EFFECT OF RADIATION ON HUMAN BODY

Radioactivity is a part of our earth - it has existed all along. Naturally occurring
radioactive materials are present in its crust, the floors and walls of our homes, schools,
or offices and in the food we eat and drink. There are radioactive gases in the air we
breathe. Our own bodies - muscles, bones, and tissue - contain naturally occurring
radioactive elements.

Man has always been exposed to natural radiation arising from the earth as well as from
outside the earth. The radiation we receive from outer space is called cosmic radiation
or cosmic rays.

We also receive exposure from man-made radiation, such as X-rays, radiation used to
diagnose diseases and for cancer therapy. Fallout from nuclear explosives testing, and
small quantities of radioactive materials released to the environment from coal and
nuclear power plants, are also sources of radiation exposure to man.

Radioactivity is the term used to describe disintegration of atoms. The atom can be
characterized by the number of protons in the nucleus. Some natural elements are
unstable. Therefore, their nuclei disintegrate or decay, thus releasing energy in the form
of radiation. This physical phenomenon is called radioactivity and the radioactive atoms
are called nuclei. The radioactive decay is expressed in units called becquerels. One
becquerel equals one disintegration per second.

The radionuclides decay at a characteristic rate that remains constant regardless of

external influences, such as temperature or pressure. The time that it takes for half the
radionuclides to disintegrate or decay is called half-life. This differs for each
radioelement, ranging from fractions of a second to billions of years. For example, the
half-life of Iodine 131 is eight days, but for Uranium 238, which is present in varying
amounts all over the world, it is 4.5 billion years. Potassium 40, the main source of
radioactivity in our bodies, has a half-life of 1.42 billion years.

Types of Radiation

The term "radiation" is very broad, and includes such things as light and radio waves. In
our context it refers to "ionizing" radiation, which means that because such radiation
passes through matter, it can cause it to become electrically charged or ionized. In living
tissues, the electrical ions produced by radiation can affect normal biological processes.

There are various types of radiation, each having different characteristics. The common
ionizing radiations generally talked about are:
  Alpha radiation consists of heavy, positively charged particles emitted by atoms
of elements such as uranium and radium. Alpha radiation can be stopped
completely by a sheet of paper or by the thin surface layer of our skin
(epidermis). However, if alpha-emitting materials are taken into the body by
breathing, eating, or drinking, they can expose internal tissues directly and may,
therefore, cause biological damage.
 Beta radiation consists of electrons. They are more penetrating than alpha
particles and can pass through 1-2 centimetres of water. In general, a sheet of
aluminum a few millimetres thick will stop beta radiation.
 Gamma rays are electromagnetic radiation similar to X-rays, light, and radio
waves. Gamma rays, depending on their energy, can pass right through the
human body, but can be stopped by thick walls of concrete or lead.
 Neutrons are uncharged particles and do not produce ionization directly. But,
their interaction with the atoms of matter can give rise to alpha, beta, gamma, or
X-rays which then produce ionization. Neutrons are penetrating and can be
stopped only by thick masses of concrete, water or paraffin.

Although we cannot see or feel the presence of radiation, it can be detected and
measured in the most minute quantities with quite simple radiation measuring
instruments.

Radiation Dose

Sunlight feels warm because our body absorbs the infra-red rays it contains. But, infra-
red rays do not produce ionization in body tissue. In contrast, ionizing radiation can
impair the normal functioning of the cells or even kill them. The amount of energy
necessary to cause significant biological effects through ionization is so small that our
bodies cannot feel this energy as in the case of infra-red rays which produce heat.

The biological effects of ionizing radiation vary with the type and energy. A measure of
the risk of biological harm is the dose of radiation that the tissues receive. The unit of
absorbed radiation dose is the sievert (Sv). Since one sievert is a large quantity,
radiation doses normally encountered are expressed in millisievert (mSv) or
microsievert (µSv) which are one-thousandth or one millionth of a sievert. For example,
one chest X-ray will give about 0.2 mSv of radiation dose.

On average, our radiation exposure due to all natural sources amounts to about 2.4
mSv a year - though this figure can vary, depending on the geographical location by
several hundred percent. In homes and buildings, there are radioactive elements in the
air. These radioactive elements are radon (Radon 222), thoron (Radon 220) and by
products formed by the decay of radium (Radium 226) and thorium present in many
sorts of rocks, other building materials and in the soil. By far the largest source of
natural radiation exposure comes from varying amounts of uranium and thorium in the
soil around the world.

The radiation exposure due to cosmic rays is very dependent on altitude, and slightly on
latitude: people who travel by air, thereby, increase their exposure to radiation.
We are exposed to ionizing radiation from natural sources in two ways:

 We are surrounded by naturally-occurring radioactive elements in the soil and

stones, and are bathed with cosmic rays entering the earth's atmosphere from
outer space.
 We receive internal exposure from radioactive elements which we take into our
bodies through food and water, and through the air we breathe. In addition, we
have radioactive elements (Potassium 40, Carbon 14, Radium 226) in our blood
or bones.

Additionally, we are exposed to varying amounts of radiation from sources such as

dental and other medical X-rays, industrial uses of nuclear techniques and other
consumer products such as luminized wrist watches, ionization smoke detectors, etc.
We are also exposed to radiation from radioactive elements contained in fallout from
nuclear explosives testing, and routine normal discharges from nuclear and coal power
stations.

Radiation Protection

It has long been recognized that large doses of ionizing radiation can damage human
tissues. Over the years, as more was learned, scientists became increasingly
concerned about the potentially damaging effects of exposure to large doses of
radiation. The need to regulate exposure to radiation prompted the formation of a
number of expert bodies to consider what is needed to be done. In 1928, an
independent non-governmental body of experts in the field, the International X-ray and
Radium Protection Committee was established. It later was renamed the International
Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP). Its purpose is to establish basic
principles for, and issue recommendations on, radiation protection.

These principles and recommendations form the basis for national regulations
governing the exposure of radiation workers and members of the public. They also have
been incorporated by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) into its Basic
Safety Standards for Radiation Protection published jointly with the World Health
Organization (WHO), International Labour Organization (ILO), and the OECD Nuclear
Energy Agency (NEA). These standards are used worldwide to ensure safety and
radiation protection of radiation workers and the general public.

An intergovernmental body was formed in 1955 by the General Assembly of the United
Nations as the UN Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR).
UNSCEAR is directed to assemble, study and disseminate information on observed
levels of ionizing radiation and radioactivity (natural and man-made) in the environment,
and on the effects of such radiation on man and the environment.

Basic approaches to radiation protection are consistent all over the world. The ICRP
recommends that any exposure above the natural background radiation should be kept
as low as reasonably achievable, but below the individual dose limits. The individual
dose limit for radiation workers averaged over 5 years is 100 mSv, and for members of
the general public, is 1 mSv per year. These dose limits have been established based
on a prudent approach by assuming that there is no threshold dose below which there
would be no effect. It means that any additional dose will cause a proportional increase
in the chance of a health effect. This relationship has not yet been established in the low
dose range where the dose limits have been set.

There are many high natural background radiation areas around the world where the
annual radiation dose received by members of the general public is several times higher
than the ICRP dose limit for radiation workers. The numbers of people exposed are too
small to expect to detect any increases in health effects epidemiologically. Still the fact
that there is no evidence so far of any increase does not mean the risk is being totally
disregarded.

The ICRP and the IAEA recommend the individual dose must be kept as low as
reasonably achievable, and consideration must be given to the presence of other
sources which may cause simultaneous radiation exposure to the same group of the
public. Also, allowance for future sources or practices must be kept in mind so that the
total dose received by an individual member of the public does not exceed the dose
limit.

In general, the average annual dose received by radiation workers is found to be

considerably lower than the individual dose limits. Good radiation protection practice
can thus result in low radiation exposure to workers.

At What Level is Radiation Harmful?

The effects of radiation at high doses and dose rates are reasonably well documented.
A very large dose delivered to the whole body over a short time will result in the death of
the exposed person within days. Much has been learned by studying the health records
of the survivors of the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. We know from these that
some of the health effects of exposure to radiation do not appear unless a certain quite
large dose is absorbed. However, many other effects, especially cancers are readily
detectable and occur more often in those with moderate doses. At lower doses and
dose rates, there is a degree of recovery in cells and in tissues.

However, at low doses of radiation, there is still considerable uncertainty about the
overall effects. It is presumed that exposure to radiation, even at the levels of natural
background, may involve some additional risk of cancer. However, this has yet to be
established. To determine precisely the risk at low doses by epidemiology would mean
observing millions of people at higher and lower dose levels. Such an analysis would be
complicated by the absence of a control group which had not been exposed to any
radiation. In addition, there are thousands of substances in our everyday life besides
radiation that can also cause cancer, including tobacco smoke, ultraviolet light,
asbestos, some chemical dyes, fungal toxins in food, viruses, and even heat. Only in
exceptional cases is it possible to identify conclusively the cause of a particular cancer.

There is also experimental evidence from animal studies that exposure to radiation can
cause genetic effects. However, the studies of the survivors of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
give no indication of this for humans. Again, if there were any hereditary effects of
exposure to low-level radiation, they could be detected only by careful analysis of a
large volume of statistical data. Moreover, they would have to be distinguished from
those of a number of other agents which might also cause genetic disorders, but whose
effect may not be recognised until the damage has been done (thalidomide, once
prescribed for pregnant women as a tranquilizer, is one example). It is likely that the
resolution of the scientific debate will not come via epidemiology but from an
understanding of the mechanisms through molecular biology.

With all the knowledge so far collected on effects of radiation, there is still no definite
conclusion as to whether exposure due to natural background carries a health risk, even
though it has been demonstrated for exposure at a level a few times higher.

Risks and Benefits

We all face risks in everyday life. It is impossible to eliminate them all, but it is possible
to reduce them. The use of coal, oil, and nuclear energy for electricity production, for
example, is associated with some sort of risk to health, however small. In general,
society accepts the associated risk in order to derive the relevant benefits. Any
individual exposed to carcinogenic pollutants will carry some risk of getting cancer.
Strenuous attempts are made in the nuclear industry to reduce such risks to as low as
reasonably achievable.

Radiation protection sets examples for other safety disciplines in two unique respects:

 First, there is the assumption that any increased level of radiation above natural
background will carry some risk of harm to health.
 Second, it aims to protect future generations from activities conducted today.

The use of radiation and nuclear techniques in medicine, industry, agriculture, energy
and other scientific and technological fields has brought tremendous benefits to society.
The benefits in medicine for diagnosis and treatment in terms of human lives saved are
enormous. Radiation is a key tool in the treatment of certain kinds of cancer. Three out
of every four patients hospitalized in the industrial countries benefit from some form of
nuclear medicine. The beneficial impacts in other fields are similar.

No human activity or practice is totally devoid of associated risks. Radiation should be

viewed from the perspective that the benefit from it to mankind is less harmful than from
many other agents.