed at the point where they have more than one year to maturity.
This is to avoid the increased volatility in yields that typically occurs close to the maturity date.
Our final sample consists of 302 companies and 912 associated bonds. Of those, 739 were issued by non-
financial companies. The detailed distribution of companies across sectors is illustrated in the table below
Table 5.11: Sector coverage of the sample of non-financial companies

Sector Number of bonds

Basic Resources 42
Industrial Goods & Services 116
Food & Beverage 35
Travel & Leisure 56
Retail 36
Chemicals 44
Real Estate 39
Utilities 96
Technology 15
Construction & Materials 37
Health Care 27
Personal & Household Goods 30
Automobiles & Parts 33
Oil & Gas 42
Telecommunications 69
Media 43
Source: Europe Economics (based on Bloomberg data).

The financial sectors comprise Banks, Insurance, and Financial Services.

In terms of geographic coverage, our sample of non-financial companies span across 14 countries. The detailed
distribution of companies across countries is illustrated in the table below. Countries with fewer than 10
bonds were excluded from the final sample.
Table 5.12: Geographic coverage of the sample of non-financial companies
Country Number of bonds
Austria 19
Belgium 29
Denmark 16
Finland 22
France 162
Germany 113
Italy 24
Luxembourg 16
Netherlands 41
Norway 18

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Appendix: Methodology Adopted in Yield Analysis

Spain 22
Sweden 42
Switzerland 18
UK 198
Source: Europe Economics (based on Bloomberg data).

Since we excluded from the analysis companies without operating leases, all companies in our sample have
non-zero operating lease obligations. The values for the liability associated with operating leases ranged from
€0.8 million to €22.4 billion. The sample contains companies with both low and high intensity of use of leasing.
The detailed distribution of the absolute value of operating lease liability and the proportion of operating
lease asset in total assets (including the operating lease assets) are illustrated in the tables below.
Table 5.13: Distribution of operating lease liability in our non-financial sample

Percentiles Operating lease liability

(€ million)
1% 7.99
5% 26.72
10% 55.89
25% 224.11
50% 680.44
75% 1,761.65
90% 3,875.56
95% 7,092.57
99% 19,620.79
Source: Europe Economics (based on Bloomberg LLP data).

Table 5.14: Operating leases use intensity

Percentiles Ratio of operating lease asset to total assets

1% 0.1%
5% 0.3%
10% 0.5%
25% 1.2%
50% 2.4%
75% 5.9%
90% 12.6%
95% 19.9%
99% 26.9%
Source: Europe Economics (based on Bloomberg LLP data).

6.3 Models for non-financial sectors

The main model we used in the analysis was as follows:
(1) 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 = 𝛽 + 𝛽1 ⋅ 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 + 𝛽2 ⋅ 𝑑𝑒𝑏𝑡 + 𝛽3 ⋅ 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 + 𝛽4 ⋅ 𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛 + 𝛽6
⋅ 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 + 𝛽7 ⋅ 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 + 𝛽8 ⋅ 𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 + 𝛽9 ⋅ 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑒𝑑
+ 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑦 𝑑𝑢𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑒𝑠 + 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑢𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑒𝑠 + 𝜖,
where

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Appendix: Methodology Adopted in Yield Analysis

 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 is the average yield on the bond in 2015;

 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 is the ratio of capitalised operating lease liability to the sum of total assets and
capitalised operating lease asset;
 𝑑𝑒𝑏𝑡 is the ratio of the sum of short-term and long-term debt to the sum of total assets and capitalised
operating lease asset;
 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 is the ratio of the sum of interest expenses and income to interest expenses;
 𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛 is the ratio of earnings before tax (EBT) to revenue;
 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 is a natural logarithm of years to maturity;
 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 is a dummy which takes value one for bonds which are callable;
 𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 is a dummy which takes value one for bonds which are puttable;
 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑒𝑑 is a dummy which takes value one for bonds which are linked to an index;
 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑦 𝑑𝑢𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑒𝑠 is a set of thirteen dummies taking value one for bonds issued by companies in a
given country; and
 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑢𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑒𝑠 is a set of fifteen dummies taking value one for bonds issued by companies in a given
sector.
Variables which will be affected by the new accounting standard, i.e. interest expense and earnings before
tax, have been adjusted as per our analysis of the accounting adjustments. The liability and asset associated
with an operating lease have been also calculated in the same way as in our accounting adjustments analysis
(see reference to the relevant section).
We also examined whether models which do not account for operating leases (wholly or partially) are better
fitted to explaining the yields as compared to our main model. For that purpose we run two separate
regressions — one which included the information on operating lease obligations in the raw, non-discounted
form, and another which omitted the information on operating lease obligations altogether. The specifications
were as follows.
(2) 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 = 𝛽 + 𝛽1 ⋅ 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑙𝑖𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 + 𝛽2 ⋅ 𝑑𝑒𝑏𝑡′ + 𝛽3 ⋅ 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒′ + 𝛽4
⋅ 𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛′ + 𝛽6 ⋅ 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 + 𝛽7 ⋅ 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 + 𝛽8 ⋅ 𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 + 𝛽9 ⋅ 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑒𝑑
+ 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑦 𝑑𝑢𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑒𝑠 + 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑢𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑒𝑠 + 𝜖,
where
 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 is the average yield on the bond in 2015;
 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑙𝑖𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 is the ratio of the raw sum of the operating lease obligations in
the coming years to the sum of total assets;
 𝑑𝑒𝑏𝑡′ is the ratio of the sum of short-term and long-term debt to the sum of total assets;
 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒′ is the ratio of the sum of interest expenses and income to interest expenses;99
 𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛 is the ratio of earnings before tax (EBT) to revenue;100
 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 is a natural logarithm of years to maturity;
 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 is a dummy which takes value one for bonds which are callable;
 𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 is a dummy which takes value one for bonds which are puttable;
 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑒𝑑 is a dummy which takes value one for bonds which are linked to an index;
 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑦 𝑑𝑢𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑒𝑠 is a set of thirteen dummies taking value one for bonds issued by companies in a
given country; and
 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑢𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑒𝑠 is a set of fifteen dummies taking value one for bonds issued by companies in a given
sector.

99
The interest expenses are unadjusted, i.e. as reported in the financial statements.
100
The EBT is unadjusted, i.e. as reported in the financial statements.

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Appendix: Methodology Adopted in Yield Analysis

(3) 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 = 𝛽 + 𝛽1 ⋅ 𝑑𝑒𝑏𝑡′ + 𝛽2 ⋅ 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒′ + 𝛽3 ⋅ 𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛′ + 𝛽5 ⋅ 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 + 𝛽6 ⋅ 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒

+ 𝛽7 ⋅ 𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 + 𝛽8 ⋅ 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑒𝑑 + 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑦 𝑑𝑢𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑒𝑠 + 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑢𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑒𝑠 + 𝜖,
where
 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 is the average yield on the bond in 2015;
 𝑑𝑒𝑏𝑡′ is the ratio of the sum of short-term and long-term debt to the sum of total assets;
 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒′ is the ratio of the sum of interest expenses and income to interest expenses;101
 𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛 is the ratio of earnings before tax (EBT) to revenue;102
 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 is a natural logarithm of years to maturity;
 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 is a dummy which takes value one for bonds which are callable;
 𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 is a dummy which takes value one for bonds which are puttable;
 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑒𝑑 is a dummy which takes value one for bonds which are linked to an index;
 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑦 𝑑𝑢𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑒𝑠 is a set of thirteen dummies taking value one for bonds issued by companies in a
given country; and
 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑢𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑒𝑠 is a set of fifteen dummies taking value one for bonds issued by companies in a given
sector.

6.4 Results
The results of the regression based on our main specification are illustrated in the table below. The coefficient
on operating lease liability is positive and statistically significant suggesting operating leases are an important
explanatory variable of bond yields. Moreover, we can confirm the hypothesis that the coefficient on the
operating lease liability is equal to the coefficient on other debt (i.e. the difference between the two is
statistically not different than zero). This indicates that the bond yield would be the same regardless of
whether a company financed its investments with debt or operating leases.
Table 5.15: Regression results for our main model
Coefficient Std. Err. t P>t [95% Confidence Interval]
Operating lease 5.19** 1.65 3.15 0.00 1.95 8.43
Debt 5.97*** 0.74 8.03 0.00 4.51 7.43
Interest coverage -0.01* 0.00 -1.97 0.05 -0.01 0.00
Margin -0.75** 0.27 -2.72 0.01 -1.28 -0.21
Bond characteristics
Maturity 0.76*** 0.11 7.10 0.00 0.55 0.97
Puttable 1.65* 0.70 2.36 0.02 0.28 3.02
Linked to index -4.37*** 0.80 -5.48 0.00 -5.94 -2.81
Callable 1.31*** 0.20 6.44 0.00 0.91 1.71
Sectors
Basic resource 3.56*** 0.50 7.12 0.00 2.58 4.55
Industrial goods and services 0.82 0.42 1.95 0.05 -0.01 1.65
Food & beverage 0.22 0.52 0.43 0.67 -0.79 1.24
Travel & leisure 0.60 0.48 1.26 0.21 -0.34 1.53
Retail 0.55 0.55 1.01 0.31 -0.52 1.62

101
The interest expenses are unadjusted, i.e. as reported in the financial statements.
102
The EBT is unadjusted, i.e. as reported in the financial statements.

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Appendix: Methodology Adopted in Yield Analysis

Coefficient Std. Err. t P>t [95% Confidence Interval]

Chemicals 0.47 0.52 0.90 0.37 -0.56 1.50
Real estate 0.52 0.61 0.86 0.39 -0.67 1.72
Utilities 0.52 0.44 1.18 0.24 -0.35 1.40
Technology 0.11 0.70 0.15 0.88 -1.26 1.48
Construction 1.19* 0.56 2.14 0.03 0.10 2.28
Health -0.06 0.56 -0.11 0.91 -1.17 1.04
Personal & household goods -0.22 0.54 -0.40 0.69 -1.27 0.84
Automobiles & parts 0.92 0.53 1.73 0.08 -0.12 1.96
Oil & gas 3.34*** 0.53 6.35 0.00 2.31 4.37
Telecommunication 0.37 0.45 0.82 0.41 -0.51 1.25
Country dummies
UK 0.81** 0.26 3.14 0.00 0.30 1.31
Belgium 0.06 0.47 0.13 0.89 -0.85 0.98
Germany -0.12 0.29 -0.41 0.68 -0.68 0.45
Netherlands 0.51 0.40 1.30 0.20 -0.27 1.30
Finland -0.05 0.52 -0.10 0.92 -1.08 0.97
Luxembourg 0.63 0.61 1.02 0.31 -0.58 1.83
Spain 0.02 0.55 0.03 0.97 -1.05 1.09
Italy 0.84 0.49 1.73 0.08 -0.12 1.80
Austria -0.95 0.56 -1.72 0.09 -2.05 0.14
Sweden 0.36 0.42 0.87 0.38 -0.45 1.18
Denmark -1.54** 0.60 -2.59 0.01 -2.71 -0.37
Norway 2.85*** 0.58 4.90 0.00 1.71 3.99
Switzerland -0.16 0.57 -0.28 0.78 -1.27 0.96
Constant -1.82*** 0.52 -3.53 0.00 -2.83 -0.81
Note: * p<0.05, ** p<0.01, *** p<0.001. While some of the country dummies are not significantly different than zero, jointly they are significant. The
same applies to sector dummies.
Source: Europe Economics

In the next step we examined whether there are any material differences between our main model and two
models which fully or partially fail to account for operating lease liability. First, we notice that in the second
model (with unadjusted operating leases), as expected, the coefficient on operating lease is smaller than the
coefficient on the operating leases in the first model (with adjusted operating leases). This is consistent with
the fact that unadjusted operating leases (i.e. the raw sum of operating lease obligations) are larger than the
adjusted discounted value of operating lease liability used in the first model. Second, we note that in terms
of fitness there are no material differences between the models, i.e. the adjusted R2 and RMSE are very similar
(if not identical).
Table 5.16: Comparison of regression results for models with and without operating leases
(1) With adjusted (2) With unadjusted (3) Without
operating leases operating leases operating leases
Operating lease† 5.19** 1.92* -
†
Debt 5.97*** 5.51*** 5.19***

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Appendix: Methodology Adopted in Yield Analysis

(1) With adjusted (2) With unadjusted (3) Without

operating leases operating leases operating leases
Interest coverage† -0.01* -0.02** -0.02**
†
Margin -0.75** -0.64* -0.58*
Bond characteristics
Maturity 0.76*** 0.76*** 0.75***
Puttable 1.65* 1.84* 1.87*
Linked to index -4.37*** -4.30*** -4.24***
Callable 1.31*** 1.34*** 1.38***
Sector dummies
Basic resource 3.56*** 3.43*** 3.35***
Industrial goods and services 0.82 0.76 0.74
Food & beverage 0.22 0.16 0.08
Travel & leisure 0.60 0.75 0.99*
Retail 0.55 0.45 0.92
Chemicals 0.47 0.37 0.25
Real estate 0.53 0.52 0.53
Utilities 0.52 0.48 0.39
Technology 0.11 0.22 0.12
Construction 1.19* 0.98 0.95
Health -0.06 -0.07 -0.14
Personal & household goods -0.22 -0.03 -0.06
Automobiles & parts 0.92 0.88 0.79
Oil & gas 3.34*** 3.18*** 3.16***
Telecommunication 0.37 0.31 0.37
Country dummies
UK 0.81** 0.71** 0.82**
Belgium 0.06 0.01 0.05
Germany -0.12 -0.15 -0.07
Netherlands 0.52 0.51 0.56
Finland -0.05 0.02 0.05
Luxembourg 0.63 0.49 0.48
Spain 0.02 0.40 0.55
Italy 0.85 0.71 0.68
Austria -0.95 -1.41* -1.44*
Sweden 0.36 0.31 0.33
Denmark -1.54** -1.67** -1.59**
Norway 2.85*** 2.89*** 3.02***
Switzerland -0.16 -0.57 -0.55
Constant -1.82*** -1.42** -1.25*

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Appendix: Methodology Adopted in Yield Analysis

(1) With adjusted (2) With unadjusted (3) Without

operating leases operating leases operating leases
Number of observations 732 699 699
2
R 0.44 0.44 0.44
Adjusted R2 0.41 0.41 0.41
RMSE 2.16 2.19 2.20
†
Note: * p<0.05, ** p<0.01, *** p<0.001, the variables across the three models are not the same. In the first model they are fully adjusted to capture
operating lease capitalisation, but in the second and third column they are not. For details refer to Section 6.3.
Source: Europe Economics.

6.5 Conclusions
Based on our analysis we can conclude that despite a different treatment of operating lease obligations for
accounting purposes, market participants seem to capture this type of liability in their current decision-
making. The liability associated with a fully capitalised operating lease is an important variable in determining
bond yields, and the magnitude of this impact in statistically equivalent to the magnitude of the impact of debt
liability.
On the other hand, we did not find evidence suggesting that this model performed better in terms of
explanatory power than simply using the raw sum of operating lease obligations or even simply using financial
statements as currently presented.

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Appendix: Approach to Accounting Adjustment

7 Appendix: Approach to Accounting

Adjustment
This section considers the accounting impacts on the financial statements of listed companies with operating
lease obligations. The section is organised as follows:
 It first outlines the sampling process and gives a description of the sample.
 It then describes the methodology and assumptions used to simulate the impact.
 Lastly, it presents the results of the simulation and discusses how the impact varies by sector.

7.1 Sub-population used in simulation

The process adopted was as follows:
 We first identified all listed companies to which IFRS 16 is expected to be applicable to: this drew on
ESMA’s database on shares admitted to trading on EU Regulated Markets under MiFID.103 This study is
focused upon such companies, which have in aggregate about €750 billion in outstanding leasing
obligations. Some MTFs — in particular the UK’s Alternative Investment Market (AIM) and the Premier
segment within NASDAQ’s First North platform — in the EU also require, as part of the listing rules
that they have adopted, that at least some companies listed on those MTFs produce financial information
in accordance with extant IFRS. Companies with an EU / EEA headquarters listed on either AIM or the
First North Premier segment have total outstanding operating lease commitments of about €5.1 billion,
i.e. less than one per cent of the obligations outstanding with companies listed on an EEA Regulated
Market.
 We excluded duplicates, delisted companies as well as companies whose primary listing is not in the EU
/ EEA.
 We excluded companies with no operating lease data in 2015 on Bloomberg LLP. In total, there are 2294
listed companies with operating lease obligations.
 We excluded companies with incomplete information on the operating lease due within 12 months, 1-5
years and beyond 5 years. (These data points are essential for the simulation of operating lease profile.)
The final group contains 2212 companies. This sub-population’s aggregate operating lease obligations were
€744 billion as at 2015. This accounted 99 per cent of the total operating lease obligations (i.e. nearly all
companies identified on Bloomberg LLP as having leasing obligations had the complete disclosure recorded).
Table 5.17 shows the sector coverage of our sample. Airlines, Retail and Travel & Leisure are the most
operating-lease-intensive industries. Companies in these sectors are the most likely to experience significant
impacts from IFRS 16.

103
ESMA – Shares admitted to trading on EU Regulated Markets [online] Available at:
https://registers.esma.europa.eu/publication/searchRegister?core=esma_registers_mifid_sha [Accessed on

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Appendix: Approach to Accounting Adjustment

Table 5.17: Sample coverage

Sector Average Average Number of Total Coverage

operating operating companies operating (restricted
lease lease lease sample/sample)
obligations obligations obligations
to total (€m) (€m)
assets
Airlines 71.3% 2,233 15 33,502 100.0%
Retail 46.2% 1,210 112 135,548 100.0%
Travel & Leisure 39.5% 599 98 58,689 100.0%
Personal & 14.4% 342 136 46,467 99.9%
Household Goods
Health Care 19.3% 188 154 29,019 99.9%
Real Estate 13.9% 226 125 28,264 99.1%
Industrial Goods & 10.1% 188 448 84,011 99.3%
Services
Technology 9.2% 53 226 12,026 99.7%
Media 8.5% 243 90 21,892 99.9%
Telecommunications 8.0% 1,858 38 70,595 100.0%
Food & Beverage 4.4% 129 111 14,340 98.6%
Automobiles & Parts 4.7% 437 40 17,476 100.0%
Energy 6.3% 665 147 97,797 100.0%
Construction & 3.9% 143 112 15,986 98.4%
Materials
Chemicals 3.0% 143 63 8,988 100.0%
Financial Services 4.0% 101 119 12,044 99.0%
Basic Resources 3.1% 142 70 9,966 100.0%
Insurance 1.1% 339 37 12,541 99.5%
Banks 0.4% 502 71 35,617 86.9%
Total 12.4% 337 2,212 744,766 99.1%
Source: Bloomberg LLP and Europe Economics analysis.

About one third of the companies in the sample have revenues more than €1 billion. They account for more
than 80 per cent of the total operating lease commitments. About 17 per cent of all companies have less than
€50 million in annual revenue (i.e. the threshold for an SME). These only account for 0.8 per cent of the total
operating lease commitment. The chart below shows the distribution of our sample by revenue band in bars
(purple colour) and the corresponding leasing obligations in dot (pink colour).

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Appendix: Approach to Accounting Adjustment

Figure 5.22: Distribution of the sample by revenue

Source: Bloomberg LLP and Europe Economics analysis.

7.2 Methodology and assumptions

7.2.1 Balance Sheet Adjustment — Simulated Liabilities

The simulated liability is the present value (PV) of all future leasing obligations currently recognised by the
lessee. Companies currently report the lease commitment due in one year, 2-5 years and beyond five years.
Although most companies do not disclose the profile of the yearly payments due, 191 companies (i.e. about
nine per cent) do disclose the yearly payments due from year 2-5. None of the companies disclose any
information on the obligations profile beyond year 5.
We set out below our assumptions on the profile of the existing obligations, the discount rate and proportion
of low-value / short term leases (which would not require capitalisation under IFRS 16).
 Payments profile for year 2-5:
 Past studies have adopted two main approaches. One is the straight-line constant approach, which
assumes that the annual payment is the same for each year (see, for example, EFRAG (2016)). The
other is the ‘discount factor’ approach, which assumes a decreasing payments profile at a constant
rate (see Fulbier, Silva and Pferdehirt (2008) and Fito, Moy and Orgas (2013)).
 Using the 193 companies which disclosed their annual payments for year 2-5, we found that a
decreasing payments profile to be more consistent with the actual data. However, instead of using a
constant ‘discount factor’, we used the proportional weighted average instead. The proportion we
used for year 2, 3, 4, 5 is 32 per cent, 26 per cent, 22 per cent and 20 per cent respectively — these
are derived directly from the experience of the 193 companies with the relevant real data.
 We also tested the result with the straight-line approach. The results are not in fact overly sensitive
to our assumptions on the payments profile for year 2-5.
 Payments profile beyond year 5:
 We assumed the annual payment beyond year 5 is the same as the payment in year 5, unless year 5 is
zero, in which case, it would be the last non-zero annual payment. In other words, if year 5 is zero,
the annual obligation beyond year 5 would be the same as year 4. If year 4 is zero, the annual obligation
beyond year 5 would be the same as year 3, so on and so forth.

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Appendix: Approach to Accounting Adjustment

 The constant payments continue until all lease obligations are taken into account.
 Discount rate:
 We used the New York University Stern School of Business’ data on sectoral discount rates for
Western Europe. As the sectors used in the database are slightly different from the sectors we have
(which are based on Bloomberg’s), we have made some minor modifications to align the data Table
5.18 shows the discount rate by sector.
Table 5.18: Discount rate by sector

Sector Discount
rate
Airlines 3.07%
Retail 3.08%
Travel & Leisure 3.27%
Personal & Household Goods 3.07%
Health Care 3.15%
Real Estate 3.07%
Industrial Goods & Services 3.13%
Technology 3.33%
Media 3.11%
Telecommunications 3.11%
Food & Beverage 3.07%
Automobiles & Parts 3.07%
Energy 3.09%
Construction & Materials 3.07%
Chemicals 3.07%
Financial Services 3.07%
Basic Resources 3.25%
Insurance 3.03%
Banks 3.07%
Source: NYU Stern School of Business and Europe Economics calculations.

 Proportion of out-of-scope operating leases:

 IFRS 16 only applies to “long-term” operating leases. It exempts short-term leases, low value assets
and leases which incorporate variable payment elements. In this model, drawing on the data obtained
through the survey conducted by YouGov, and our own analysis (at 5.5.1) of how lessees might seek
to vary the volume of leases under such terms, we take the proportion of exempted operating leases
to be 10 per cent of total operating leases.

7.2.2 Balance sheet adjustment — Simulated right of use assets

Fito, Moy and Orgas (2013) state that the ratio between simulated assets and simulated liability at any time
during the lease period is calculated as:
𝑅𝐿 𝑃𝑉𝑇𝐿 𝑅𝐿 [1 − (1 + 𝑖)−𝑇𝐿 ]
× = ×
𝑇𝐿 𝑃𝑉𝑅𝐿 𝑇𝐿 [1 − (1 + 𝑖)−𝑅𝐿 ]
Where:
RL is the remaining life of the lease;
TL is the total life of the lease;
𝑃𝑉𝑅𝐿 is the PV of future minimum lease payments over the remaining lifetime;
𝑃𝑉𝑇𝐿 is the PV of future minimum lease payments over the total lifetime.

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Appendix: Approach to Accounting Adjustment

The assumptions around total life and residual life are very important for the asset calculation. The results
are highly sensitive to residual life assumptions. The EFRAG study used a baseline scenario where the residual
life is 5 years and the total asset life is 8 years. We simulated four scenarios, with residual life as 5 and 6 years
and the ratio between remaining life to total asset life as 1/2 and 5/8 respectively. The ratio of half is common
in past literatures (see Fulbier, Silva and Pferdehirt (2008) and Fito, Moy and Orgas (2013)). In addition, we
found in our sample that the ratio of net asset value to accumulated depreciation for the entire sample is
close to one. If the composition of owned assets is similar to that for leased assets, then this implies that an
assumption of remaining life to total asset life of 1:2 is a reasonable one, at least in the aggregate.

7.2.3 Profit and loss adjustments

By capitalising operating leases, a company no longer records the rental expense within the profit and loss
account — with it being substituted by a depreciation charge and an appropriate interest expense. Hence,
the impact on EBITDA is equal to the rental expense. We used operating lease obligation due within 12
months in 2015 as a proxy for the rental expense. In common with the past literature, this appears to be a
more reliable measure than the actual profit and loss disclosure as the realised rental expenses includes lease
contracts with duration of less than one year.104
The EBT impact was calculated by adding back the operating lease commitment within 12 months (rental
proxy) and deducting depreciation and interest. Depreciation is calculated as carrying amount of simulated
ROU asset divide by assumed residual life (RL), and interest is calculated as the appropriate discount rate
multiplied by the simulated lease liabilities.

7.3 Results
In examining the impacts, we focus on three key areas, namely, impacts on balance sheets, impacts on
profitability and impacts on key ratios. All three have potential implications for companies’ business decisions
and ability to borrow. For instance, the remuneration schemes are commonly linked with the company’s
profitability and debt covenants are often linked with leverage ratios. Hence, changes in accounting standards
could indirectly affect these other areas of businesses.

7.3.1 Balance sheet impact

The total simulated lease liability is around €574 billion, representing 8 per cent of total debt.105 The
associated ROU asset value is €526-549 billion, representing around 15 per cent of the total net book value
(NBV) of property, plant and equipment. The value of ROU assets is around 91-96 per cent of the value of
simulated liabilities.
The value of simulated liabilities is driven by the discount rate and payment profile assumptions. Table 5.19
shows our sensitivity analysis, using discount rates 3 per cent, 4 per cent, 5 per cent and NYU Stern sector-
specific discount rates under both decreasing payments profile and constant payments profile. The results
are not very sensitive to the payments profile assumptions. The total simulated liability is moderately sensitive
to discount rate assumptions.

104
Fulbier, Silva and Pferdehirt (2008) – Impact of lease capitalisation on financial ratios of listed German companies.
105
The total debt variable is defined by Bloomberg LLP. It includes both short-term and long-term debts.

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Appendix: Approach to Accounting Adjustment

Table 5.19: Sensitivity analysis – Balance Sheet

Decreasing payments profile for year 2-5 Constant payments profile for year 2-5
Simulated
Discount Simulated Simulated ROU Impacts on Simulated Impacts on
ROU Asset
rate liability (€m) Asset (€m) Equity liability (€m) Equity
(€m)
3% 576,800 552,600 -0.13% 579,200 554,900 -0.13%
4% 550,900 520,700 -0.16% 553,600 523,200 -0.16%
5% 527,100 491,800 -0.18% 529,900 494,400 -0.18%
NYU 573,900 549,000 -0.13% 576,300 551,300 -0.13%
Source: Bloomberg LLP, NYU Stern and Europe Economics calculations.

Airlines, Retail industries and Travel & Leisure are the sectors most affected by IFRS 16. As can be seen in
Figure 5.23, the simulated liabilities account for 40–44 per cent of the total debt (including the simulated
leasing liability) in these industries; and simulated ROU asset represents 15–18 per cent of total NBV of assets
(including the ROU assets).
Figure 5.23: Penetration of operating lease by sector

Source: Bloomberg LLP and Europe Economics calculations.

In absolute terms, besides the sectors mentioned above, the Energy and Telecommunications industries also
have a substantial expected operating lease liability. This is shown in Table 5.20.

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Appendix: Approach to Accounting Adjustment

Table 5.20: Simulated liabilities and assets by sector

Sector Simulated liability (€bn) Simulated ROU Asset (€bn)

Airlines 26 25
Retail 101 97
Travel & Leisure 44 42
Personal & Household Goods 37 36
Health Care 22 21
Real Estate 21 20
Industrial Goods & Services 66 63
Technology 10 9
Media 17 16
Telecommunications 55 52
Food & Beverage 11 10
Automobiles & Parts 14 13
Energy 77 74
Construction & Materials 13 12
Chemicals 7 7
Basic Resources 8 7
Financial Services 9 9
Insurance 9 9
Banks 27 25
Total 574 549
Source: Bloomberg LLP and Europe Economics calculations.

7.3.2 Profitability impacts

There are different measures of profit. EBITDA approximates to the operating cash flow of a company before
capital expenditure, interest and taxes. EBT measures the profit after all operating and financing costs are
deducted. Both measures give an absolute value to a company’s profits. We look each of these measures in
this section to get a holistic view on the significance and extensiveness of profit impacts across sectors.
The overall EBITDA impact on current lessees is around 10 per cent. The apparent EBT impact is estimated
to be between -0.6 per cent and 2.6 per cent.
As amortization depends on the assumptions on RL and TL, EBT impacts are sensitive to lease term
assumptions. For instance, under the assumption that the RL is 5 years, the overall EBT impact is positive; if
the RL is 6 years, the overall impact would be negative. That said, over the full life of a lease, EBT should be
unaffected by IFRS 16. Table 5.21 shows the sensitivity analysis results.
Table 5.21: Sensitivity analysis – profitability

5 year 62.5/37.5 5 year 50/50 6 year 50/50 6 year 62.5/37.5

EBT -0.6% -0.2% 2.6% 2.2%
Source: Bloomberg LLP and Europe Economics calculations. For simulated ROU asset values, we have tested the four scenarios described above, i.e.
1) RL=5 years, and RL/(TL-RL)=62.5/37.5; 2) RL=5 years, and RL/(TL-RL)=50/50; 3) RL=6 years, and RL/(TL-RL)=50/50; 4) RL=6 years, and RL/(TL-
RL)= 62.5/37.5.

EBITDA impacts are naturally higher in operating lease-intensive industries such as Retail, Travel & Leisure
and Airlines (see Figure 5.24: left panel). Indeed, the corresponding EBITDA impacts average more than 30
per cent. On the other hand, EBITDA increases by less than 10 per cent for less operating lease-intensive-
sectors.

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Appendix: Approach to Accounting Adjustment

Figure 5.24: Profit and loss impacts

Source: Bloomberg LLP and Europe Economics calculations.

The right panel in Figure 5.24 presents the results for EBT. In the short run, EBT impacts could be significant
in some sectors (we stress that there are limitations inherent in the nature of this simulation, e.g. around
asset lives, that could materially affect these results — i.e. this is not a prediction, rather a tool for assessing
the potential scale of impacts, and the number of companies that could be affected). For instance, under the
assumption that the remaining asset life is five years, the EBT impact for Airlines and Travel & Leisure
industries is simulated at more than 8 per cent.
As noted, the assumptions on asset life play a significant role on sectoral EBT impacts. The difference is more
pronounced in some sectors than others. For instance, in the Retail sector, if we assume the RL is 6 years,
and the RL/TL ratio is 1/2, the EBT impact is 7 per cent. If we assume the RL is 5 years and the RL/TL ratio
is 5/8, then, the EBT impact would -4 per cent. That is an 11 per cent swing. Without access to detailed
company-level data on the composition of assets and the associated leases we cannot be more definitive.
Indeed, this high sensitivity could motivate companies to seek out assumptions which yield most favourable
results to them.

7.3.3 Debt financing capacity

The leverage ratio is used together with other financial metrics to assess a company’s ability to meet its
financial obligations. Overall, leverage ratios are expected to increase slightly. The Debt/Equity ratio has
increased from 0.8 to 1 and Debt/Asset ratio increased from 28 per cent to 32 per cent.106 These results are
not sensitive to our assumptions.
Table 5.22 shows the change in leverage ratios and interest coverage by sector. As can be seen, other than
Airlines, the change in leverage ratio is not that significant to trigger a reaction from lenders.

106
Aggregate results exclude banks, insurance and financial services sectors.

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Appendix: Approach to Accounting Adjustment

Table 5.22: Leverage ratio and interest coverage by sector

Debt to Equity Ratio Debt to Asset Ratio EBIT to Interest Ratio

Old New Old New Old New
Airlines 1.6 3.0 29% 43% 6.8 4.2
Retail 0.8 1.4 26% 38% 4.8 3.4
Travel & Leisure 0.9 1.5 31% 43% 5.3 3.5
Personal & Household
0.5 0.7 22% 27% 15.9 12.7
Goods
Health Care 0.6 0.7 26% 29% 11.2 9.8
Real Estate 0.8 1.0 42% 46% 5.7 4.6
Industrial Goods &
0.7 0.9 23% 26% 7.1 6.3
Services
Technology 0.4 0.5 18% 21% 15.4 12.9
Media 1.0 1.1 30% 34% 5.8 5.2
Telecommunications 1.3 1.5 41% 45% 2.6 2.3
Food & Beverage 0.8 0.9 32% 34% 6.9 6.4
Automobiles & Parts 1.3 1.4 36% 36% 11.7 10.9
Energy 0.8 0.9 26% 28% 3.3 3.1
Construction & Materials 0.9 1.0 28% 30% 4.5 4.3
Chemicals 0.6 0.6 24% 25% 8.3 7.9
Basic Resources 0.6 0.7 28% 29% 4.5 4.4
Total – excl. financial
0.8 1.0 28% 32% 6.1 5.4
services
Source: Bloomberg LLP and Europe Economics calculations.

Since EBIT adjustments involve amortisation, interest coverage ratio is sensitive to the lease term
assumptions. Figure 5.25 shows the adjustment under all four lease term scenarios for the four most impacted
sectors. Note that the change in assumptions does not change the direction of the impact — in all four
scenarios, the interest coverage number reduced. The extent of reduction is larger under the assumption
that remaining life is 5 years.

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Appendix: Approach to Accounting Adjustment

Figure 5.25: Sensitivity analysis – interest coverage

Source: Bloomberg LLP and Europe Economics calculations.

Despite not affecting most companies, the change in debt level would affect a small proportion of borderline
companies. We have chosen a debt/ EBITDA threshold of 4 to illustrate this. In total, there are approximately
40 companies whose ratio was increased from below 4 to above 4 due to the adjustment. Table 5.23 shows
a breakdown by sector. The highest impact sectors are Retail and Travel & Leisure.
Table 5.23: Sectors whose debt/EBITDA ratio increased from below 4 to above 4

Sector Number of companies

Chemicals 1
Energy 2
Health Care 5
Industrial Goods & Services 7
Media 2
Personal & Household Goods 1
Real Estate 3
Retail 11
Travel & Leisure 8
Source: Bloomberg LLP and Europe Economics calculations.

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7.3.4 Comparison with other studies

We have compared our results with past studies. Our work found that the total simulated liability is about
15 per cent of total debt (excluding financials), which is similar to EFRAG’s results (16 per cent). Profitability
impacts are similar too. Our study found the EBT and EBITDA impacts are -0.6 per cent and 10.5 per cent.
EFRAG’s results are -0.6 per cent and 10.2 per cent.
On a sector basis, our study found that the largest impacts are in Airlines, Retail and Travel & Leisure, which
is consistent with the IFRS’s effect analysis of IFRS 16.107 The PwC study also recognises Retail and Airlines
are two of the most affected sectors.108 PwC’s study also identified professional services as the third largest
impacted sector, and our data do not classify professional services as a separate category.
The balance sheet impact for the Retail sector is comparable between PwC’s study and our study. However,
our study identified a much larger impact in the Airlines. This could be due to the different sample selection
— PwC used a global sample whereas our study uses only European companies. PwC’s study is not explicit
about its methodology so it is unclear whether differences here also contribute towards such differences.
Likewise, the balance sheet impact is 2-3 percentage points higher for IFRS’ study for these three sectors.
This difference could be due to the different assumptions used for the maturity of obligations as well as
difference in sample selection.

107
See IFRS (2016) — Effect analysis of IFRS 16.
108
See PwC (2016) — A study on the impact of lease capitalisation (IFRS 16: The new leases standard).

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