Urinary Tract Infection and Asymptomatic Bacteriuria

Guidance
Urinary tract infection (UTI) is the most common indication for antimicrobial use in hospitals and a
significant proportion of this use is inappropriate or unnecessary. The Antimicrobial Stewardship
Program at the Nebraska Medical Center has developed guidelines to facilitate the evaluation and
treatment of UTIs.

Ordering of Urine Culture: Urine cultures should only be obtained when a significant suspicion for a UTI
exists based on patient symptoms. Urine culture data should always be interpreted taking into account
the results of the urinalysis and patient symptoms. In the urinalysis the presence of leukocyte esterase
suggests WBC will be present while nitrites suggest that gram-negative organisms are present. Neither
of these findings is diagnostic of a UTI.

Indication for urine culture:

 When signs or symptoms suggest a urinary tract infection is present (see below)
 In patients who cannot provide history (intubated, demented) and have sepsis without another
source to explain it

Urine culture NOT recommended:

 Change in urine color, odor, or turbidity – these are typically due to patient hydration and not
indicators of infection
 Patient lacks symptoms of UTI
 Automatically in workup of fever or sepsis – patients who can provide a history should not have
a urine culture obtained as part of fever evaluation unless symptoms suggest a UTI is present
 Pre-operatively except in urologic surgery where mucosal bleeding is anticipated
 When a urinary catheter is placed or changed
 At admission
 After treatment of UTI to document cure

Interpretation of Urine Culture: Bacteria are frequently noted on urinalysis and cultured from urine
specimens. The presence of bacteria in the urine may indicate one of 3 conditions: 1) specimen
contamination; 2) urinary tract infection (UTI); or 3) asymptomatic bacteriuria (ASBU). When evaluating
the clinical significance of a urine culture these 3 conditions must each be considered and classification
should be based upon history and exam findings coupled with urine findings. Specimen contamination
should always be considered as this is common, particularly in female patients. High numbers of
squamous cells on the urinalysis (>20) suggests contamination and results of the culture should
generally be ignored.

In patients with a positive urine culture, where no contamination exists, clinicians must determine if the
patient is exhibiting symptoms of a UTI. Symptoms typical of a UTI are urinary frequency or urgency,
dysuria, new onset hematuria, suprapubic pain, costovertebral tenderness or fever. Patients with a
urinary catheter in place may have more vague symptoms such as new onset or worsening fever, chills,
pelvic discomfort, acute hematuria and altered mental status with no other identifiable etiology.

It is important to recognize that pyuria is not an indication for treatment. Pyuria is the presence of an
increased number of polymorphonuclear leukocytes in the urine (generally >10 WBC/hpf) and is
evidence for genitourinary tract inflammation. Pyuria can be seen in patients with catheter use, sexually
transmitted diseases, renal tuberculosis, interstitial nephritis, or ASBU. The absence of pyuria is a strong
indicator that a UTI is not present and is useful in ruling out a UTI.

Asymptomatic Bacteriuria

Patients with positive urine cultures who lack symptoms of a UTI have the diagnosis of asymptomatic
bacteriuria. ASBU is more common in some patient populations and the prevalence increases with
advancing age (Table 1). It is also associated with sexual activity in young women. Patients with
impaired urinary voiding or indwelling urinary devices have a much higher prevalence of ASBU.

Table 1: Prevalence of asymptomatic bacteriuria in selected populations

Population Prevalence, %
Healthy, premenopausal women 1.0-5.0
Pregnant women 1.9-9.5
Postmenopausal women aged 50-70 2.8-8.6
Diabetic patients
Women 9.0-27
Men 0.7-11
Elderly person in the community (≥70 yrs.)
Women 10.8-16
Men 3.6-19
Elderly person in a long-term care facility
Women 25-50
Men 15-40
Patients with spinal cord injuries
Intermittent catheter use 23-89
Sphincterotomy and condom catheter in place 57
Patients undergoing hemodialysis 28
Patients with indwelling catheter use
Short-term 9-23
Long-term 100
Screening for and treating ASBU patients should only occur if the bacteriuria has an associated adverse
outcome (such as development of a symptomatic urinary tract infection, bacteremia, progression to
chronic kidney disease, etc.) that can be prevented by antimicrobial therapy. There are only 2 clinical
situations where these criteria are clearly met. Pregnant women should be screened and treated for
ASBU, as they have a significantly increased risk of developing pyelonephritis as well as experiencing a
premature delivery and delivering a low birth weight infant. Prior to transurethral resection of the
prostate (TURP) or any other urologic procedure with a risk of mucosal bleeding, patients should be
screened for bacteriuria, as it has been associated with a major increase in the risk for post-procedure
bacteremia and sepsis. Treatment of ASBU in both these situations has been demonstrated to prevent
these complications.

Unfortunately many patients with ASBU receive treatment which they do not benefit from and in fact
are likely harmed by. The unnecessary treatment of ASBU can lead to antibiotic resistance, adverse drug
effects, C. difficile infection, and contribute unnecessarily to the costs of medical care. Gandhi and
colleagues described antibiotic use for 3 months on a single medicine ward with 54% (224/414) of
patients treated with antimicrobials and UTI the most common diagnosis (N=49). Of those who were
treated for a UTI, 32.6% had no symptoms suggestive of a UTI. In another study Cope, et al. analyzed
280 catheterized patients at a VA with 58.6% considered to have ASBU. Thirty-two percent of ASBU
patients received treatment (inappropriately) with 3 patients developing a C. difficile infection. Linares,
et al. found 26% of 117 patients with ASBU at his institution were treated inappropriately for an average
of 6.6 days and the treatment resulted in 2 cases of C. difficile infection and one case of QT
prolongation. They then introduced an electronic reminder which did not decrease the incidence of
inappropriate treatment (still 26%) but decreased duration of therapy to 2.2 days and with no antibiotic
adverse events noted.

Patients at TNMC are not excluded from this inappropriate treatment. An analysis of 68 patients with
positive urine cultures on 2 medical wards at TNMC over 3 months in 2011 revealed that 22 (32.4%)
were asymptomatic using a very liberal definition of symptoms. Antimicrobials were inappropriately
prescribed to 36.4% (8/22) of those with ASBU. This resulted in two patients developing clinically
significant diarrhea with one of them being diagnosed with a C. difficile infection.

The take home message is that treatment of ASBU is common and results in significant patient harm.
Clinicians should be aware of this when making decisions about the treatment of possible UTI.

Who to screen and treat for asymptomatic bacteriuria:

 Pregnant women (at least once in early pregnancy)
 Patients prior to a urologic procedure for which mucosal bleeding is anticipated (i.e. TURP, etc.)
 Kidney transplant patients are a group where the data is unclear and no recommendation can
be made

Who not to screen or treat for asymptomatic bacteriuria:

 Premenopausal, non-pregnant women

 Diabetic women
  Older persons living in the community
 Elderly institutionalized residents of long-term care facilities
 Spinal cord-injured patients
 Patients with an indwelling urethral catheter (do not treat asymptomatic funguria either)

Positive Urine Culture Algorithm

This algorithm is designed for common clinical situation where the treating clinician is required to
interpret urine culture results 24-48 hours after they were obtained by another provider and the clinical
situation that prompted the testing is not clear.

Positive Urine Culture Definition


5
Clean catch specimen with > 10
cfu/ml of ≥1 bacterial species*

3
Catheterized specimen with > 10
cfu/ml of ≥1 bacterial species* Contamination
Evaluate the Urinalysis (>20 squamous cells/hpf)
 Disregard if no symptoms of UTI
 Consider obtaining new specimen if
suspicious for UTI exists

No Contamination
(<20 squamous cells/hpf)
*The presence of 3 or more bacterial
species in the urine suggests the specimen
is contaminated and a new specimen
should be obtained if a UTI is suspected
Evaluate for ongoing symptoms of UTI
Dysuria, frequency, urgency, fever,
suprapubic or CVA pain/tenderness,
mental status changes/lethargy
without another explanation

No symptoms Unclear/Difficult to Determine Symptoms Present

Asymptomatic bacteriuria Use Clinical Judgment UTI

 Do not treat unless  Lack of pyuria is strong  Treat based on guidelines
pregnant or impending evidence UTI is absent
urologic procedure with
bleeding anticipated

 Treatment of Urinary Tract Infections in Adults
Complicated vs. Uncomplicated UTIs
If it is determined that a patient has a urinary tract infection based on symptoms, UA, and urine culture
(see algorithm below), a decision must be made on how to treat the infection. Multiple factors play a
role deciding on the most appropriate therapy choice and duration including: type of UTI (complicated
or uncomplicated), if concern for pyelonephritis exists, patient allergies, location of patient (hospital,
community, or long-term care facility), recent history of UTI or antibiotic exposure, previous urinary
pathogens isolated, and cost of agent to be prescribed.

Patients with UTI can generally be seperated into 2 clinical groups: complicated and uncomplicated. A
complicated UTI is a UTI in the setting of an underlying condition or factor which increases the risk of
treatment failure. Some of these factors include:

 Male sex
 Diabetes
 Pregnancy
 Symptoms ≥ 7 days prior to seeking care
 Hospital acquired infection
 Renal failure
 Urinary tract obstruction
 Presence of an indwelling urethral catheter, stent, nephrostomy tube or urinary
diversion
 Recent urinary tract instrumentation
 Functional or anatomic abnormality of the urinary tract
 History of urinary tract infection in childhood
 Renal transplantation
 Immunosuppression

Put another way episodes of acute cystitis occuring in healthy, premenopausal, nonpregnant women
with no history suggestive of an urinary tract abnormalities are considered uncomplicated urinary tract
infections and all other UTIs are classified as complicated.

In patients with uncomplicated UTIs, E. coli is responsible for 75-95% of infections and empiric therapy
should be directed at this pathogen. E. coli is still the most common pathogen in complicated UTIs, but
other pathogens such as Klebsiella, Proteus, and Enterobacter are also noted. Inlcuded below are
treatment guidelines for acute uncomplicated cystitis, complicated UTI, and pyelonephritis based upon
local susceptibility and the Infectious Diseases Society of America guidelines.
 UTI Treatment Algorithm

Suspicion for UTI

 Evaluate for symptoms of UTI

Non-specific Symptoms Symptoms Suspicious for UTI

(Confusion, malaise without other cause) (Dysuria, frequency, urgency, fever,
 Obtain urinalysis, re-evaluate suprapubic or CVA pain/tenderness)
symptoms daily  Obtain urinalysis and urine culture
 Do not start empiric therapy unless  Start empiric therapy
clinically unstable

Therapy Options
UA < 10 WBC/hpf UA > 10 WBC/hpf (Base treatment choice on type of UTI,
severity of illness, and likelihood of
resistance)
Not a UTI  Evaluate previous urine culture results
Consider other diagnoses Obtain Urine Culture  Evaluate for signs of pyelonephritis
and severe sepsis

Negative Urine Culture Positive Urine Culture

Cath Specimen: < 103 cfu/mL Cath Specimen: ≥ 103 cfu/mL
Clean Catch: < 105 cfu/mL Clean Catch: ≥ 105 cfu/mL
Of ≥1 bacterial species

Re-evaluate symptoms

Symptoms continue
 Treat for UTI
Symptoms have resolved
 Base therapy on urine
culture results
 Treatment of Uncomplicated Cystitis in Women
Uncomplicated cystitis is defined by the presence of typical lower urinary tract symptoms (dysuria,
frequency, urgency, hematuria) and lack of upper tract sypmtoms (see below) in an otherwise healthy
pre-menopausal female.

Woman with acute uncomplicated cystitis Consider alternative diagnosis

 Absence of fever, flank pain or other (such as pyelonephritis or
suspicion for pyelonephritis No complicated UTI) & treat
 Able to take oral medication accordingly

Yes

Can one of these first line agents

Consider use of one of the following:
be used considering allergy No
 Fluoroquinolones (ciprofloxacin or
history, tolerance, and cost?
levofloxacin)
 Nitrofurantoin o Increased risk of C. difficile
monohydrate/macrocrystals infection and resistance
100 mg bid x 5 days prevalence high
(~$35)*
OR
OR
 Trimethoprim-
sulfamethoxazole 160/800  Beta-lactams (e.g. amoxicillin-
mg (one DS tablet) bid x 3
clavulanate, cephalexin,
days ($5-10)*
cefuroxime, cefdinir)
OR
o Decreased cure rates
 Fosfomycin trometamol 3g
single dose compared to other agents;
(~$70)* requires close follow-up
o Consider previous urine
cultures and local antibiogram
when selecting therapy
* Price without insurance
Yes

Prescribe a recommended antimicrobial

 Treatment of Complicated UTI
Complicated UTIs are defined above but generally are UTIs which occur in women who have
abnormalities of the urinary tract or immune function which predispose them to treatment failure or
UTIs which occur in men. Much less data is available to guide treatment recommendations in this
patient group. The pathogens causing complicated UTIs are more diverse, more drug resistant, and
specific guidelines for this syndrome are not available. The guidance below is primarily directed at
outpatients and inpatients with complicated UTIs should have therapy based on previous culture results,
severity of illness, and the local antibiogram.

Treatment duration has traditionally been 10-14 days, but recent data from the VA suggested 7 days of
therapy for men with complicated UTIs was adequate. Based on these data treatment durations of 7-10
days are generally recommended, although shorter durations of fluoroquinolone therapy (5-7 days)
have achieved excellent cure rates.

Complicated Cystitis:

1. Ciprofloxacin 500mg PO bid or levofloxacin 250mg PO qday

2. Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole 160/800 mg (one DS tablet) bid

Alternatives with less data or less activity:

1. Oral beta-lactams (oral 2nd and 3rd generation cephalosporins are more active based upon our
antibiogram than agents such as cephalexin or amoxicillin/clavulanate)
2. Nitrofurantoin 100 mg PO BID (not recommended in patients with concern for pyelonephritis or
those with poor renal function)
 Treatment of Pyelonephritis
The presence of pyelonephritis is suggested by the presence of upper urinary tract symptoms such as
fever, CVA tenderness, nausea, vomiting, and signs of severe sepsis. Patients with pyelonephritis should
be evaluated for hospitalization and a decision made on the site of care based on severity of illness and
host factors (ability to take oral agents, allergies, history of antimicrobial resistance, home support, etc.).

An important factor to consider when choosing therapy for pyelonephritis is the likelihood of bacterial
resistance to common therapies. Numerous studies have been published evaluating risk factors for
resistance in UTI pathogens and common risk factors associated with the isolation of multi-drug
resistant (MDR) pathogens have generally included:

 Residence in a long-term care facility

 Recent receipt of broad spectrum antibiotics (including fluoroquinolones)
 History of recurrent UTIs
 History of having an MDR urinary pathogen
 Nosocomial UTI

These risk factors particularly identify patients at risk for resistance to fluoroquinolones and/or 3rd-
generation cephalosporins (typically via production of an extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL)). It
should be noted that baseline E. coli resistance to quinolones at TNMC is roughly 20% while resistance
to 3rd-generation cephalosporins such as ceftriaxone is much less (around 5%).

Non-hospitalized/early pyelonephritis:
1. Oral ciprofloxacin 500 mg bid OR Levofloxacin 750mg daily
2. Oral trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (TMP-SMX) 160/800 mg [1 double-strength tab] twice daily

Due to high resistance rates in E. coli all patients should receive an initial one-time intravenous dose of
ceftriaxone 1 gram or a consolidated 24 hour dose of an aminoglycoside (i.e. gentamicin 5 mg/kg)

Patients requiring hospitalization: Fluoroquinolones and TMP/SMX are not recommended for
patients admitted with pyelonephritis due to high rates of resistance (~20%). When susceptibilities
results return patients may be de-escalated to a FQ or TMP/SMX if they are susceptible.

No risk factors for multi-drug resistant organisms:

1. Ceftriaxone 1g IV q24h (2g if > 80kg)
2. Severe beta-lactam allergy: Aztreonam 2g IV q8h

Risk factors for multi-drug resistant organisms:

1. Piperacillin/tazobactam 4.5g IV q8h, infused over 4 hours OR
2. Ertapenem 1g IV q24h OR
3. Cefepime 1g q6h
4. Severe beta-lactam allergy: Aztreonam 2g IV q8h PLUS vancomycin per pharmacy consult
Patients with severe sepsis or septic shock consider the addition of:
1. Gentamicin 7 mg/kg IV q24h (extended-interval dosing)
2. Vancomycin per pharmacy consult

The addition of other antimicrobials (gentamicin, vancomycin) should be based upon severity of illness
and likelihood of resistance.

Treatment Duration: Traditionally pyelonephritis has been treated for 10-14 days but studies have
demonstrated that patients treated with fluoroquinolones for 5-7 days had similar cure rates to those
treated for 14 days. When patients are started on beta-lactams and transitioned to fluoroquinolones a
treatment course of 5-7 days of the FQ is likely adequate.

Table 1: Treatment Duration for Pyelonephritis and Complicated UTI

Agent Duration of Therapy
Fluoroquinolones (ciprofloxacin, levofloxacin) 5-7 days
Beta-lactams 10-14 days
TMP/SMX 14 days
 Catheter-Associated Urinary Tract Infections (CA-UTIs)

Diagnosis: In patients with indwelling urethral or suprapubic catheters or those who receive
intermittent catheterization, UTIs typically presents without the usual lower urinary tract symptoms of
dysuria, frequency, or urgency. Despite this, CA-UTI is defined by the presence of both symptoms and a
positive urine culture:
 Symptoms and/or signs compatible with UTI may include: new onset or worsening of fever,
rigors, altered mental status, malaise, or lethargy with no other identified cause; flank pain;
costovertebral angle tenderness; new onset hematuria; or pelvic/suprapubic discomfort
o Symptoms in patients with spinal cord injury may include increased spasticity,
autonomic dysreflexia, or a sense of unease as well
 ≥ 10 colony-forming units (cfu)/mL of ≥ 1 bacterial species in a single catheter urine specimen
3

or in a midstream voided urine specimen from a patient whose urethral, suprapubic, or condom
catheter has been removed within the previous 48 hours is considered a positive urine culture

Pyuria and bacteriuria are very common in the presence of a urinary catheter are not an indication for
treatment in patients who lack symptoms of a UTI.

Evaluation and Treatment (see algorithm below):

 Always obtain a urine culture prior to initiation of antimicrobial therapy.
o If the indwelling catheter has been in place for > 2 weeks at the onset of CA-UTI and
is still indicated, replace the catheter and obtain urine culture from new catheter.
o If urinary catheter no longer indicated, remove catheter and obtain culture from a
voided midstream urine specimen.
 Patients who have a CA-UTI and have had their catheter longer than 14 days should have
the catheter exchanged
 Choose therapy based on severity of illness and risk factors for resistant pathogens
 Treat with antimicrobials for 7-14 days depending on severity and clinical response
o Prompt resolution of symptoms = 7 days
 Levofloxacin x 5 days may be considered in patients who are not severely ill
o Delayed response or severely ill = 10-14 days

Table 2: Treatment Options for CA-UTI

First Line Therapy Alternative Therapy
Mild/moderate illness – treat Levofloxacin 250mg PO qday OR Oral 2 and 3rd-gen cephalosporins
nd

as per complicated cystitis TMP/SMX 1 DS Tab BID Ceftriaxone 1g IV qday (if previous
guidance pathogen resistant to FQ or
hospitalized >5 days)
Aztreonam (beta-lactam allergy)
Severely ill – treat as per MDR- Piperacillin/tazobactam 4.5g IV Aztreonam 2g IV q8h + vancomycin
risk pyelonephritis guidance q8h over 4 hours OR pharmacy to dose (beta-lactam
Ertapenem 1g IV qday OR allergy)
Cefepime 1g q6h
 TNMC Urinary Antibiogram
Urine culture data from 6/2012-6/2013 was utilized to develop the following charts demonstrating The
Nebraska Medical Center susceptibility rates of uropathogens. This data should serve as a guide for
initial empiric antimicrobial therapy for pyelonephritis and complicated UTIs and also as guidance to
evaluate the activity of specific agents when early identification data is available (i.e. lactose-fermenting
Gram-negative rods or Enterococci). As per above, once susceptibility results are available,
antimicrobials should be tailored appropriately.

Gram-Negative Organisms Isolated from the Urine

Non-lactose
% Susceptible Klebsiella Proteus Pseudomonas Enteric (Lactose- Fermenting
E. coli pneumoniae mirabilis aeruginosa Fermenting) Gram-neg rods
(N=2014) (N=405) (N=184) (N= 134) Gram-neg rods (oxidase neg)
Amikacin 99.7 100 98.9 95.5 99.8 98.6
Ampicillin 58.5 4.4 84.8 XX 47.5 76.9
Ampicillin/sulbactam 61.5 84.9 92.9 XX 64.4 86.5
Cefepime 97.3 99.3 100 84.7 97.4 100
Cefuroxime (parenteral) 91.7 93.8 100 XX 89.3 91.3

Ceftriaxone 95.9 98.1 100 XX 94.3 98.4

Cephalothin 29.5 87.7 85.6 XX 37.3 71.2
Ciprofloxacin 79.6 97.5 69 68.9 82.6 67.8
Levofloxacin 79.9 98.5 73.9 66.4 83.4 72.6
Ertapenem 100 100 100 XX 99.8 100
Gentamicin 92.9 99 91.3 75.4 94.2 90.4
Imipenem 99.8 99.8 23.4 76.7 99.3 22.6
Meropenem 99.9 100 100 76.1 99.8 99.5
Nitrofurantoin 97.7 43.3 0 XX 86.2 0.5
Piperacillin/tazobactam 97.8 98 99.5 86.8 96.7 99.5
Tobramycin 92.9 99.7 91.3 96 94.3 89.9
TMP/SMX (Bactrim) 77.8 90.4 78.3 XX 80.2 77.4
XX=not generally susceptible
 Gram-Positive Organisms Isolated from the Urine
Enterococcus Enterococcus Enterococcus Staphylococcus
% Susceptible faecalis (N=292) faecium (N=60) (species pending) aureus (N=82)
Ampicillin 100 8.1 83.9 XX
Oxacillin XX XX XX 54.9
TMP/SMX (Bactrim) XX XX XX 100
Daptomycin 100 61.4 97.7 100
Levofloxacin 68.7 6.6 57.6 47.6
Linezolid 99.3 98.4 98.6 100
Nitrofurantoin 99 14.8 83.9 100
Vancomycin 98.3 21.3 84.5 100
XX=not generally susceptible

Authors: Andrea Green Hines MD, Mark E Rupp MD, and Trevor C Van Schooneveld MD

Reviewed and Approved by Antimicrobial Stewardship Subcommittee of Pharmacy and Therapeutics

Committee of the Nebraska Medical Center, July 2014

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