Element IB7: Radiation.

On completion of this element, candidates should be able to:

1. Outline the nature of the different types of ionising and non-ionising radiation
2. Explain the effects of exposure to non-ionising radiation, its measurement and control
3. Outline the effects of exposure to ionising radiation, its measurement and control
4. Outline the different sources of lasers found in the workplace, the classification of lasers and the
control measures.

Learning Outcome 1.

Outline the nature of the different types of ionising and non-ionising radiation.

• The distinction between ionising and non-ionising radiation

• The electromagnetic spectrum:
- - Gamma ray, X-ray, optical (ie, ultraviolet (UV), visible, infra-red (IR)) and radiofrequency
(ie, microwaves, radio waves) with examples of origins and sources (occupational and
natural)
- electromagnetic (EM) wave properties - wavelength, frequency, energy

• Particulate radiation properties (alpha, beta, neutrons), with examples of origins and sources
(occupational and natural)
• The role of the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) and the International
Commission on Non-Ionising Radiation Protection (ICNIRP).

1.0 - The Distinction between Ionising and Non-ionising Radiation.

Radiation involves a transfer of energy through space.

Depending on the amount of energy carried by radiation, radiation can be classified into ionising
radiation and non-ionising radiation.

The main difference between ionizing and non-ionising radiation is that ionising radiation refers to
types of radiation where the radiation carries enough energy to ionise atoms (such as human body
cells), whereas non-ionising radiation refers to types of radiation that do not carry enough energy to
ionise atoms (although it has the ability to heat/burn human organs.)

1.1 - The Electromagnetic Spectrum.

Radiation is physical energy that moves in a wave like motion. X-rays, the light we can see from the
sun or a light bulb, microwaves, and radio waves are all forms of radiation.

The Electromagnetic Spectrum (Figure 1) shows the wave like motion of radiation.

The distance from the top of one wave to the top of the next wave is the wavelength.
The frequency is the number of waves that pass each second, or cycles.

Frequency, or the number of cycles, is measured in units called Hertz (Hz).

One Hz is equal to one cycle per second. The shorter the wavelength, the greater the radiation energy.

1.2 - Particulate Radiation (alpha, beta and neutrons.).

A form of ionising radiation, particle radiation refers to a stream of atomic or subatomic particles that
may be charged positively (e.g. alpha particles) or negatively (e.g. beta particles) or not at all (e.g.
neutrons).

Alpha particles and beta particles are considered directly ionizing because they carry a charge and
can, therefore, interact directly with atomic electrons through coulombic forces (i.e. like charges repel
each other; opposite charges attract each other).

The neutron is an indirectly ionizing particle. It is indirectly ionizing because it does not carry an
electrical charge. Ionization is caused by charged particles, which are produced during collisions with
atomic nuclei.

1.3 - Alpha Particles.

Alpha particles are released by high mass, proton rich unstable nuclei. The alpha particle is a helium
nucleus; it consists of two protons and two neutrons. It contains no electrons to balance the two
positively charged protons. Alpha particles are therefore positively charged particles moving at high
speeds.

Alpha particles are relatively large and only travel short distances (a few centimetres.) They are
unlikely to penetrate living tissue, and the epidermis of the skin will prevent entry. Alpha particles are
therefore the least penetrating and can be stopped by a sheet of paper.

The main risk from alpha particles is through ingestion or inhalation, placing it close to vulnerable
tissue. As a result, the high localised energy effect can destroy the tissue of the affected organs.
Alpha particles are naturally emitted by all of the larger radioactive nuclei such as uranium, thorium,
actinium, and radium.

Examples of sources and uses of alpha radiation include smoke detectors; as an industrial tracer (to
find blockages in vessels, equipment.) or in anti-static devices.

1.4 - Beta Particles.

Beta particles are emitted by neutron rich unstable nuclei. Beta particles are high energy electrons.
These electrons are not electrons from the electron shells around the nucleus but are generated when
a neutron in the nucleus splits to form a proton and an accompanying electron. Beta particles are
negatively charged.
Beta particles are smaller in mass than alpha particles but have a longer range (a few metres). They
can cause skin burns or damage to the eyes. Whilst it can penetrate the skin internal organs are
unlikely to be damaged - since the penetration stops in a couple of centimetres - unless deposited by
ingestion. Whilst more penetrating than alpha particles, beta particles are less ionising and therefore
take longer to inflict the same degree of damage. Beta particles can be stopped by a thin piece of
aluminium.

Examples of naturally occurring beta emitters include Tritium, Carbon 14 and Phosphorous 32 (all
used as radiotracers in research.) Industrial uses of beta radiation include in thickness measuring
gauges (such as the thickness of paper coming through a roller.)

1.5 - Neutrons.

Neutron radiation is a kind of ionising radiation which consists of free neutrons. A result of nuclear
fission or nuclear fusion, it consists of the release of free neutrons from atoms, and these free
neutrons react with nuclei of other atoms to form new isotopes, which, in turn, may produce
radiation.

Neutrons are high-speed nuclear particles that have an exceptional ability to penetrate other
materials. Of the types of ionising radiation discussed here, neutrons are the only one that can make
objects radioactive (including the human body.) This process, called neutron activation, produces
many of the radioactive sources that are used in medical, academic, and industrial applications

1.5 - Neutrons.

Because of their exceptional ability to penetrate other materials, neutrons can travel great distances in
air and require very thick hydrogen-containing materials (such as concrete or water) to block them.
Boron is also an excellent neutron absorber. Fortunately, however, neutron radiation primarily occurs
inside a nuclear reactor, where many feet of water provide effective shielding.

1.6 - The Role of the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) and the
International Commission on Non-Ionising Radiation Protection (ICNIRP).

The International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP)

ICRP was established in 1928 at the second International Congress of Radiology to respond to
growing concerns about the effects of ionising radiation being observed in the medical community. At
the time, it was called the International X-ray and Radium Protection Committee, but was restructured
to better take account of uses of radiation outside the medical area and given its present name in
1950.

ICRP is an independent, international organization that advances for the public benefit the science of
radiological protection, by providing recommendations and guidance on all aspects of protection
against ionising radiation.

ICRP is a Registered Charity (a not-for-profit organisation) in the United Kingdom, and has a Scientific
Secretariat in Ottawa, Canada.

ICRP is comprised of a Main Commission, a Scientific Secretariat, five standing Committees (on
Effects, Doses, Medicine, Application, and the Environment), and a series of Task Groups and Working
Parties.

Figure 4: The organisational structure of the ICRP.

The Main Commission and the Scientific Secretariat work together to direct, organize, and oversee the
work of ICRP. All ICRP reports are approved by the Main Commission prior to publication.

The Committees advise the Main Commission in their area of expertise. They direct the work of Task
Groups, and play an important role in ensuring the quality of ICRP reports.

Task Groups are established to undertake a specific task, normally the production of a single ICRP
publication, and are generally comprised of a mixture of Committee members and other experts in
the field invited to contribute to the work.

Working Parties are normally formed of Committee members to explore issues, and are sometimes
transformed into Task Groups if their work is to result in an ICRP publication.

In preparing its recommendations, ICRP considers the fundamental principles and quantitative bases
upon which appropriate radiation protection measures can be established, while leaving to the various
national protection bodies the responsibility of formulating the specific advice, codes of practice, or
regulations that are best suited to the needs of their individual countries.

ICRP offers its recommendations to regulatory and advisory agencies and provides advice the
intended to be of help to management and professional staff with responsibilities for radiological
protection. Legislation in most countries adheres closely to ICRP recommendations. The International
Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) International Basic Safety Standards for Protection against Ionising
Radiation and for the Safety of Radiation Sources is based heavily on ICRP recommendations, and the
International Labour Organisation (ILO) Convention 115, Radiation Protection Convention, General
Observation 1992, refers specifically to the recommendations of ICRP. ICRP recommendations form
the basis of radiological protection standards, legislation, programmes, and practice worldwide.

1.7 - International Commission on Non-Ionising Radiation Protection (ICNIRP).

As an independent organization, the International Commission on Non-Ionising Radiation Protection

(ICNIRP) provides scientific advice and guidance on the health and environmental effects of non
ionising radiation (NIR) to protect people and the environment from detrimental NIR exposure.

NIR refers to electromagnetic radiation such as ultraviolet, light, infrared, and radio waves, and
mechanical waves such as infra- and ultrasound. In daily life, common sources of NIR include the sun,
household electrical appliances, mobile phones, Wi-Fi, and microwave ovens.
ICNIRP gives recommendations on limiting exposure to the frequencies in the different NIR
subgroups. It develops and publishes Guidelines, Statements, and reviews used by regional, national,
and international radiation protection bodies, such as the World Health Organization. ICNIRP is a main
contributor to the international scientific NIR dialogue and the advancement of NIR protection.

ICNIRP is independent of commercial, national and vested interests. ICNIRP’s members do not
represent their country of origin nor their Institute. They cannot hold a position of employment or
have other interests that compromise their scientific independence.
Learning Outcome 2.

Explain the effects of exposure to non-ionising radiation, its measurement,

and control.

• Sources of non-ionising Radiation:

- workplace examples: leisure industry, manufacturing, healthcare, research,
telecommunications
- naturally occurring (sunlight): indoor / outdoor work

• The routes and effects of exposure, both acute and chronic:

- damage to eyes: early onset of cataract risk, photokeratitis and photoconjuctivitis (‘arc
eye’), photochemical damage to the retina (blue light hazard),
- damage to skin – reddening of the skin (erythema), burns, skin cancer

• The concept of exposure values and limits with examples ie, Specific Absorption Rate values
and limits

• Radiation risk assessment to consider:

- sources of non-ionising radiation
- the comparison of measured exposure levels with exposure limits and values (where
applicable)
- the potential for misuse or misunderstanding of safety precautions

• The control measures to prevent or minimise exposure to non-ionising radiation both generated
in workplaces and naturally occurring including:
- design
- siting
- direction control
- reduction of stray fields/beams
- screening
- enclosures
- distance
- safe systems of work
- instructions
- training
- personal protective equipment.

2.0 - Sources of Non-Ionising Radiation.

Non-ionising radiation can be found in many different types of workplace, both naturally occurring
and emitted from artificial sources.

The leisure industry makes use of bright lights (optical radiation), lasers, and ultra-violet lights for
entertainment purposes. Large events will even make use of radios for communication. Generally,
sources of radio and UV radiation are typically not a concern due to their low power. However, high
power lasers can present various health risks when shone directly at audiences, especially if they
shine into people’s eyes. Tanning salons operate sunbeds, which create large amounts of UV
radiation.

The manufacturing industry often makes use of heat. Heat is a form of infrared radiation. Steelworks,
and other metallurgical industries, and associated furnaces generate large amounts of heat which can
damage both the skin and eyes. Large amounts of optical radiation may also be used, when lighting
levels need to be especially bright for detailed work. Some manufacturing processes may involve
welding, which generates UV radiation which can damage the eyesight of the welder and anyone
watching the welding process.

UV radiation is widely used in industrial processes and in medical and dental practices for a variety of
purposes, such as killing bacteria, creating fluorescent effects, curing inks and resins. UV radiation is
also used to treat several diseases, including rickets, psoriasis, eczema, and jaundice. Low power
lasers are used to treat skin conditions. High power lasers are used to cut skin during surgical
operations, as well as to coagulate and vaporise.

The research industry uses many sources of non-ionising radiation. IR sources include thermography,
remote control devices and IR spectroscopy analysis of molecules. Lasers are used to vaporise
materials, in chemical analysis, for distance measurement, and also in research for nuclear fusion
technology.

2.1 - The Routes and Effects of Exposure.

All non-ionising radiation has similar effects on the body, especially at higher powers. It affects the
skin and the eyes.

Effects on the Skin.

The acute effects are mainly local heating of the skin tissues, leading to reddening of the skin (also
called erythema), and eventually burns. For example, exposure to a class 3 laser or excessive levels of
IR or UV (such as sunlight) will lead to local burning of the skin. Maintenance engineers working near
microwave dishes have been burnt from the microwave radiation.

Chronic exposure leads to degenerative changes in cells of the skin, premature skin ageing, and an
increased risk of skin cancer. Regular and repeated damage to the skin leads to chronic damage of
the DNA. Eventually, this can cause skin cancer, including the most dangerous type: malignant
melanoma. UV radiation from the sun is renowned for increasing skin cancer levels. The construction
industry in the UK has a 30% higher rate of skin cancer compared to most other industries. And there
is not a lot of sunshine in the UK!

There are different types of UV radiation. UV-C is the most dangerous, but this is absorbed by the
ozone layer of our atmosphere before it reaches the Earth. Therefore, UV-C from the sun does not
affect people. However, some artificial sources of UV-C do exist, and these must be closely managed.
The naturally occurring UV-B is the primary concern in relation to sunlight.

2.2 - Effects on the Eyes.

The eyes are particularly sensitive to non-ionising radiation.

High bursts of IR and UV, even for just a few seconds, can result in a painful, but a temporary
condition known as photokeratitis and conjunctivitis.

Photokeratitis is a painful condition caused by the inflammation of the cornea of the eye. The eye
waters and vision is blurred. Conjunctivitis is the inflammation of the conjunctiva (the membrane that
covers the inside of the eyelids and the sclera, the white part of the eyeball). This becomes swollen
and produces a watery discharge. It causes discomfort rather than pain and does not usually affect
vision.

Figure 3. Diagram of the eyeball. Source: National Eye Institute.

Photokeratitis ("welders’ flash" or "arc-eye") is an acute condition that occurs because of exposure to
UV-B
or UV-C. The symptoms are pain, discomfort like having sand in the eye, and an aversion to bright light.
This condition affects the thin surface layer of the cornea (the clear front window of the eye) and the
conjunctiva. Symptoms normally dissipate within 48 hours. It is like the condition “snow blindness”,
which occurs in cold climates after lengthy exposure to the bright reflection of sunlight off the snow.

The chronic effects of UV and IR radiation on the eyes are the formation of cataracts. These are when
the cornea become less transparent, impeding vision and eventually causing blindness. They occur
naturally with age, but long-term exposure to radiation can cause these to occur much earlier than
normal. Surgery on the eye, often using lasers, is required to remove them.

Lasers can also affect the eyes. Even a short flash from a low power laser can cause a temporary
residual after image or flash blindness, such as after being exposed to a bright light. High power
lasers can cause instantaneous damage to the retina. When the laser enters the eye, the cornea (which
is basically a lens) focuses the laser beam even more tightly, causing it to burn the retina. This can
cause a permanent blind spot in the eye.

With the increasing use of LED lights, we are becoming more aware of the hazards of “blue light”. LED
lamps are becoming more powerful, and they emit a higher proportion of blue light compared to
other visible lights. The blue part of the visible light spectrum contains the greatest amount of power.
The light is not absorbed by the cornea of the eye. Instead, it impacts directly onto the retina. Lengthy
exposures, such as looking directly and closely at a bright LED lamp for longer than 10 seconds can
lead to temporary damage. The longer the exposure, the more likely the damage will become
permanent and cause blind spots on the retina.

2.3 - The Concept of Exposure Values and Limits.

Like noise and vibration, there are exposure values and limits for non-ionising radiation. These vary
depending on the type of radiation, and the specific legal requirements of the country. Exposure
below these limits is not expected to cause adverse health effects.

Exposure values and limits are usually expressed in the quantity of energy being received by the
body.

For UV radiation, this is often expressed in Joules/m2 and sometimes averaged over an 8-hour day.
The European Optical Radiation Directive is based on exposure limit values defined by the ICNIRP. It
limits the 8-hour exposure to UV radiation to 30 J/m2, to 10,000 J/m2, depending on the wavelength.

Maximum Permissible Exposures can be calculated by organisations who use lasers. These can be
quite complex calculations for the novice, but consider the Watts or Joules per cm2, the wavelength of
the laser, whether it is impacting the skin or the eye, the duration of the exposure, and the beam
diameter.

The Specific Absorption Rate (SAR) refers to the rate at which the body absorbs radio frequency
radiation. Many devices such as mobile telephones and internet routers emit radio frequencies, and
they must not exceed various legal limits. In the United States, the exposure limit is 1.6 Watts per
kilogram (of the human body). The European Union’s limit is slightly higher at 2 Watts per kilogram.

SARs can also refer to other types of non-ionising radiation tissue absorption, such as
electromagnetic fields (EMF) such as microwaves and radio frequency radiation.

Some exposure limits may vary depending on the body part being exposed. For example, SAR limits
for the head (and brain) may be lower than the limits for the hands and arms.

Some countries, such as the UK, operate a system of Action Levels and Exposure Limit Values. If a
worker’s exposure reaches the Action Level, the employer must act, so far as is reasonably
practicable, to reduce exposure below the Action Level. The exposure must not allow the Exposure
Limit Value to be exceeded.

2.4 - Non-Ionising Radiation Risk Assessment.

Risk assessment of non-ionising radiation hazards is a general requirement of Directive 89/391/EEC,

and detailed in section 7 of the ILO Code of Practice "Ambient factors in the workplace".

Amongst other things, the risk assessment should consider:

o The sources of non-ionising radiation.

o Comparison between measurements of exposure and any applicable exposure limits.
o The potential for misuse or misunderstanding of safety precautions.

2.5 - Sources of Non-Ionising Radiation.

The risk assessment will need to identify all possible sources of non-ionising radiation, from across
the electromagnetic spectrum. This includes all the artificial and natural sources (such as lasers,
microwave emitters, radio transmitters, sources of UV and IR), along with the duration of exposure,
route of exposure (skin, eye, or both), and how the exposure could occur.

The identification of sources would also consider the possible emissions at different points in the
equipment’s lifecycle. For example, during installation, normal use, maintenance, repair, and
dismantling. Maintenance engineers who remove guards and shields may be exposed to unprotected
laser sources.

Manufacturers of equipment should be able to provide data on the expected non-ionising radiation
emissions. For some equipment, adequate information will be supplied by the product manufacturer
to conclude that the risk is adequately managed. Therefore, the risk assessment process need not be
particularly onerous.

Unless national legislation requires it, the risk assessment need not be written down for trivial
sources. The effort invested into this risk assessment should be proportionate to the risks. For
example, workers who spend small amounts of time outside are not exposed to a significant risk from
sunlight UV, and therefore very little time and effort would be invested in risk assessing this hazard.
Similarly, a small microwave oven in a staff kitchen is very low risk provided it is in good overall
condition.

The overwhelming majority of non-ionising radiation sources are low risk. Our bodies’ natural
defences, such as blinking or our pain reflex, are sufficient to protect us from harm. Most sources
only create a risk during maintenance activities when controls are removed.

Safe sources include:

 Photocopiers.
 Computers and most display screens.
 Class 1 laser products.
• Most light sources, such as overhead lights, vehicle brake lights, ceiling lights with diffusers, etc.
 Gas-fired overhead heaters.
 Phones and wireless communication devices.

2.5 - Sources of Non-Ionising Radiation.

o Audio-visual equipment, TVs, and DVDs.

o Electric tools.
o Most electrical supplies (below 400V).
o Security systems.

Some sources are generally safe, but can be hazardous when positioned extremely close to the eyes
and skin:

o Vehicle headlights.
o Desktop projectors.
o Ceiling fluorescent tubes with no diffusers.
o UV insect traps.
o Class 1M, 2, or 2M lasers (low power laser pointers).
o Photographic, entertainment, or studio lighting and flash lamps.

Some people will be particularly vulnerable to strong Electro-Magnetic Fields (EMF), and these must be
identified in the risk assessment. This includes people who have implanted medical devices (such as
pacemakers) and expectant mothers.

Other sources of non-ionising radiation which may exceed exposure limits:

  Welding, both in relation to UV and EMF.
 Telecommunication base stations.
 RF or microwave energised lighting equipment.
 Induction heating and soldering.
 Microwave heating and drying.
 RF plasma devices.
 Magnetic particle inspection.
 Class 3 lasers and above.
 Furnaces, arc, and induction melting.
 MRI equipment in healthcare.
 Radar systems.
 Electrically-powered trains and trams (specifically, exposure to the overhead lines).

Where there is a significant risk of exceeding any applicable exposure limits, it may be necessary to
measure exposure levels.

2.6 - The Comparison of Measured Exposure Levels with Exposure Limits and Values.

If national legislation identifies any exposure limits in relation to non-ionising radiation, and if there
is a significant risk of exceeding these, it may be necessary to carry out some measurements. There is
a wide variety of equipment available, depending on the type of radiation being measured.
Measurements could include:

o Levels of RF radiation around communication or mobile phone towers.

o Exposure to RF radiation for engineers working on radio antennae.
o Levels of UV radiation emitted from lamps, or from the sun.
o Levels of IR radiation emitted from heat generating processes.
o The Maximum Permissible Exposures when using lasers.

The measured levels should then be compared to any relevant legal or recommended exposure limits
that apply. If the measured exposures are below the limit, then generally no further action needs to
be taken. If the exposure is over the limit, then the employer must take immediate action to reduce
the exposure below the limit.

2.7 - Potential for Misuse or Misunderstanding of Safety Precautions.

Anyone working with equipment which emits hazardous levels of non-ionising radiation must be
trained in the hazards, ill-health effects, and the control measures that are in place to keep them
safe. Otherwise, there is a potential for equipment to be misused. This misuse can be intentional or
unintentional.

For example, people often misuse laser pointers. There are different classes of Lasers, from Class 1
and 2 (which are generally safe, even when accidentally pointed at someone’s eyes), to Class 4 (which
can start fires). Most laser pointers are class 1 or 2, but some older pointers may be Class 3. Few
users understand the differences between the classes and may accidentally or intentionally point it
towards their or someone else’s eyes.

Similarly, in the entertainment industry, laser shows may be set at too low a height and will shine
lasers directly into the crowd. Whilst Class 2 lasers are generally safe, they are not safe if people are
wearing spectacles.

Equipment can be tampered with or dismantled, rendering it unsafe. Interlocks on doors may be
defeated, or barriers or guards removed. In some cases, workers have used the heating effect of
microwave transmitters to warm themselves when they are cold. In extreme cases, this has led to
severe burns.

Risk assessments must not only consider the risks during normal use of the equipment, but also how
workers may misuse it, and how this could be prevented.

2.8 - Control Measures to Minimise Exposure to Non-Ionising Radiation - Design.

The hierarchy of control measures is based on the principle that if any hazard is identified and cannot
be eliminated or reduced, then this hazard must be controlled by engineering design. Only when this is
not possible, should alternative protection be introduced. There are very few circumstances where it is
necessary to rely on personal protective equipment and administrative procedures.

The equipment should be designed so that it uses the lowest amount of power possible whilst still
performing its function. For example, lasers should be of the lowest class possible. Microwave and RF
transmitters should use the least power possible. Ceiling lights that use fluorescent tubes should be
designed with diffusers to diffuse the light over a wide area.

2.9 - Control Measures to Minimise Exposure to Non-Ionising Radiation - Siting and Direction
Control.

The equipment should be positioned in a safe place, preferably as far away from workers as is
reasonable given the risk and the task. The equipment should direct the radiation in a safe direction.
For example, the barcode scanners at supermarket checkout are positioned and directed in such a
way that it is difficult for the checkout operators to look directly into the laser beam.

Another example is sunbeds in tanning salons. There is always a small amount of UV radiation which
escapes from the sunbed, usually from the doors. These should be directed away from any workers in
the salon i.e. direct the UV radiation away from the working area and reception desk.

In the entertainment industry, lasers must be positioned at a safe height so they fire their beams over
the heads of the crowd. The lighting engineer must avoid pointing lasers towards the bar area.

2.10 - Control Measures to Minimise Exposure to Non-Ionising Radiation - Reduction of Stray

Fields and Beams.

Wherever possible the equipment should be designed and maintained so that non-ionising radiation
does not escape. Gaps in the body should be sealed, and ventilation points positioned in such a way
to minimise the likelihood of light or fields escaping.

Where using optical sources of radiation, these may get reflected off shiny surfaces. Ideally, these
surfaces should be eliminated so they absorb rather than reflect. However, an alternative is to design
the surfaces so that any reflected light is diffused and scattered over a wide area. This is particularly
useful with lasers. Certain lasers are harmful when shone directly into the eyes, but diffusely reflected
beams are safe.

2.11 - Control Measures to Minimise Exposure to Non-Ionising Radiation - Screening and

Enclosures.

Screening.

Screens and barriers can be erected between the worker(s) and the source of radiation. For example, a
welder could erect a portable welding screen around the welding area to prevent UV radiation from
being seen by workers nearby. A fixed barrier could be erected to shade workers from the sun during
their rest break, or from the radiant heat of a furnace.

Enclosures.

The source of radiation can be fully or partially enclosed. It is then possible to monitor the process
remotely, via a suitable viewing window, optics, or television camera. Safety can be ensured by using
appropriate filter materials to block the transmission of hazardous levels of radiation. This removes
any need for reliance upon safety goggles and improves operator safety and working conditions. For
example, the laser source on a barcode reader is almost entirely enclosed, and its direction strictly
controlled. The enclosure prevents stray laser beams from being emitted in any other direction.

Access to microwave and RF transmitters is restricted, requiring engineers to enter through locked
doors. Locking sources away, and controlling access to keys can be a simple yet effective method of
enclosing the hazard.

Figure 4. Vision panels in a guarded area.

Transmission of optical radiation through windows and other optically translucent panels should be
evaluated as a potential risk. Although the optical beam may not present a direct retinal hazard,
temporary flash issues may cause secondary safety problems with other procedures in the vicinity. If
the enclosure is guarding against UV radiation, the windows can filter UV radiation and protect
operators outside.

It may be necessary to remove guards or parts of the enclosure during maintenance, repairs, or even
during normal use. The occasional removal is normally controlled through a Lock-Out Tag Out
system, and possibly even a Permit to Work system. But for regular removal of guards during normal
use, it is necessary to install an interlock or a trip system. The principle is that, if an operator opens
the guard or enters a danger area, the interlock or trip system is activated and turns off the power to
the machine before harm can occur.

There are many variations of interlock switches and each design comes with its own features. It is
important that the right device is chosen for the application. Interlocks should be "fail to safe" and be
"tamper proof."

2.12 - Control Measures to Minimise Exposure to Non-Ionising Radiation - Safe by Distance.

The further away people are from the non-ionising radiation source, the lower their level of exposure.
Every time the distance is doubled, the exposure decreases by a factor of four.

A simple barrier or temporary cordon can be positioned around the working area to keep people at a
safe distance.

2.13 - Control Measures to Minimise Exposure to Non-Ionising Radiation - Safe Systems of

Work.

Safe systems of work need people to act on information and, therefore, are only as effective as the
actions of those people. However, they do have a role and may be the principal control measure under
some circumstances, such as during commissioning, maintenance, and repair work.

Systems may include the need for effective isolation of equipment before removing guards, using a
Lock-Out Tag Out system, or simply by removing the plug from the electrical socket. If isolation is not
possible (for example, if the equipment must remain in operation for the engineer to diagnose a
fault), then safe systems of work should be documented and used to identify the safe working
methods to be used. These may include carrying out the work in an enclosed and separate area and
using PPE to protect the skin and eyes.

2.14 - Control Measures to Minimise Exposure to Non-Ionising Radiation - Instructions and

Training.

Where all the sources are considered ‘trivial’ then it should be adequate to inform workers of this.
However, workers should be made aware that there could be people who are vulnerable to certain
types of non-ionising radiation, and the process for managing these.

When workers are trained in the use of equipment, they should receive information on the hazards,
the risks to themselves (acute and chronic health effects to the skin and eyes), and what precautions
they should take (for example, not looking directly at sources of bright blue light, not pointing lasers
towards people, and not tampering with the body of any equipment, cover exposed skin when
working in the sun, etc.).

Where there is exposure that is likely to exceed the exposure limit value is present in the workplace
then consideration should be given to formal training on non-ionising risks and ensuring supervisors
and managers are also trained so they understand the need for them to supervise effectively.
Engineers or those who maintain the equipment should receive additional training on how exposure
could occur when dismantling the equipment, and the safe methods to be followed.

Users of equipment must be instructed in how to carry out a pre-use examination of their equipment
and what faults they might identify. The organisation must have an effective reporting procedure, and
the user must be instructed in who to inform about the fault and what action to take with the
equipment (e.g. quarantine procedure, how to obtain a replacement, etc.).

2.15 - Control Measures to Minimise Exposure to Non-Ionising Radiation - Personal Protective

Equipment.

PPE is the last resort of the hierarchy of controls. Since the risks are to the skin and eyes, the PPE will
be overalls, gloves, and/or eye protection.

The type of eye protection will vary depending on the type of radiation it is designed to protect
against. It could range from solar protection sunglasses for outdoor work, to certified laser safety
glasses filtering out infrared radiation, to a full welder’s face shield. In addition, there may be other
hazards such as flying objects or liquid splashes, and the eye protection may also have to protect
against these.

Skin protection is usually made of overalls and/or gloves. These protect the skin from all but the most
extreme non-ionising radiation, such as infrared (heat), UV rays from processes and sunlight, and
skin burns from lasers. For the stronger types of non-ionising radiation, overalls can be flame-
resistant or fire-retardant.

For protection against solar UV radiation, employers can provide long, loose clothing, preferably
white, and with an in-built UV protecting rating. On construction sites, neck protection can be
attached to hard hats to prevent sunburn on the neck.

Not quite PPE, but strongly linked to it, are sun creams. These can provide significant protection if
used correctly. Where working in strong sunlight cannot be avoided, and skin cannot be fully covered,
employers may want to encourage workers to wear sun cream (or even provide it) to reduce levels of
absence due to sunburn and cancers.
Learning Outcome 3.

Outline the effects of exposure to ionising radiation, its measurement, and control.

• Sources of ionising radiation:

- workplace examples: manufacturing, healthcare, research, power generation
- naturally occurring: radon

• The units (mSv) and concepts of ionising radiation:

- radioactivity, half-life, absorbed dose, equivalent dose, effective dose, dose rates

• The routes and effects of exposure to each type of ionising radiation (alpha, beta, gamma, x-
rays, neutrons):
- somatic (early/acute, late/chronic)
- genetic

• The measurement and assessment of ionising radiation workers exposure:

- the use of passive dosimeters: thermoluminescent dosimeters (TLDs) to measure whole
body dose and extremity dose
- the use of active dosimeters: personal alarm dosimeters
- dose assessment and recording: approved dosimetry service, communicating
information to classified persons, record keeping

• Practical measures to prevent or minimise exposure to:

- external ionising radiation (shielding, distance, time)
- internal ionising radiation (preventing inhalation, ingestion, entry through the skin
including contaminated wounds and absorption through the skin)

• Radiation protection (with reference to chapters 3-7, International Labour Office, Radiation
Protection of Workers (Ionising Radiations), an ILO Code of Practice).

3.0 - Sources of Ionising Radiation.

The use of ionising radiation sources in industry is widespread.

Ionising radiation sources are used in healthcare, for both diagnosis and treatment. X-rays are used
to scan patient’s bodies and provide an image of their organs and bones. From the image, a doctor
can see where the anomaly is in the patient’s body. Ionising radiation is also used for cancer
treatment. Cancerous growths can be killed if large doses of ionising radiation are delivered to them.
Of course, every treatment with ionising radiation sources must be well planned since radiation can
also kill healthy cells.

Ionising radiation sources are also widely used in the manufacturing industries. For example, for level
detection. In bottling plants, on the assembly line, an ionising radiation source is installed on one side
of the line and a detector on the other. Radiation travels from the source to the detector. If a bottle
passing between is full, the radiation is absorbed into the liquid and only a small fraction of emitted
radiation reaches the detector. This produces a “pass” indication and the bottle can proceed to
another phase of production. It the bottle is not full, more radiation reaches the detector, giving a
“fail” indication and the bottle is ejected from the production line.
Many manufacturing industries use ionising radiation sources in their scanning equipment to detect
contaminants or foreign bodies in their products. For example, metal contaminants in food
manufacturing.

Ionising radiation is often used for non-destructive testing. The method is like diagnostic use in
medicine. Ionising radiation penetrates pipes, tubes, casts, or other products where on the other side
is a detector, usually ionising radiation sensitive film. The image on the film shows if there are any
defects in the object such as cracks or foreign material.

In some industries, accumulation of naturally occurring radioactivity can occur. Everything around us
is radioactive. In some cases, this natural radioactivity can accumulate. It accumulates in the Oil and
Gas industries. We drill into solids to extract oil. Solids may contain naturally occurring radioactive
material that can accumulate in vessels or deposit on internal surfaces. Workers working near such
places are exposed to elevated levels of ionising radiation. In the zircon sand industry, workers might
be exposed to naturally occurring radiation since elevated levels of uranium and thorium can be
found in zircon.

The research industries use a wide range of ionising radiation sources. They may handle
radioisotopes, make use of x-ray equipment, or perform experiments in particle accelerators.
Chemical analysis and testing of samples is often performed using a source of ionising radiation.
Chemical reactions can be explored by replacing some of the atoms of a chemical with radioisotopes
(effectively creating a sort of radioactive, chemical, label).

In the nuclear industry, ionising radiation is not used but is a product of the nuclear reaction. For
electricity production, we use the heat generated during the reaction. The heat is used to heat up
water, which creates steam, and the steam then powers turbines generating electricity. The
radioactive atoms that also originate from a nuclear reaction emit ionising radiation. The nuclear
industry generates radioactive waste, which is extremely difficult to treat and dispose of. Workers in
both the power generation and radioactive waste treatment industries are exposed to ionising
radiation.

3.1 - Naturally Occurring Radioactive Material (NORM).

Some processes with a recognised potential to cause significant radiation exposure to occur in the oil
and gas industry where naturally occurring radium (and the products of its physical decay, also known
as “daughters”), may build up over time as scale in pipes and vessels.

Some metal smelting applications may also cause exposure to NORM. Here naturally occurring radio-
nuclides may concentrate in foundry slag or may be present in radiologically significant
concentrations in refractory sands which contain low concentrations of natural uranium and thorium.
Exposure arising from work with materials that contain NORM can sometimes come directly from the
raw materials themselves, but more commonly results from their processing which generates dust
with can be inhaled or accidentally ingested.

It is estimated that natural sources of ionising radiation account for some 86% of our average annual
radiation dose.
3.2 - Radon.

Radon is a naturally occurring radioactive gas that can seep out of the ground and build up in houses
and indoor workplaces. The highest levels are usually found in underground spaces such as
basements, caves, and mines. High concentrations are also found in ground floor buildings because
they are usually at slightly lower pressure than the surrounding atmosphere. This allows radon from
the subsoil underneath buildings to enter through cracks and gaps in the floor.

Radon (more properly known as radon-222) comes from uranium which occurs naturally in many
rocks and soils. Most radon gas breathed in is immediately exhaled and presents little radiological
hazard. However, the decay products of radon (radon daughters) behave more like solid materials than
a gas and are themselves radioactive. These solid decay products attach to atmospheric dust and
water droplets which can then be breathed in and become lodged in the lungs and airways. Some
decay products emit particularly hazardous radiation called Alpha particles which cause significant
damage to the sensitive cells in the lung.

Radon is now recognised to be the second largest cause of lung cancer in the UK after smoking. Lung
cancer is also the biggest cause of cancer-related death in the UK and only 5% of all lung cancers are
curable.

Radon contributes by far the largest component of background radiation dose received by the UK
population (see chart below) and, while the largest radon doses arise in domestic dwellings (due to
the longer time spent there), significant exposures are possible in workplaces.

Figure 1. A pie chart showing the various sources of our radiation exposure to US residents.

Underground workplaces such as basements mines, caves, and utility industry service ducts can have
significant levels of radon as can any above-ground workplaces in radon-affected areas. All workplaces
including factories, offices, shops, classrooms, nursing homes, residential care homes, and health
centres
can be affected. Whilst employers who only occupy parts of buildings from the first floor and above are
unlikely to have significant radon levels, employers who use cellars, basements and poorly ventilated
ground floor rooms are far more likely to have problems with radon levels.

3.3 - The Units (mSv) and Concepts of Ionising Radiation.

We shall now discuss some key concepts of ionising radiation:

 Radioactivity.
 Half-life.
 Absorbed dose.
 Equivalent dose.
 Effective dose.
 Dose rates.
3.4 - Radioactivity.

Atoms are made up of two main parts, the nucleus and orbiting electrons. Electrons can be lost or
gained and these form charged particles, called ions.

The nucleus contains two types of particles called neutrons and protons. As protons, neutrons, and
electrons are the building blocks of atoms they're called subatomic particles.

Figure 2. The structure of the atom.

Radioactive materials are those whose atoms are unstable, meaning the nucleus of the atom can
decay or split up. This process releases nuclear radiation in the form of Alpha particles, beta particles,
or gamma rays. Some materials are radioactive because the nucleus of each atom is unstable and can
decay, or split up, by giving out nuclear radiation in the form of Alpha particles, beta particles or
gamma rays. When the nucleus decays it reaches a point of stability and stops decaying. In theory,
once all the atoms have decayed, the material would cease to be radioactive.

If a radioactive material has an activity of 200 Becquerel (Bq), in 1 second 200 of its nuclei will decay
and give off radiation. In 1 minute 12,000 (= 200 x 60) nuclei will decay.

Radioactivity, or the strength of radioactive source, is measured in units of becquerel (Bq).

1 Bq = 1 event of radiation emission or disintegration per second.

3.5 - Half-Life.

Radiation intensity from a radioactive source diminishes with time as more and more radioactive
atoms (radio-nuclides) emit energy to become stable atoms.

Radioactive decay is the decline in radiation intensity. Half-life is the time after which the radiation
intensity is reduced by half.

For example, iridium 192 has a half-life of 74 days. That means that an iridium source emitting 50 Bq
will only emit 25 Bq after 74 days. After 74 days half of the atoms have decayed and stabilised, and
the material only emits half of its previous radiation. After another 74 days, half of the atoms again
will have decayed leaving only 12.5 Bq of activity. After another 74 days, yet another half will have
decayed, leaving 6.25 Bq. And so on.

3.6 - Absorbed Dose.

The absorbed dose is a measure of radioactive energy absorbed by a person or an inanimate object.
It can be expressed in two different, but related, units: rad and gray (Gy).

“Rad” stands for Radiation Absorbed Dose. 1 Gy is the equivalent of 100 rad. 1 Gy is equivalent to one
joule per kilogram.

3.7 - Equivalent Dose.

Since biological damage does not depend solely on the absorbed dose, it is necessary to measure
the equivalent dose. This applies a weighting factor to the absorbed dose to consider the differing
biological effects of Alpha, beta, gamma, and neutron radiation.

The equivalent dose is usually expressed in units called sieverts (Sv), but is usually measured
in millisieverts (mSv). It is a measure of the likely biological damage resulting from radiation
exposure. The equivalent dose relates to the dose received by a tissue or part of the body, weighted
to take account of the different biological effects.

The quality factor (Q) is a factor used in radiation protection to weigh the absorbed dose with regard
to its presumed biological effectiveness. Radiation with higher Q factors will cause greater damage to
tissue.

3.8 - Effective Dose.

Not all tissues are equally sensitive in terms of, for example, developing cancer after being irradiated.

Therefore, you will also come across a further term: the effective dose. This is a weighted sum of all
the equivalent doses and relates to the whole body.

The equivalent dose for each tissue is multiplied by its respective tissue-weighting factor.

These products are then added together to arrive at the effective dose for the whole body. For
example, the tissue-weighting factor for gonads (testes or ovaries) is 0.2, compared to 0.01 for the
skin, meaning the gonads are more sensitive to radiation.

3.9 - Dose Rate.

The dose rate is a measure of how fast a radiation dose is being received. Dose rate is usually
presented in terms of mR/hour (milliroentgens per hour).

A dose of 500 roentgens in five hours is usually fatal for humans.

3.10 - The Routes and Effects of Exposure to each Type of Ionising Radiation.
Extreme doses of radiation to the whole body (around 10Sv and above), received in a short period,
cause so much damage to internal organs and tissues of the body that vital systems cease to function
and death may result within days or weeks. Very high doses (between about 1Sv and 10Sv), received
in a short period, kill large numbers of cells, which can impair the function of vital organs and
systems.

Acute health effects, such as nausea, vomiting, skin and deep tissue burns, and impairment of the
body’s ability to fight infection may result within hours, days, or weeks.

The extent of the damage increases with dose and the dose rate. These effects are called
'deterministic’ effects and will not be observed at doses below certain thresholds. By limiting doses to
levels below the thresholds, deterministic effects can be prevented entirely.

The figure below (from the World Nuclear Association) gives an indication the likely effects of a range
of whole-body radiation doses and dose rates to individuals.

Figure 3. Likely health effects of various radiation doses

3.11 - Exposure to Alpha Particles.

The health effects of Alpha particles depend heavily upon how exposure takes place. External
exposure (external to the body) is of far less concern than internal exposure because Alpha particles
lack the energy to penetrate the outer dead layer of skin.

However, if Alpha emitters have been inhaled, ingested (swallowed), or absorbed into the blood
stream, sensitive living tissue can be exposed to Alpha radiation.

The acute effect of a large dose of Alpha radiation in a very short period is Acute Radiation Syndrome
(ARS). There are four stages to ARS:

1. The Prodromal stage. Symptoms are nausea, vomiting, and/or diarrhoea. These symptoms may
last just for some minutes, or perhaps several days.
2. The latent stage, where the victim appears to be healthy. This can last for hours or weeks. In
this time, cells within the affected organs are dying.

3. The Manifest Illness stage. Further symptoms appear, depending on the type of ARS and the
organs affected. The organs that are affected depends on how the Alpha particles have entered
and travelled around the body (i.e. through inhalation, ingestion, or injection). Organs affected
can include the bone marrow, gastro-intestinal tract, cardiovascular system, and central
nervous system. Symptoms such as malaise, fever, diarrhoea, haemorrhaging, convulsions, and
coma.
4. Recovery or death.

The chronic effect of the inhalation of Alpha particles is an increased risk of lung cancer. The dusts or
gases which emit Alpha particles can stay lodged within the lungs. The greatest exposure to Alpha
radiation for average citizens comes from the inhalation of radon and its decay products, several of
which also emit potent Alpha radiation.

The increase in cancer risk comes from the genetic damage caused by exposure to the Alpha
radiation. The radiation damages the DNA of human tissue. When the damaged cells replicate, this
damage is copied to the new cell.

3.12 - Exposure to Beta Particles.

Beta particles have more energy than Alpha radiation, but less than Gamma. They cannot penetrate
deeply into the body but can penetrate the skin.

High doses in a short time can lead to skin injury and burns. This can happen if the material becomes
lodged in or on clothing. If inhaled, ingested, or injected, the classic symptoms of nausea, vomiting,
and dizziness can occur. These can appear within minutes or hours of a large dose. Other symptoms
can include hair loss and weakness.

In the long-term, low-level exposure to Beta radiation damages cells at a genetic level, creating an
increased cancer risk. The Beta particles tend to accumulate in the body, increasing the risk of cancer
in the location where they have accumulated.

3.13 - Exposure to Gamma and X-Ray Radiation.

Because of the gamma rays' penetrating power and ability to travel great distances, it is considered
the primary hazard to the general population during most radiological emergencies.

Both direct (external) and internal exposure to gamma rays or X-rays are of concern. Gamma rays and
X-rays can travel much farther than Alpha or Beta particles and have enough energy to pass entirely
through the body, potentially exposing all organs. However, the extent of tissue damage is less
severe since only a small amount of the radiation is absorbed into the living tissue (they have a low
equivalent dose).

In large doses, acute symptoms are radiation sickness, leading to nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, hair
loss, and skin burns. The bone marrow contains rapidly dividing cells and is particularly vulnerable to
Gamma radiation.

Low-level long-term exposure also damages the genetic make-up of cells. This damage accumulates
over years, leading to an increased risk of cancer.

3.14 - Exposure to Neutron Radiation.

Neutron radiation has a relatively high equivalent dose, meaning that it tends to cause more damage
than other types of radiation, except Alpha particles. Neutron particles are highly penetrating. They
usually only occur during nuclear fission i.e. in nuclear energy or nuclear explosions.

As the above types of radiation, large exposures in a short time can cause acute symptoms of Acute
Radiation Syndrome. Low-level exposures, especially over a long period of time, will damage the DNA
leading to increased cancer risk.

3.15 - Measurement and Assessment of Ionising Radiation Workers’ Exposure.

There are two types of radiation dosimeters:

o Passive.
o Active.

The Use of Passive Dosimeters.

These are used to measure accumulated doses to individuals working with ionising radiation.

The primary means of detecting personal radiation exposure is by means of thermoluminescent

dosimeter (TLD). It is a small plastic holder, containing several TLD discs which store the energy they
absorb from ionising radiation. It is issued and worn by persons who may be exposed to radiation
during work. After a given period, quarterly or monthly depending on the potential level of exposure,
the TLD is sent for reading and the radiation dose for that period estimated. Assessments from TLDs
are recorded in personal radiation dose records. Running totals are kept ensuring that permissible
levels are not exceeded.

TLDs should be worn on at the body part most likely to be exposed to radiation. If a worker wears a
lead apron, then the TLD is worn underneath the apron to measure the actual exposure to the body
(measurement of whole body dose).

Figure 4. Thermoluminescent dosimeter.

Where exposure occurs mainly at the extremities (such as the fingers) through handling of radioactive
substances, the TLDs can be positioned on the hands and fingers. This is called measuring the
extremity dose.

Finger stall dosimeters are small TLDs which can be attached to the finger ends. Ring dosimeters are
worn as a ring on the finger, and wrist dosimeters can be worn as bracelets. The sensitive part of the
dosimeter should be directed towards the radiation source, not angled away from it.

Figure 5. Stall dosimeter.

Active personal dosimeter
3.15 - Measurement and Assessment of Ionising Radiation Workers’ Exposure.

Figure 6. Wrist and ring dosimeters.

The main disadvantage of dosimeters is that they provide no warning that radiation exposure is
occurring. They must be sent away for analysis. Therefore, they are only useful for monitoring
ongoing exposure and ensuring that the total annual exposure does not exceed any legal limits.

The Use of Active Dosimeters.

Active dosimeters provide a direct display of the accumulated dose as well as having some additional
functions such as alarm threshold settings for dose or dose rate values (personal alarm dosimeter).
This is very useful if there is a need to warn workers that radiation exposure is occurring, and to warn
them if radiation levels are unsafe. The personal alarm dosimeter monitors radiation levels in real-
time and sounds a warning alarm if levels exceed a specific set point.

In addition, it provides an audible and visual indication of the dose rate level. The dosimeter requires
a battery to operate. This dosimeter is used for complementary dosimetry in the case of high
radiation levels or for work and dose optimisation purposes.

Figure 7. Active personal dosimeter.

3.16 - Dose Assessment and Recording.

Not all workers are required to take part in personal radiation dosimetry. Only those who are likely to
receive a significant dose over the course of the year should take part in dosimetry. These are referred
to as “classified persons”.

The dose beyond which a person is designated as “classified” varies from country to country. In the
UK, anyone who receives an effective dose more than 6mSv per year, or an equivalent dose which
exceeds three-tenths of any relevant dose limit, shall be designated by their employer as classified.

Young people (under 18) should never be designated as classified since they should not work with
ionising radiation.

These classified persons should then have their personal dose assessed and recorded as part of a

dosimetry programme.

In certain countries, such as the UK, the employer must use an “approved dosimetry service”. The
national enforcement agency is the body which can approve these. This ensures that any organisation
who wishes to carry out dosimetry on behalf of employers is competent to do so.

The approved dosimetry service provider will carry out the dosimetry and:

o Assess each classified person’s dose at regular intervals.

o Keep a record of the dose.
o Keep these records for at least 50 years after they were made.
o Provide the employer with summaries of the records on a regular basis.

The employer must provide classified persons, upon request, all records relating to their radiation
dose.

ILO Convention C155 Radiation Protection (1960) and its associated Recommendation R144, require
that workers who may be exposed to ionising radiation are appropriately monitored and that dose
levels are periodically compared against permissible dose levels.

3.17 - Practical Measures to Prevent or Minimise Exposure to External Ionising Radiation.

To keep radiation doses low, there are three key control measures that are usually adopted:

o Shielding.
o Increase distance.
o Reduce exposure time.

Figure 8. The three main methods to prevent or minimise exposure to external ionising radiation.

3.18 - Shielding.

Whenever necessary, doses can be reduced using shields.

Different shielding material is used depending on the nature of the ionising radiation.

The most common material is lead due to its high density and convenient price. The principle is that a
physical material is positioned around the radiation source as a barrier. This blocks, or at least
attenuates, the radiation exposure of people near the source. Since radiation types have very different
penetrating powers, it is important to know specifically what type of radiation is being emitted. For
example, Alpha particles can be stopped by a sheet of paper. But Gamma and X-Rays will pass
through paper, wood, and plastic, and need to be stopped using lead.

Shielding can be incorporated into a wall. For example, in healthcare, the walls in an X-Ray
department can be lined with lead. Or at least, a booth is installed, lined with lead, and all X-Rays
take place inside.

Radioactive sources or equipment can be installed inside shielded cases. These may be permanent, or
temporary.

There are activities that require workers to be close to the source and in a high radiation field. In that
case, we minimise the doses by using shielding and protective clothing. When working with X-ray
devices in medicine, the most common personal protective clothing is lead aprons. Lead aprons made
of 0.25 mm thick lead attenuate X-rays more than 100 times. In some cases, when eyes are exposed,
spectacles made of lead glass are used as protection. Also, lead gloves can be used, however, such
gloves are quite thick and not appropriate for detailed work.

Figure 9. Penetrating distances of various types of radiation.

Figure 10. Employee wearing a lead apron.

When carrying out NDT (non-destructive testing) work the radiation source can be "collimated". This is
basically a lead shield placed around the source to direct the radiation in one direction (towards the
component being tested) to avoid scattering.

Figure 11. Collimation.

3.19 - Time.

The more time one is exposed to ionising radiation, the larger the dose that will be received and the
more harmful the radiation will be. The relationship is linear: doubling the exposure time doubles the
dose that is received. This means that if someone is exposed for two hours, the dose would be two
times the dose compared to if the exposure was one hour.

Time and distance are usually used in combination with each other. Work schedules can be set up to
reduce the amount of time people work close to the radiation source. If required, the employer can
organise a system of job rotation. This exposes more people to radiation but keeps the dose minimal.

Once workers have reached their annual dose limit, they should be prevented from further exposure.

3.20 - Distance.

The second very efficient way of minimising the doses is increasing distance.

The nature of ionising radiation is such that there is an inverse square law relationship between dose
and distance. This is like noise exposure. Every time the distance is doubled, exposure is reduced by
a factor of four.
Barriers can be set up around the radiation source, to keep people from entering the hazardous area.

3.21 - Practical Measures to Prevent or Minimise Exposure to Internal Ionising Radiation.

When working with open or unsealed sources of radioactive material, as well as having a possible
external hazard to contend with, workers are faced with the possibility that radioactive material might
find its way into the body. As an internal radiation hazard shielding, distance, and time would no
longer afford protection. Only by a combination of physical half-life and biological half-life can the
material be eliminated from the body. Some may remain there forever.

Small amounts of radioactive material inside the body can be more harmful than much larger amounts
outside the body. Every effort must be made, therefore, to prevent radioactive material from entering
the body. Routes of entry into the body are via the mouth by inhalation or ingestion and through the
skin via cuts or absorption. Internal contamination can be avoided by adopting good working
practices, and by following some basic precautions, such as:

o Preventing inhalation.
o Preventing ingestion.
o Preventing absorption into the skin, or entry through cuts in the skin.

3.22 - Preventing Inhalation.

If possible, the material should not be in a form which is liable to become airborne and inhaled. A
solid radioactive source is safer than a source in granular, dust, or liquid form.

3.22 - Preventing Inhalation.

However, where radioactive can become airborne, engineering controls should be used wherever
possible. Local exhaust ventilation can be installed to extract the material away from the worker, and
capture it in a shielded filter. In laboratories or healthcare, materials can be handled in ventilated
fume cupboards.

If inhalation cannot be prevented, workers should be provided with suitable respiratory protection.
The worker should be trained in its use and storage.

Radioactive material and dust can be found on clothing and PPE. If so, there is a risk of inhalation
during removal of the clothing. In this case, workers should follow decontamination procedures to
remove any materials from their protective clothing before removing the clothing itself.

3.23 - Preventing Ingestion.

Good hygiene procedures are the main way of preventing ingestion. Workers should avoid skin
contact wherever possible if necessary using protective gloves. These should be removed before
going on a rest break and entering a rest area. The rest area should be clean and tidy.
Workers should always wash their hands before eating, drinking, or smoking. Most ingestion is the
accidental ingestion of trace amounts of radioactive material, such as residue on fingers. Washing the
hands will help remove these.

The organisation must enforce strict rules forbidding eating, drinking, or smoking in areas where
radioactive material is used, handled, or stored.

3.24 - Preventing Entry Through the Skin.

Preventing skin contact is the priority. Wherever possible, workers should avoid touching radioactive
material. If necessary, handle radioactive substances with tools such as tongs or long-handled grips.

If carrying radioactive sources, these can be placed into shielded containers which can be handled
more easily. They also provided protection against damage.

Where skin contact remains a possibility, the worker should wear suitable protective gloves and
clothing, such as a lead apron, glasses, and/or disposable over-shoes.

Waste should be disposed of as soon as possible, including disposable tools and clothing.

There may be a potential for spillages. In which case, a spillage kit should be provided, along with
suitable spillage kit training and a means of disposing of the waste radioactive material.

If the worker has any cuts to their skin, these should be covered with waterproof plasters.

When leaving an area, the worker can make use of any active dosimeters to detect the presence of any
3.25 - Radiation Protection.

The ILO Code of Practice "Radiation protection of workers" lays down the fundamental principles of
protection, which includes ensuring that:

 There is a national system in place for the proper notification, registration and licensing in place
for radioactive sources.
 Workers engaged in work with ionising radiation are classified accordingly.
 Dose limits are specified.
 Adequate arrangements are in place to control exposure during normal operations.
 Local rules for radiation activities are established by employers. This includes the appointment
of radiation protection officers and/or supervisors to assist in the establishment and enforcement
of those rules.
 Controlled radiation areas should be established whereby access is controlled, including the
provision of suitable signage and warnings.
 Control measures should ensure that doses are limited to as low as is reasonably practicable.
 This shall, where possible, be achieved at the design stage.
 Dose levels of workers involved in radiation work must be closely monitored and kept within
specified limits.
 Arrangements must be in place to cater for emergency situations (for example, a source which
becomes detached or "lost" during NDT work.)
 Health surveillance programmes should be in place to both monitor the workers engaged in
radiation work and radiation work areas.
Learning Outcome 4.

Outline the effects of exposure to ionising radiation, its measurement, and

control.

IB7.4 Lasers
• Typical laser sources in workplaces (entertainment, retail, manufacturing, healthcare, research)
• Hazard classifications of lasers (British Standard BS EN 60825-1:2014), exposure limits
• The routes and effects of exposure to lasers:
- damage to the eyes from laser beams/IPL (intense pulsed light) including blindness
- damage to the skin – reddening of the skin (erythema) and burns

• The control measures to prevent or minimise exposure to lasers used in workplaces including:
- design
- siting
- direction control
- reduction of stray beams
- screening
- enclosures
- distance
- safe system of work/instructions
- training
- PPE.

4.0 - Typical Laser Sources in Workplace.

A laser is an acronym for "Light amplification stimulated emission radiation."

Lasers are devices which produce radiation with unique properties. It is these properties that
distinguish laser radiation from the radiation produced by more familiar sources such as the sun, the
common household electric light bulb, or flashlight. Where a flashlight produces "white" light (a
mixture of all different colours, made by light waves of all different frequencies), a laser makes what's
called monochromatic light (of a single, very precise frequency and colour—often bright red or green
or an invisible "colour" such as infrared or ultraviolet).

The laser also produces a very narrow beam which diverges, or spreads out, very little with increasing
distance from the source. This low divergence property means that the laser output is highly
directional, forming a pencil-like beam that will still appear as a small spot when shone against a
surface, even at large distances (i.e. 100 metres plus). A consequence of this is that high power
devices can present a hazard (to the eyes or skin) over considerable distances.
Lasers typically emit optical (UV, visible light, IR) radiations and are primarily an eye and skin hazard.

Laser uses include:

 Medical, such as sealing detached retinas in the eye.

 Acting as range finders or measuring distances.
 Cutting, drilling, or welding metals.
 Creating holograms (on credit or ID cards).
 Light show displays.
 Scanning barcodes in the retail industry.

4.1 - Classifications

The classification of laser products is based on the accessible emission levels (AELs) to which a
person
can gain access to when the laser is in normal use, or when undergoing routine maintenance. The
classification is detailed in EN 60825-1: 2007.

Class 1 is safe under reasonably foreseeable conditions. These can include high-power lasers that are
fully enclosed, such that potentially hazardous radiation is not accessible during use.

Class 1M is safe for the naked eye, except if magnifying optics are used (such as optical lenses,
spectacles, binoculars, etc.).

Class 2 is safe for short exposures (less than 0.25s). The eye is protected but its natural blink reflex.
Users should avoid staring into the beam.

Class 2M is also safe for short exposures unless magnifying optics are worn.

Class 3R is safe if handled with care. It may be dangerous if mishandled. The risk is limited by the
blink reflex and natural response to heating of the cornea for infrared radiation. Direct eye exposure
must be avoided.

Class 3B is where lasers begin to become quite hazardous. Direct viewing of class 3B must be
avoided. Protective eyewear must be worn if the beam is accessible. Safety interlocks are required to
prevent access to hazardous laser radiation.

Class 4 can burn the skin and cause permanent eye damage. They can also start fires. Safety
interlocks with manual reset are required to prevent access to hazardous laser radiation. Both direct
and scattered radiation are potentially dangerous, and eye or skin exposure must be avoided.

4.2 - Exposure Limits.

According to EN 60825, there are two types of exposure limit in relation to lasers:
o Maximum Permissible Exposure (MPE).
o Accessible Emission Limit (AEL).

MPE.

The MPE is the maximum radiation level someone can be exposed to before they begin to suffer
immediate or longer-term injuries. These were obtained through animal experimentation, which was
then extrapolated to humans. It is based on the maximum permissible energy received by the skin or
eye.

There are different MPE depending on the duration of the exposure, whether the laser is continuous
or pulsed, and the wavelength of the radiation. The longer the duration, the lower the permissible
energy per metre squared. MPE is stated in Watts or Joules per m2.

Exposure should always be kept at its lowest possible level, below the MPE limits.

AEL.

AEL limits are based on the energy emitted by the laser. In contrast, MPE is based on the energy
received by the skin or eye. It is the AEL that determines the classification of the laser. Each
classification has an AEL, which correspondingly gets higher for the higher classifications.

4.3 - Laser Health Hazards.

Damage to the Eyes.

The eye is the most vulnerable to injury from a laser beam. The potential for injury depends on the
power and wavelength of the laser beam (light). Intense bright visible light makes us blink as a reflex
reaction. This closing of the eye provides some degree of protection. However, visible laser light can
be so intense that it can do damage faster than a blink of an eye. The invisible, infrared, laser beam
such as a carbon dioxide (CO2) laser beam does not produce a bright light that would cause the
blinking reflex or the pupil to constrict. Therefore, the chances of injury are greater compared to
visible light beam of equal intensity.

The location of the damage depends on the optical nature of the laser beam. Lasers in the visible light
and near infrared range focus on the retina. Therefore, the injuries produced are retinal burns. The
infrared radiation is absorbed in the cornea and may cause corneal damage and loss of vision.

Intense Pulse Light (IPL) technology is not, strictly speaking, laser radiation. But it can cause
significant damage to the eyes. IPL devices emit a very broad wavelength spectrum of high-energy
light. They are commonly used in the cosmetic and medical industries, for treatments such as hair
removal, skin rejuvenation, and the treatment of thread veins. If an IPL beam is directed towards the
eyes at close distance (around 20cm), they can cause significant injury, and cause the MPE to be
exceeded by more than 4000 times. Since IPL is not focused like a laser, IPL will damage a much wider
area of the eye, possibly resulting in near total blindness.

Damage to the Skin.

The potential for skin damage depends on the type of laser, power of the laser beam, and the
duration of exposure. The type of damage may range from localised reddening (erythema) to charring
and deep incision.

4.4 - Control Measures to Prevent or Minimise Exposure to Lasers.

Design.

Wherever possible, a safer, less powerful laser should be used if it can accomplish the desired result.
Wherever possible, a class 1 laser should be used.

The higher power lasers (class 3B and 4) require an interlock to be fitted. If the enclosure is opened,
then the power to the laser is turned off automatically.

Even lower power lasers are often fitted with a key switch to turn on or off the power supply. It is best
practice to restrict the people who are authorised to use the key.

Siting.

The laser should be located somewhere unauthorised people cannot access it, and where it will not
get struck or impacted, and therefore damaged. Often this means siting the laser in a closed and
dedicated room. If possible, users of the laser should remain outside of the room whilst the laser is in
operation, through the use of remote controls and a viewing area.

Direction Control.

Lasers should be directed away from people and their eyes, unless this is necessary for medical
treatment. Even if the laser is class 1, the laser can dazzle a person and distract them, causing
accidents. This is particularly an issue for drivers and pilots.

In the entertainment industry, lasers should not be fired towards the audience. Instead they should
pass overhead.

Reduction of Stray Beams.

Reflected lasers can be just as hazardous as a direct beam. Consideration should be given to the
reflectiveness of any surfaces the laser is directed towards. If necessary, these surfaces should be
non-reflective.

Screening.

A barrier can be installed to stop the beam from overshooting its target. For example, it could be
installed behind the workpiece to stop the laser if it cuts through. Or a barrier can be installed
between the laser and the workforce. Screen may be transparent, but filter out UV or infrared
radiation. The screen could also be a simple curtain, provided it is non-combustible.

Enclosures.

Laser classes 2M and above should always be kept within an enclosure which prevents access to the
laser beam. Access panels can be fitted with interlocks to prevent access to the internal beam whilst it
is in use.

Safe Systems of Work and Instructions.

Lasers should be equipped with suitable signage, to warn people of the danger and to instruct them
not to look directly into the beam. It may also instruct them to avoid skin contact, and to wear PPE
such as goggles, or skin protection.

Distance.

Distance is not particularly effective as a control for lasers, but it is effective for IPL devices. The
further away from the device, the less energy it will have on impact, since the light diffuses over a
wider area.

Training.

Users should be trained in the safe systems of work, which would include the pre-use checks to be
carried out, what the laser can be used for, the direction it should face, and the procedures for
isolation and maintenance.

PPE.

Most lasers do not require PPE such as goggles or skin protection, except classes 3B and 4. The PPE
must be able to filter out the specific type of optical radiation (ultraviolet, infrared, or visible) and the
specific wavelength that the worker is potentially exposed to.

In the case of medical or cosmetic IPL beams, it is strongly advised that both the user and the patient
wear appropriate goggles. The user should wear skin protection to protect against accidental skin
exposure.